1591:
804:
1264:
864:
759:
arch, moves together with the metacarpal bones and the distal arch is therefore rigid. The stability of these arches is more dependent of the ligaments and capsules of the wrist than of the interlocking shapes of the carpal bones, and the wrist is therefore more stable in flexion than in extension. The distal carpal arch affects the function of the CMC joints and the hands, but not the function of the wrist or the proximal carpal arch. The ligaments that maintain the distal carpal arches are the
588:
1727:
572:
580:
1763:
1779:
1364:
1498:
42:
1600:
453:
1195:
976:
54:
1751:
779:
the most rigid. It and its two neighbors are tied to the carpus by the interlocking shapes of the metacarpal bones. The thumb metacarpal only articulates with the trapezium and is therefore completely independent, while the fifth metacarpal (little finger) is semi-independent with the fourth metacarpal (ring finger) which forms a transitional element to the fifth metacarpal.
1739:
1255:
735:
783:"master digit" of the hand, giving value to all the other fingers. Together with the index and middle finger, it forms the dynamic tridactyl configuration responsible for most grips not requiring force. The ring and little fingers are more static, a reserve ready to interact with the palm when great force is needed.
1558:, which freed the hands from the task of locomotion and paved the way for the precision and range of motion in human hands. Functional analyses of the features unique to the hand of modern humans have shown that they are consistent with the stresses and requirements associated with the effective use of
1714:
There is a hypothesis suggesting the form of the modern human hand is especially conducive to the formation of a compact fist, presumably for fighting purposes. The fist is compact and thus effective as a weapon. It also provides protection for the fingers. However, this is not widely accepted to be
1181:
The radial nerve supplies the skin on the back of the hand from the thumb to the ring finger and the dorsal aspects of the index, middle, and half ring fingers as far as the proximal interphalangeal joints. The median nerve supplies the palmar side of the thumb, index, middle, and half ring fingers.
883:
The extensors are located on the back of the forearm and are connected in a more complex way than the flexors to the dorsum of the fingers. The tendons unite with the interosseous and lumbrical muscles to form the extensorhood mechanism. The primary function of the extensors is to straighten out the
758:
The carpal bones form two transversal rows, each forming an arch concave on the palmar side. Because the proximal arch simultaneously has to adapt to the articular surface of the radius and to the distal carpal row, it is by necessity flexible. In contrast, the capitate, the "keystone" of the distal
688:
nodes embedded in tendons; the exact number varies between people: whereas a pair of sesamoid bones are found at virtually all thumb metacarpophalangeal joints, sesamoid bones are also common at the interphalangeal joint of the thumb (72.9%) and at the metacarpophalangeal joints of the little finger
871:
The fingers have two long flexors, located on the underside of the forearm. They insert by tendons to the phalanges of the fingers. The deep flexor attaches to the distal phalanx, and the superficial flexor attaches to the middle phalanx. The flexors allow for the actual bending of the fingers. The
754:
Of the longitudinal arches or rays of the hand, that of the thumb is the most mobile (and the least longitudinal). While the ray formed by the little finger and its associated metacarpal bone still offers some mobility, the remaining rays are firmly rigid. The phalangeal joints of the index finger,
1185:
There is a considerable variation to this general pattern, except for the little finger and volar surface of the index finger. For example, in some individuals, the ulnar nerve supplies the entire ring finger and the ulnar side of the middle finger, whilst, in others, the median nerve supplies the
778:
Compared to the carpal arches, the arch formed by the distal ends of the metacarpal bones is flexible due to the mobility of the peripheral metacarpals (thumb and little finger). As these two metacarpals approach each other, the palmar gutter deepens. The central-most metacarpal (middle finger) is
750:
The fixed and mobile parts of the hand adapt to various everyday tasks by forming bony arches: longitudinal arches (the rays formed by the finger bones and their associated metacarpal bones), transverse arches (formed by the carpal bones and distal ends of the metacarpal bones), and oblique arches
1565:
While the human hand has unique anatomical features, including a longer thumb and fingers that can be controlled individually to a higher degree, the hands of other primates are anatomically similar and the dexterity of the human hand can not be explained solely on anatomical factors. The neural
657:
known as the knuckles. At the palmar aspect of the first metacarpophalangeal joints are small, almost spherical bones called the sesamoid bones. The fourteen phalanges make up the fingers and thumb, and are numbered I-V (thumb to little finger) when the hand is viewed from an anatomical position
782:
Together with the thumb, the four fingers form four oblique arches, of which the arch of the index finger functionally is the most important, especially for precision grip, while the arch of the little finger contribute an important locking mechanism for power grip. The thumb is undoubtedly the
1319:) acting as friction pads. In contrast, the hairy skin on the dorsal side is thin, soft, and pliable, so that the skin can recoil when the fingers are stretched. On the dorsal side, the skin can be moved across the hand up to 3 cm (1.2 in); an important input the cutaneous
1703:, an early hominin, are almost as robust as in humans, so this may be a primitive trait, while the palms of other extant higher primates are elongated to the extent that some of the thumb's original function has been lost (most notably in highly arboreal primates such as the
1287:(hairless) skin on the front of the hand, the palm, is relatively thick and can be bent along the hand's flexure lines where the skin is tightly bound to the underlying tissue and bones. Compared to the rest of the body's skin, the hands' palms (as well as the soles of the
658:(palm up). The four fingers each consist of three phalanx bones: proximal, middle, and distal. The thumb only consists of a proximal and distal phalanx. Together with the phalanges of the fingers and thumb these metacarpal bones form five rays or poly-articulated chains.
563:) is located on one of the sides, parallel to the arm. A reliable way of identifying human hands is from the presence of opposable thumbs. Opposable thumbs are identified by the ability to be brought opposite to the fingers, a muscle action known as opposition.
1632:
found in human embryos, prosimians, and apes. Furthermore, the precursors of the intrinsic muscles of the hand are present in the earliest fishes, reflecting that the hand evolved from the pectoral fin and thus is much older than the arm in evolutionary terms.
1791:
966:
The first four compartments are located in the grooves present on the dorsum of inferior side of radius while the 5th compartment is in between radius and ulna. The 6th compartment is in the groove on the dorsum of inferior side of ulna.
1797:
1796:
1793:
1792:
1182:
Dorsal branches innervates the distal phalanges of the index, middle, and half ring fingers. The ulnar nerve supplies the ulnar third of the hand, both at the palm and the back of the hand, and the little and half ring fingers.
1798:
2784:
Lovejoy, C. Owen; Suwa, Gen; Simpson, Scott W.; Matternes, Jay H.; White, Tim D. (October 2009). "The Great
Divides: Ardipithecus ramidus Reveals the Postcrania of Our Last Common Ancestors with African Apes".
1007:, thus the muscles that extends at the wrist and metacarpophalangeal joints (knuckles); and that abducts and extends the thumb. The median nerve supplies the flexors of the wrist and digits, the abductors and
1795:
1582:, and the hand, therefore, is a direct tool of our consciousness—the main source of differentiated tactile sensations—and a precise working organ enabling gestures—the expressions of our personalities.
1541:
necessary for controlled grasping. This grasping, also known as power grip, is supplemented by the precision grip between the thumb and the distal finger pads made possible by the opposable thumbs.
689:(82.5%) and the index finger (48%). In rare cases, sesamoid bones have been found in all the metacarpophalangeal joints and all distal interphalangeal joints except that of the long finger.
2571:
Key, Alastair J.M.; Lycett, Stephen J. (2011). "Technology based evolution? A biometric test of the effects of handsize versus tool form on efficiency in an experimental cutting task".
1578:
control over the motoneurons of the hand muscles; placing the hands "closer" to the brain. The recent evolution of the human hand is thus a direct result of the development of the
522:
can be folded over the palm which allows the grasping of objects. Each finger, starting with the one closest to the thumb, has a colloquial name to distinguish it from the others:
1562:
stone tools. It is possible that the refinement of the bipedal posture in the earliest hominids evolved to facilitate the use of the trunk as leverage in accelerating the hand.
3510:
1537:. This development has been accompanied by important changes in the brain and the relocation of the eyes to the front of the face, together allowing the muscle control and
1942:
Xu, X; Clark, JM; Mo, J; Choiniere, J; Forster, CA; Erickson, GM; Hone, DWE; Sullivan, C; Eberth, DA; Nesbitt, S; Zhao, Q; Hernandez, R; Jia, CK; Han, FL; Guo, Y (2009).
429:
The word "hand" is sometimes used by evolutionary anatomists to refer to the appendage of digits on the forelimb such as when researching the homology between the three
2837:
3060:
2000:
1925:
1715:
one of the primary selective pressures acting on hand morphology throughout human evolution, with tool use and production being thought to be far more influential.
1794:
888:. Also, the index finger and the little finger have an extra extensor used, for instance, for pointing. The extensors are situated within 6 separate compartments.
1652:
independently acquired elongated metacarpals as part of their adaptation to their modes of locomotion. Several primitive hand features most likely present in the
159:
1291:) are usually lighter—and even much lighter in dark-skinned individuals, compared to the other side of the hand. Indeed, genes specifically expressed in the
1469:
fracture and can be slow to heal due to a limited blood flow to the bone. There are various types of fracture to the base of the thumb; these are known as
1653:
4108:
1139:
811:
The muscles acting on the hand can be subdivided into two groups: the extrinsic and intrinsic muscle groups. The extrinsic muscle groups are the long
1858:
3503:
1762:
1330:(interdigital folds or plica interdigitalis). They are defined as "one of the folds of skin, or rudimentary web, between the fingers and toes".
498:, located in the proximal part of the palm. It is the area that sustains most pressure when using the palm of the hand for support, such as in
4113:
3902:
3898:
3825:
2700:
2552:
2413:
2377:
2352:
2281:
2256:
2209:
2164:
2135:
2055:
2028:
1909:
1143:
1094:
1040:
1036:
696:
135:
3869:
3053:
1640:(shared by both ancestors and extant primate species); the elongated thumbs and short hands more closely resemble the hand proportions of
3029:
3786:
3717:
1402:
of the forearm—also known as hereditary multiple osteochondromas—is another cause of hand and forearm deformity in children and adults.
3722:
3496:
2904:
872:
thumb has one long flexor and a short flexor in the thenar muscle group. The human thumb also has other muscles in the thenar group (
3850:
2105:
2080:
1726:
1344:
The ratio of the length of the index finger to the length of the ring finger in adults is affected by the level of exposure to male
1131:
1090:
852:
340:
is intimately associated with hands. Like other paired organs (eyes, feet, legs) each hand is dominantly controlled by the opposing
1697:
stone tools, and that these changes are associated with tool-related tasks beyond those observed in other hominins. The thumbs of
4182:
3661:
836:
1566:
machinery underlying hand movements is a major contributing factor; primates have evolved direct connections between neurons in
1326:
The web of the hand is a "fold of skin which connects the digits". These webs, located between each set of digits, are known as
4075:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3776:
3633:
3046:
1108:
1070:
1060:
1056:
877:
4207:
3024:
2878:
951:
919:
760:
348:—the preferred hand choice for single-handed activities such as writing with a pencil—reflects individual brain functioning.
2724:"Independent evolution of knuckle-walking in African apes shows that humans did not evolve from a knuckle-walking ancestor"
4146:
4103:
4070:
3919:
3914:
3855:
1399:
1230:
1163:
1155:
1147:
1098:
1086:
1052:
1048:
840:
154:
74:
3815:
1590:
1082:
4246:
3820:
3623:
2272:
Austin, Noelle M. (2005). "Chapter 9: The Wrist and Hand
Complex". In Levangie, Pamela K.; Norkin, Cynthia C. (eds.).
1127:
958:
775:. Several muscle tendons attaching to the TCL and the distal carpals also contribute to maintaining the carpal arch.
2491:"Current paediatric orthopaedic practice in hereditary multiple osteochondromas of the forearm: a systematic review"
1778:
1011:
of the thumb, the first and second lumbrical. The ulnar nerve supplies the remaining intrinsic muscles of the hand.
258:
to refer to the appendage of digits on the forelimb more generally—for example, in the context of whether the three
1750:
1657:
1443:
1263:
654:
1738:
803:
4151:
3909:
3845:
3679:
2436:
1619:
1159:
1044:
844:
712:
706:
4082:
4065:
2625:
1151:
1112:
1008:
1004:
946:
924:
914:
391:, and talons, but these are not scientifically considered to be grasping hands. The scientific use of the term
118:
1505:
3966:
3641:
2489:
EL-Sobky, Tamer A.; Samir, Shady; Atiyya, Ahmed Naeem; Mahmoud, Shady; Aly, Ahmad S.; Soliman, Ramy (2018).
2441:
1219:
1064:
863:
816:
772:
755:
however, offer some independence to its finger, due to the arrangement of its flexor and extension tendons.
4136:
4120:
3998:
3810:
3669:
1815:
1579:
1446:, a condition in which fingers bend towards the palm and cannot be straightened. Similarly, injury to the
1435:
1167:
1135:
1116:
1104:
939:
934:
848:
306:
166:
142:
130:
24:
3988:
3805:
2463:
1994:
1395:
1383:
556:
298:
20:
4031:
1478:
363:
of four fingers (touchable by the thumb) have given rise to number systems and calculation techniques.
2047:
The
Evolution of the Primate Hand: Anatomical, Developmental, Functional, and Paleontological Evidence
1382:
is the presence of more than the usual number of fingers. One of the disorders that can cause this is
649:
of the hand. The heads of the metacarpals will each in turn articulate with the bases of the proximal
332:
Fingers contain some of the densest areas of nerve endings in the body, and are the richest source of
4003:
3568:
3558:
3553:
2794:
2735:
1958:
1474:
1420:
885:
855:(and are special because they have no bony origin) to insert on the dorsal extensor hood mechanism.
587:
468:(volar), which is the central region of the anterior part of the hand, located superficially to the
395:
in this sense to distinguish the terminations of the front paws from the hind ones is an example of
4098:
4010:
3944:
3755:
3604:
3599:
1538:
1482:
1406:
798:
341:
1497:
1355:. This digit ratio is below 1 for both sexes but it is lower in males than in females on average.
669:(rotation about the axis of the forearm) are added to the two axes of movements of the wrist, the
4212:
4187:
3745:
3575:
3563:
2818:
1982:
1919:
1417:
1211:
787:
302:
267:
3651:
2985:
2870:
2810:
2763:
2696:
2663:
2548:
2542:
2520:
2409:
2373:
2348:
2302:
2277:
2252:
2205:
2160:
2131:
2125:
2101:
2076:
2051:
2024:
2018:
1974:
1905:
1674:
1458:
1275:
873:
3019:
2838:"The evolutionary history of the hominin hand since the last common ancestor of Pan and Homo"
2449:
3939:
3750:
3260:
3191:
2975:
2942:
2860:
2852:
2802:
2753:
2743:
2688:
2655:
2580:
2510:
2502:
2045:
1966:
1662:
1470:
1375:
1312:
1215:
929:
768:
630:
571:
560:
396:
326:
314:
286:
278:
763:
and the intercarpal ligaments (also oriented transversally). These ligaments also form the
4060:
3893:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3674:
3033:
1874:
1863:
1838:
1833:
1828:
1501:
1320:
1308:
1304:
1015:
507:
473:
430:
310:
259:
3209:
1644:
apes than those of extant primates. Humans did not evolve from knuckle-walking apes, and
2798:
2739:
2684:
Evolution of the hand in
Miocene apes: Implications for the appearance of the human hand
1962:
1363:
4026:
3594:
3543:
3466:
3376:
3324:
3181:
2865:
2758:
2723:
2515:
2490:
2402:
2397:
2341:
2336:
2153:
1943:
1454:
1410:
1210:. These arteries form three arches over the dorsal and palmar aspects of the hand, the
634:
599:
337:
4241:
4235:
3401:
3391:
2856:
2393:
2332:
1848:
1769:
1704:
1679:
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1462:
1284:
1234:
1207:
764:
681:
674:
544:
532:
356:
352:
294:
2822:
336:
feedback. They also have the greatest positioning capability of the body; thus, the
41:
3548:
3386:
1986:
1853:
1699:
1668:
1637:
1623:
1567:
1513:
1439:
1431:
1391:
1345:
1238:
1203:
988:
984:
650:
606:
592:
579:
526:
380:
318:
94:
90:
884:
digits. The thumb has two extensors in the forearm; the tendons of these form the
2246:
2199:
1390:. Or there may be an absence of one or more central fingers—a condition known as
583:
Hand-bone animation (metacarpal movement is exaggerated, other than on the thumb)
123:
3471:
3396:
3297:
3159:
3144:
3005:
2602:
2598:
1823:
1683:
1628:
1599:
1559:
1466:
1447:
1379:
1368:
1339:
1316:
1300:
1223:
992:
819:. They are called extrinsic because the muscle belly is located on the forearm.
700:
618:
538:
477:
418:
are sometimes described as having four hands, because the toes are long and the
236:
86:
2836:
Tocheri, Matthew W.; Orr, Caley M.; Jacofsky, Marc C.; Marzke, Mary W. (2008).
2430:
2044:
Kivell, Tracy L.; Lemelin, Pierre; Richmond, Brian G.; Schmitt, Daniel (2016).
3888:
3441:
3314:
3265:
3139:
3091:
3083:
3077:
3069:
2584:
1645:
1608:
A gorilla, a large extant primate with small thumbs, and the hand skeleton of
1575:
1571:
1548:
1527:
1387:
1327:
1315:. All parts of the skin involved in grasping are covered by papillary ridges (
832:
662:
646:
622:
603:
511:
495:
469:
452:
345:
224:
212:
188:
2964:"Protective buttressing of the human fist and the evolution of hominin hands"
2506:
3413:
3292:
3129:
2806:
2748:
2298:
2180:
1868:
1843:
1694:
1543:
1520:
666:
499:
360:
251:
247:
is usually described as having "hands" though opposable thumbs are lacking.
147:
2989:
2874:
2814:
2767:
2667:
2524:
2306:
2073:
Human
Anatomy for Artists : The Elements of Form: The Elements of Form
1978:
1438:, a painful condition of the hand and fingers caused by compression of the
1254:
1194:
975:
476:
to increase friction, such as are also present on the fingers and used for
53:
1626:(having five fingers), the hairless skin of the palm and fingers, and the
487:
area (dorsal) is the corresponding area on the posterior part of the hand.
3531:
3421:
3341:
3176:
3109:
3038:
2659:
1944:"A Jurassic ceratosaur from China helps clarify avian digital homologies"
1688:
1524:
1450:
may result in a condition in which some of the fingers cannot be flexed.
685:
638:
626:
614:
438:
400:
271:
200:
2682:
1970:
734:
3771:
3356:
3302:
3248:
3238:
3124:
2980:
2963:
2947:
2930:
1649:
1641:
1517:
1296:
812:
722:
653:
of the fingers and thumb. These articulations with the fingers are the
244:
204:
196:
2692:
4163:
3980:
3689:
3646:
3585:
3519:
3488:
3371:
3346:
3287:
3280:
3275:
3270:
3214:
3154:
3134:
3011:
2276:(4th ed.). Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company. pp. 319–320.
1553:
1352:
1349:
1292:
828:
642:
629:) which articulates with the bones of the forearm, and a distal row (
519:
415:
376:
372:
290:
216:
192:
1532:
172:
2370:
Thieme Atlas of
Anatomy: General Anatomy and Musculoskeletal System
3451:
3431:
3381:
3361:
3351:
3307:
3253:
3243:
3229:
3186:
3114:
1879:
1496:
1424:
1362:
1226:
provide oxygenated blood to the palm, the fingers, and the thumb.
1193:
974:
862:
802:
733:
718:
610:
586:
578:
570:
552:
451:
423:
404:
333:
322:
282:
232:
228:
220:
208:
106:
81:
3456:
3446:
3436:
3219:
3201:
3119:
3104:
3099:
1394:. Additionally, some people are born without one or both hands (
1288:
670:
515:
434:
399:. The only true grasping hands appear in the mammalian order of
388:
263:
69:
3492:
3042:
2646:
Putz, RV; Tuppek, A. (November 1999). "Evolution of the hand".
297:, the number of which varies among people, 14 of which are the
3618:
3523:
3461:
3426:
3333:
3171:
3166:
3149:
1900:
Thomas, Dorcas MacClintock; illustrated by J. Sharkey (2002).
1708:
419:
411:
384:
240:
2245:
Tubiana, Raoul; Thomine, Jean-Michel; Mackin, Evelyn (1998).
2198:
Tubiana, Raoul; Thomine, Jean-Michel; Mackin, Evelyn (1998).
1003:
The radial nerve supplies the finger extensors and the thumb
880:), moving the thumb in opposition, making grasping possible.
1612:, a large Pliocene primate with relatively human-like thumbs
677:
are sometimes considered part of the skeleton of the hand.
235:
on each "hand" and fingerprints extremely similar to human
2299:"Anatomy, Shoulder and Upper Limb, Hand Intrinsic Muscles"
2226:
Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and
Function
2098:
Basic Human
Anatomy: A Regional Study of Human Structure
2327:
2325:
2323:
1202:
The hand is supplied with blood from two arteries, the
547:, pinky finger, small finger, baby finger, or 5th digit
359:. Likewise, the ten digits of two hands and the twelve
289:, however, whereby the thumb is included as one of the
2962:
Morgan, Michael H.; Carrier, David R. (January 2013).
2722:
Kivella, Tracy L.; Schmitt, Daniel (August 25, 2009).
2274:
Joint
Structure and Function: A Comprehensive Analysis
1485:, is to the neck of a metacarpal. One can also have a
351:
Among humans, the hands play an important function in
2368:
Ross, Lawrence M.; Lamperti, Edward D., eds. (2006).
2251:(2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. 9–14.
847:) originating between the metacarpal bones; and the
4196:
4171:
4162:
4129:
4091:
4053:
4044:
4019:
3979:
3928:
3877:
3868:
3834:
3794:
3785:
3770:
3733:
3688:
3660:
3632:
3617:
3584:
3530:
3412:
3332:
3323:
3228:
3200:
3090:
3076:
742:
Brown: one of the longitudinal arches of the digits
410:The hand is located at the distal end of each arm.
239:) are often described as having "hands" instead of
153:
141:
129:
117:
105:
100:
80:
68:
63:
34:
2905:"Human hands evolved so we could punch each other"
2429:
2401:
2340:
2152:
2119:
2117:
1386:. The fingers may be fused in a disorder known as
1367:X-ray of the left hand of a ten-year-old boy with
602:of the human hand consists of 27 bones: the eight
2687:(PhD thesis). Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona.
2624:Flanagan, J Randall; Johansson, Roland S (2002).
2536:
2534:
2204:(2nd ed.). Taylor & Francis. p. 4.
1465:, one of the carpal bones. This is the commonest
1233:with deoxygenated blood leaving the hand via the
444:An adult human male's hand weighs about a pound.
1547:(great apes including humans) acquired an erect
645:), which articulates with the bases of the five
2779:
2777:
1904:. Caldwell, N.J.: Blackburn Press. p. 15.
2075:. Oxford University Press. pp. 177, 295.
2023:. Oxford University Press, US. pp. 137–.
1018:(C5–T1) and can be classified by innervation:
1014:All muscles of the hand are innervated by the
807:Muscles and other structures of wrist and palm
426:, thus enabling the feet to be used as hands.
285:; these are often referred to collectively as
3504:
3054:
1871:—fortune-telling based on lines in hand palms
867:Extensor compartments of wrist (back of hand)
8:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2234:
2159:(Sixth ed.). Pearson PLC. p. 237.
2012:
2010:
1999:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1924:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
19:"Hands" redirects here. For other uses, see
2541:Schmidt, Hans-Martin; Lanz, Ulrich (2003).
2408:. Oxford University Press. pp. 18–21.
2347:. Oxford University Press. pp. 16–18.
2124:Schmidt, Hans-Martin; Lanz, Ulrich (2003).
1622:features left in the human hand, including
4168:
4050:
3874:
3791:
3782:
3629:
3536:
3511:
3497:
3489:
3329:
3061:
3047:
3039:
2096:O'Rahilly, Ronan; MĂĽller, Fabiola (1983).
529:, pointer finger, forefinger, or 2nd digit
16:Extremity at the end of an arm or forelimb
2979:
2946:
2864:
2757:
2747:
2514:
2297:Dawson-Amoah, K.; Varacallo, M. (2022).
1859:Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism
1693:or after the appearance of the earliest
1222:. Together these three arches and their
1198:Arteries of the right hand (palmar view)
1020:
890:
721:(may also be viewed as belonging to the
514:fixed to the end in place of the normal
277:The human hand usually has five digits:
1892:
1756:Bones of the left hand. Dorsal surface.
1722:
1409:that can affect the hand including the
979:Cutaneous innervation of the upper limb
746:Light green: transverse metacarpal arch
2603:"Evolution of the hand and bipedality"
2566:
2564:
1992:
1937:
1935:
1917:
1744:Bones of the left hand. Volar surface.
1636:The proportions of the human hand are
1423:can affect the hand, particularly the
751:(between the thumb and four fingers):
170:
31:
1711:is thus more derived than the thumb.
1654:chimpanzee–human last common ancestor
697:interphalangeal articulations of hand
510:attached to the hand, notably with a
293:. It has 27 bones, not including the
7:
2450:participating institution membership
1732:Illustration of hand and wrist bones
1481:. Another common fracture, known as
1303:, and promote the thickening of the
827:The intrinsic muscle groups are the
195:appendage located at the end of the
2935:The Journal of Experimental Biology
2903:Reardon, Sara (December 19, 2012).
2470:. Farlex Partner Medical Dictionary
1299:production and thus the ability to
1214:(across the back of the hand), the
613:are organized into a proximal row (
422:is opposable and looks more like a
1660:are still present in the hands of
1430:Some conditions can be treated by
744:Dark green: transverse carpal arch
407:, as described later in the text.
383:similar in form to a hand such as
14:
3012:Film Board of Canada documentary
2573:Journal of Archaeological Science
2400:(2006). "Structure of the Skin".
2339:(2006). "Structure of the Skin".
2248:Examination of the Hand and Wrist
2201:Examination of the Hand and Wrist
1231:dorsal venous network of the hand
472:. The skin in this area contains
460:Areas of the human hand include:
403:. Hands must also have opposable
2857:10.1111/j.1469-7580.2008.00865.x
1789:
1777:
1761:
1749:
1737:
1725:
1598:
1589:
1262:
1253:
715:(where the palm meets the wrist)
709:(where the digits meet the palm)
703:between the bones of the digits)
313:) of the fingers and thumb. The
52:
40:
2633:Encyclopedia of the human brain
1618:There are nevertheless several
3899:extensor carpi radialis longus
3826:flexor digitorum superficialis
2155:Human Anatomy & Physiology
1523:from the mobile hands of semi-
1272:Left: Papillary ridges of palm
983:The hand is innervated by the
952:Extensor carpi radialis brevis
920:Extensor carpi radialis longus
740:Red: one of the oblique arches
494:is the area anteriorly to the
1:
2931:"Fighting Shaped Human Hands"
2648:Handchir Mikrochir Plast Chir
1902:A natural history of raccoons
1882:—Hindu term for hand gestures
1682:changes in modern humans and
1574:, giving the cerebral cortex
1400:Hereditary multiple exostoses
1295:of palmoplantar skin inhibit
835:(little finger) muscles; the
496:bases of the metacarpal bones
270:loss of two digits as in the
75:Dorsal venous network of hand
2544:Surgical Anatomy of the Hand
2228:. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
2127:Surgical Anatomy of the Hand
317:connect the fingers and the
58:Front of a human's left hand
4109:flexor digiti minimi brevis
2224:Saladin, Kenneth S. (2007)
1229:The hand is drained by the
959:Extensor digitorum communis
909:Compartment 6 (Most ulnar)
894:Compartment 1 (Most radial)
535:or long finger or 3rd digit
325:. Each human hand has five
46:Back of a human's left hand
4263:
3851:flexor digitorum profundus
2071:Goldfinger, Eliot (1991).
1813:
1337:
1132:flexor digitorum profundus
796:
785:
761:transverse carpal ligament
707:metacarpophalangeal joints
655:metacarpophalangeal joints
243:on their front limbs. The
18:
3539:
3022:(May 2012 article on the
2681:Almécija, Sergio (2009).
2585:10.1016/j.jas.2011.02.032
2468:Farlex Medical Dictionary
2437:Oxford English Dictionary
2151:Marieb, Elaine N (2004).
2050:. Springer. pp. 7–.
1678:. This suggests that the
773:superficial palmar arches
713:intercarpal articulations
165:
51:
39:
4076:abductor pollicis brevis
3960:extensor pollicis longus
3955:extensor pollicis brevis
3950:abductor pollicis longus
2929:Knight, Kathryn (2012).
2100:. Saunders. p. 93.
2017:Latash, Mark L. (2008).
1770:physical characteristics
1109:abductor pollicis brevis
1071:abductor pollicis longus
947:Extensor pollicis brevis
925:Extensor pollicis longus
915:Abductor pollicis longus
329:and eight carpal bones.
2807:10.1126/science.1175833
2749:10.1073/pnas.0901280106
2605:. Massey University, NZ
2442:Oxford University Press
2372:. Thieme. p. 257.
2130:. Thieme. p. 105.
1556: million years ago
1535: million years ago
1444:Dupuytren's contracture
1220:superficial palmar arch
1166:, and third and fourth
1115:, and first and second
692:The articulations are:
575:Bones of the human hand
266:hand involved the same
4114:abductor digiti minimi
4104:opponens digiti minimi
4071:flexor pollicis brevis
3920:extensor carpi ulnaris
3915:extensor digiti minimi
3856:flexor pollicis longus
3070:Human regional anatomy
2507:10.1051/sicotj/2018002
2464:"web of fingers/ toes"
1816:anatomical terminology
1656:(CHLCA) and absent in
1580:central nervous system
1509:
1436:carpal tunnel syndrome
1371:
1199:
1156:flexor pollicis brevis
1148:opponens digiti minimi
1144:abductor digiti minimi
980:
940:Extensor carpi ulnaris
935:Extensor digiti minimi
878:abductor brevis muscle
868:
808:
767:and contribute to the
747:
595:
584:
576:
457:
167:Anatomical terminology
25:Hands (disambiguation)
3989:bicipital aponeurosis
3816:flexor carpi radialis
2547:. Thieme. p. 1.
1686:did not evolve until
1500:
1384:Catel-Manzke syndrome
1366:
1359:Clinical significance
1338:Further information:
1197:
1037:carpi radialis longus
978:
866:
806:
737:
590:
582:
574:
557:first metacarpal bone
455:
21:Hand (disambiguation)
4183:extensor retinaculum
3821:flexor carpi ulnaris
2660:10.1055/s-1999-13552
1784:X-ray showing joints
1700:Ardipithecus ramidus
1689:2.5 to 1.5
1610:Ardipithecus ramidus
1568:cortical motor areas
1421:rheumatoid arthritis
1407:cutaneous conditions
1186:entire ring finger.
1140:flexor digiti minimi
1128:Flexor carpi ulnaris
886:anatomical snuff box
837:interosseous muscles
4011:antebrachial fascia
3945:anatomical snuffbox
3756:triangular interval
3713:intermuscular septa
3605:infraspinous fascia
3600:supraspinous fascia
3025:National Geographic
2799:2009Sci...326..100L
2740:2009PNAS..10614241K
2734:(34): 14241–14246.
2635:. Elsevier Science.
2440:(Online ed.).
2404:Human hand function
2343:Human hand function
2181:"Body Segment Data"
1971:10.1038/nature08124
1963:2009Natur.459..940X
1768:Static adult human
1539:stereoscopic vision
1506:Javanese tree shrew
1461:—a fracture of the
1101:(superficial head).
1091:digitorum profundus
799:Muscles of the hand
684:in the hand, small
680:There are numerous
381:grasping appendages
4247:Upper limb anatomy
4213:palmar aponeurosis
4208:flexor retinaculum
4188:extensor expansion
4032:osborne's ligament
3910:extensor digitorum
3846:pronator quadratus
3746:quadrangular space
3680:articularis cubiti
3032:2016-07-13 at the
2981:10.1242/jeb.075713
2948:10.1242/jeb.083725
2398:Lederman, Susan J.
2337:Lederman, Susan J.
1814:This article uses
1707:). In humans, the
1516:hands and feet of
1510:
1479:Gamekeeper's thumb
1418:autoimmune disease
1405:There are several
1372:
1212:dorsal carpal arch
1200:
981:
869:
809:
788:arches of the foot
748:
738:Arches of the hand
596:
591:Image showing the
585:
577:
555:(connected to the
458:
250:Some evolutionary
4229:
4228:
4225:
4224:
4221:
4220:
4083:adductor pollicis
4066:opponens pollicis
4040:
4039:
3975:
3974:
3864:
3863:
3766:
3765:
3613:
3612:
3486:
3485:
3482:
3481:
3020:"The Common Hand"
3014:Faces of the Hand
2793:(5949): 101–102.
2702:978-84-693-4823-9
2554:978-1-58890-007-4
2448:(Subscription or
2415:978-0-19-517315-4
2394:Jones, Lynette A.
2379:978-1-58890-419-5
2354:978-0-19-517315-4
2333:Jones, Lynette A.
2283:978-0-8036-1191-7
2258:978-1-85317-544-2
2211:978-1-85317-544-2
2166:978-0-321-20413-4
2137:978-1-58890-007-4
2057:978-1-4939-3646-5
2030:978-0-19-533316-9
1957:(7249): 940–944.
1911:978-1-930665-67-5
1804:Hand bone anatomy
1799:
1719:Additional images
1691:million years ago
1675:Homo floresiensis
1530:that lived about
1475:Bennet's fracture
1471:Rolando fractures
1459:scaphoid fracture
1457:of the hand is a
1378:affect the hand.
1376:genetic disorders
1276:Sexual dimorphism
1174:
1173:
1164:dorsal interossei
1152:adductor pollicis
1113:opponens pollicis
964:
963:
851:arising from the
849:lumbrical muscles
181:
180:
176:
4254:
4201:
4176:
4169:
4051:
3967:extensor indicis
3933:
3882:
3875:
3839:
3799:
3792:
3783:
3751:triangular space
3642:coracobrachialis
3630:
3537:
3513:
3506:
3499:
3490:
3330:
3261:Vertebral column
3063:
3056:
3049:
3040:
3008:at eMedicine.com
2994:
2993:
2983:
2959:
2953:
2952:
2950:
2926:
2920:
2919:
2917:
2915:
2900:
2894:
2892:
2890:
2889:
2883:
2877:. Archived from
2868:
2842:
2833:
2827:
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2781:
2772:
2771:
2761:
2751:
2719:
2713:
2712:
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2643:
2637:
2636:
2630:
2626:"Hand Movements"
2621:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2610:
2595:
2589:
2588:
2579:(7): 1663–1670.
2568:
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2014:
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2004:
1998:
1990:
1948:
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1923:
1915:
1897:
1801:
1800:
1781:
1765:
1753:
1741:
1729:
1692:
1663:Australopithecus
1602:
1593:
1557:
1536:
1483:Boxer's fracture
1434:. These include
1427:of the fingers.
1321:mechanoreceptors
1266:
1257:
1216:deep palmar arch
1021:
930:Extensor indicis
891:
647:metacarpal bones
492:heel of the hand
456:Human hand parts
397:anthropomorphism
342:brain hemisphere
315:metacarpal bones
233:opposable thumbs
173:edit on Wikidata
56:
44:
32:
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4121:palmaris brevis
4087:
4036:
4015:
3971:
3929:
3924:
3894:brachioradialis
3878:
3860:
3835:
3830:
3811:palmaris longus
3795:
3774:
3762:
3729:
3708:brachial fascia
3703:axillary fascia
3698:axillary sheath
3684:
3670:triceps brachii
3656:
3621:
3609:
3580:
3526:
3517:
3487:
3478:
3408:
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3034:Wayback Machine
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1875:Manus (anatomy)
1864:Knuckle-walking
1839:Finger tracking
1834:Finger-counting
1829:Dermatoglyphics
1819:
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1305:stratum lucidum
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1136:palmaris brevis
1105:palmaris longus
1102:
1099:pollicis brevis
1087:pollicis longus
1068:
1057:pollicis longus
1016:brachial plexus
973:
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506:There are five
474:dermal papillae
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231:(which has two
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3994:common tendons
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2914:September 21,
2910:
2909:New Scientist
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2884:on 2013-12-09
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2654:(6): 357–61.
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1705:spider monkey
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1208:radial artery
1205:
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1189:
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1158:(deep head),
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1133:
1129:
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1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1077:
1076:
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1054:
1053:carpi ulnaris
1050:
1049:digiti minimi
1046:
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906:Compartment 5
905:
903:Compartment 4
902:
900:Compartment 3
899:
897:Compartment 2
896:
893:
892:
889:
887:
881:
879:
875:
865:
858:
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854:
850:
846:
845:three volarly
842:
841:four dorsally
838:
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830:
822:
820:
818:
814:
805:
800:
792:
789:
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776:
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770:
766:
765:carpal tunnel
762:
756:
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736:
729:
724:
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714:
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702:
698:
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664:
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656:
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616:
612:
608:
605:
601:
594:
589:
581:
573:
566:
564:
562:
558:
554:
546:
545:little finger
543:
540:
537:
534:
533:middle finger
531:
528:
525:
524:
523:
521:
517:
513:
509:
501:
497:
493:
489:
486:
482:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
462:
461:
454:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:hand and the
436:
432:
427:
425:
421:
417:
413:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
366:
364:
362:
358:
357:sign language
354:
353:body language
349:
347:
343:
339:
335:
330:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
295:sesamoid bone
292:
288:
284:
280:
275:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
254:use the term
253:
248:
246:
242:
238:
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230:
226:
222:
218:
214:
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
174:
168:
164:
161:
158:
156:
152:
149:
146:
144:
140:
137:
134:
132:
128:
125:
122:
120:
116:
113:
110:
108:
104:
99:
96:
95:radial nerves
92:
88:
85:
83:
79:
76:
73:
71:
67:
62:
55:
50:
43:
38:
33:
30:
26:
22:
4198:
4173:
4141:
4130:intermediate
4092:medial volar
4045:
3993:
3930:
3880:superficial:
3879:
3836:
3797:superficial:
3796:
3777:compartments
3740:
3712:
3624:compartments
3549:rotator cuff
3366:
3210:Adam's apple
3023:
3013:
3006:Hand anatomy
2971:
2967:
2957:
2941:(2): i.1–i.
2938:
2934:
2924:
2912:. Retrieved
2908:
2898:
2886:. Retrieved
2879:the original
2848:
2844:
2831:
2790:
2786:
2731:
2727:
2717:
2706:. Retrieved
2683:
2676:
2651:
2647:
2641:
2632:
2619:
2607:. Retrieved
2599:Marzke, Mary
2593:
2576:
2572:
2543:
2498:
2494:
2484:
2472:. Retrieved
2467:
2458:
2435:
2424:
2403:
2388:
2369:
2363:
2342:
2312:November 28,
2310:. Retrieved
2292:
2273:
2267:
2247:
2225:
2220:
2200:
2193:
2184:
2175:
2154:
2146:
2126:
2097:
2091:
2072:
2066:
2046:
2039:
2019:
1995:cite journal
1954:
1950:
1901:
1895:
1854:Hand walking
1713:
1698:
1684:Neanderthals
1673:
1669:Paranthropus
1667:
1661:
1635:
1627:
1624:pentadactyly
1617:
1609:
1576:monosynaptic
1564:
1542:
1511:
1452:
1440:median nerve
1432:hand surgery
1429:
1415:
1404:
1392:ectrodactyly
1374:A number of
1373:
1346:sex hormones
1343:
1325:
1317:fingerprints
1282:
1239:basilic vein
1228:
1204:ulnar artery
1201:
1190:Blood supply
1184:
1180:
1013:
1002:
993:ulnar nerves
982:
971:Nerve supply
965:
882:
870:
831:(thumb) and
826:
810:
781:
777:
757:
753:
749:
701:hinge joints
691:
679:
660:
607:carpal bones
597:
593:carpal bones
550:
541:or 4th digit
527:index finger
505:
491:
484:
478:fingerprints
465:
459:
443:
428:
409:
392:
370:
350:
331:
319:carpal bones
307:intermediate
287:five fingers
279:four fingers
276:
255:
249:
237:fingerprints
227:such as the
184:
182:
136:A01.1.00.025
111:
29:
3576:teres major
3564:teres minor
1824:Dactylonomy
1772:of the hand
1646:chimpanzees
1629:os centrale
1572:motoneurons
1570:and spinal
1560:paleolithic
1528:tree shrews
1508:and a human
1467:carpal bone
1448:ulnar nerve
1380:Polydactyly
1369:polydactyly
1340:Digit ratio
1224:anastomoses
1035:Extensors:
853:deep flexor
539:ring finger
518:. The four
327:metacarpals
225:vertebrates
213:chimpanzees
101:Identifiers
4236:Categories
4174:posterior:
4142:interossei
4099:hypothenar
3889:mobile wad
3652:brachialis
3377:Fingernail
2968:J Exp Biol
2888:2011-12-25
2708:2023-03-25
2693:10803/3707
2452:required.)
1888:References
1514:prehensile
1388:syndactyly
1328:skin folds
1218:, and the
1168:lumbricals
1117:lumbricals
833:hypothenar
786:See also:
663:supination
623:triquetral
485:opisthenar
470:metacarpus
375:and other
346:handedness
344:, so that
268:homologous
252:anatomists
189:prehensile
4199:anterior:
4137:lumbrical
3940:supinator
3870:posterior
3662:posterior
3293:Genitalia
1920:cite book
1869:Palmistry
1844:Handstand
1695:Acheulian
1620:primitive
1544:Hominidae
1493:Evolution
1453:A common
1334:Variation
1313:epidermis
1081:Flexors:
1045:digitorum
859:Extrinsic
823:Intrinsic
817:extensors
667:pronation
635:trapezoid
631:trapezium
561:trapezium
500:handstand
367:Structure
361:phalanges
299:phalanges
281:plus one
3999:extensor
3787:anterior
3675:anconeus
3634:anterior
3532:Shoulder
3422:Buttocks
3342:Shoulder
3177:Mandible
3110:Forehead
3030:Archived
2990:23255192
2875:18380869
2823:19629241
2815:19810199
2768:19667206
2668:10637723
2525:29565244
2474:14 March
2307:30969632
2301:. NCBI.
2185:ExRx.net
1979:19536256
1810:See also
1650:gorillas
1525:arboreal
1518:primates
1455:fracture
1353:in utero
1285:glabrous
1237:and the
1206:and the
1134:(half),
1093:(half),
1027:Muscles
1009:opponens
1005:abductor
874:opponens
686:ossified
661:Because
639:capitate
627:pisiform
615:scaphoid
600:skeleton
439:dinosaur
401:primates
303:proximal
272:dinosaur
207:such as
205:primates
201:forelimb
193:fingered
191:, multi-
3772:Forearm
3718:lateral
3544:deltoid
3522:of the
3520:Muscles
3467:Toenail
3357:Forearm
3303:Scrotum
3249:Midriff
3239:Abdomen
3232:(Trunk)
3182:Occiput
3125:Eyebrow
2866:2409097
2845:J. Anat
2795:Bibcode
2787:Science
2759:2732797
2736:Bibcode
2516:5863686
2495:SICOT-J
2020:Synergy
1987:4358448
1959:Bibcode
1709:big toe
1680:derived
1642:Miocene
1549:bipedal
1521:evolved
1348:of the
1297:melanin
1274:Right:
1177:Sensory
1103:Other:
1069:Other:
1065:indicis
813:flexors
793:Muscles
723:forearm
651:phalanx
609:of the
520:fingers
433:of the
416:monkeys
377:animals
373:mammals
334:tactile
321:of the
291:fingers
262:of the
245:raccoon
217:monkeys
197:forearm
124:D006225
64:Details
4164:fascia
4152:palmar
4147:dorsal
4061:thenar
4004:flexor
3981:fascia
3903:brevis
3741:spaces
3723:medial
3690:fascia
3647:biceps
3586:fascia
3402:Little
3392:Middle
3372:Finger
3347:Axilla
3288:Pelvis
3281:Nipple
3276:Breast
3271:Thorax
3215:Throat
3192:Temple
3155:Tongue
3135:Eyelid
2988:
2873:
2863:
2821:
2813:
2766:
2756:
2699:
2666:
2551:
2523:
2513:
2501:: 10.
2412:
2376:
2351:
2305:
2280:
2255:
2208:
2163:
2134:
2104:
2079:
2054:
2027:
1985:
1977:
1951:Nature
1908:
1672:, and
1477:, and
1442:, and
1425:joints
1396:amelia
1350:embryo
1293:dermis
1160:palmar
1097:, and
1078:Median
1063:, and
1061:brevis
1041:brevis
1032:Radial
991:, and
989:median
985:radial
829:thenar
730:Arches
675:radius
643:hamate
619:lunate
508:digits
441:hand.
431:digits
420:hallux
405:thumbs
311:distal
274:hand.
260:digits
221:lemurs
219:, and
209:humans
91:median
4020:other
3931:deep:
3837:deep:
3734:other
3452:Ankle
3432:Thigh
3387:Index
3382:Thumb
3362:Wrist
3352:Elbow
3325:Limbs
3308:Vulva
3298:Penis
3254:Navel
3244:Waist
3230:Torso
3187:Scalp
3160:Tooth
3145:Mouth
3115:Cheek
2882:(PDF)
2841:(PDF)
2819:S2CID
2629:(PDF)
2446:
2431:"Web"
1983:S2CID
1947:(PDF)
1880:Mudra
1504:of a
1502:Hands
1411:nails
1124:Ulnar
1024:Nerve
999:Motor
719:wrist
699:(the
611:wrist
604:short
567:Bones
553:thumb
448:Areas
424:thumb
389:claws
379:have
371:Many
323:wrist
283:thumb
229:koala
187:is a
171:[
112:manus
107:Latin
87:Ulnar
82:Nerve
4242:Hand
4046:Hand
3901:and
3472:Sole
3457:Heel
3447:Foot
3442:Calf
3437:Knee
3397:Ring
3367:Hand
3315:Anus
3266:Back
3220:Nape
3202:Neck
3140:Nose
3120:Chin
3105:Face
3100:Hair
3092:Head
3084:Skin
3078:Body
2986:PMID
2916:2017
2871:PMID
2811:PMID
2764:PMID
2728:PNAS
2697:ISBN
2664:PMID
2611:2017
2549:ISBN
2521:PMID
2476:2016
2410:ISBN
2374:ISBN
2349:ISBN
2314:2020
2303:PMID
2278:ISBN
2253:ISBN
2206:ISBN
2161:ISBN
2132:ISBN
2102:ISBN
2077:ISBN
2052:ISBN
2025:ISBN
2001:link
1975:PMID
1926:link
1906:ISBN
1648:and
1512:The
1416:The
1307:and
1289:feet
1283:The
1245:Skin
1162:and
1059:and
1039:and
876:and
843:and
815:and
771:and
769:deep
673:and
671:ulna
665:and
641:and
625:and
598:The
559:and
551:The
516:claw
512:nail
490:The
483:The
466:palm
464:The
435:bird
414:and
412:Apes
393:hand
385:paws
355:and
309:and
264:bird
256:hand
241:paws
185:hand
160:9712
131:TA98
119:MeSH
70:Vein
35:Hand
23:and
3619:Arm
3524:arm
3462:Toe
3427:Hip
3414:Leg
3334:Arm
3172:Jaw
3167:Ear
3150:Lip
3130:Eye
3028:).
2976:doi
2972:216
2943:doi
2939:216
2861:PMC
2853:doi
2849:212
2803:doi
2791:326
2754:PMC
2744:doi
2732:106
2689:hdl
2656:doi
2581:doi
2511:PMC
2503:doi
1967:doi
1955:459
1554:3.6
1398:).
1301:tan
203:of
199:or
155:FMA
148:148
143:TA2
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