1449:–200 AD) was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body. Unlike Hippocrates, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body. His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates' idea that emotions were also tied to the humors, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and growth. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology. And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in
43:
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1550:, Milne-Edwards wrote that the "body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory ... where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual." In more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or
1692:
Recently, there have been intense debates about the vitality of physiology as a discipline (Is it dead or alive?). If physiology is perhaps less visible nowadays than during the golden age of the 19th century, it is in large part because the field has given birth to some of the most active domains of
1351:
is a major aspect with regard to such interactions within plants as well as animals. The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs
1338:
Human physiology is the study of how the human body's systems and functions work together to maintain a stable internal environment. It includes the study of the nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems, as well as cellular and exercise physiology. Understanding
1619:
in 1929. By homeostasis, Cannon meant "the maintenance of steady states in the body and the physiological processes through which they are regulated." In other words, the body's ability to regulate its internal environment. William
Beaumont was the first American to utilize the practical application
1346:
alive and functioning, through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems within systems. The endocrine and
1060:
is the study of the structure and organization of living organisms, from the microscopic level of cells and tissues to the macroscopic level of organs and systems. Anatomical knowledge is important in physiology because the structure and function of an organism are often dictated by one
1074:
is the study of the physical properties of living organisms and their interactions with their environment. It helps to explain how organisms sense and respond to different stimuli, such as light, sound, and temperature, and how they maintain homeostasis, or a stable internal
1426:, which consisted of four basic substances: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humor: black bile, phlegm, blood, and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humors, on which
1081:
is the study of heredity and the variation of traits within and between populations. It provides insights into the genetic basis of physiological processes and the ways in which genes interact with the environment to influence an organism's
1067:
is the study of the chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms. Knowledge of biochemistry provides the foundation for understanding cellular and molecular processes that are essential to the functioning of
1052:
Because physiology focuses on the functions and mechanisms of living organisms at all levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the level of whole organisms and populations, its foundations span a range of key disciplines:
1088:
is the study of the processes that have led to the diversity of life on Earth. It helps to explain the origin and adaptive significance of physiological processes and the ways in which organisms have evolved to cope with their
4598:
1579:(APS) is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, "devoted to fostering education, scientific research, and dissemination of information in the physiological sciences."
1546:
introduced the notion of physiological division of labor, which allowed to "compare and study living things as if they were machines created by the industry of man." Inspired in the work of
1771:. The centenary of the election of women was celebrated in 2015 with the publication of the book "Women Physiologists: Centenary Celebrations And Beyond For The Physiological Society." (
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1355:
Changes in physiology can impact the mental functions of individuals. Examples of this would be the effects of certain medications or toxic levels of substances. Change in
4607:
1705:. Furthermore, physiology is still often seen as an integrative discipline, which can put together into a coherent framework data coming from various different domains.
42:
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1418:(late 5th century BC). Outside of Western tradition, early forms of physiology or anatomy can be reconstructed as having been present at around the same time in
3935:
2044:
1639:'s ideas, elaborated what came to be called "general physiology", a unified science of life based on the cell actions, later renamed in the 20th century as
1854:, received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1988 for their development of drugs employed in the treatment of several major diseases, such as
6099:
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studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and surgical wounds. He later discovered and implemented
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Bergman, Esther M; de Bruin, Anique BH; Herrler, Andreas; Verheijen, Inge WH; Scherpbier, Albert JJA; van der
Vleuten, Cees PM (19 November 2013).
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1442:, Aristotle took to the humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet and dry. Galen (
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In the 20th century, biologists became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of
1313:. Absorption of water by roots, production of food in the leaves, and growth of shoots towards light are examples of plant physiology.
1907:
1736:
and a global advocate for gender equality in education, attempted to promote gender equality in every aspect of science and medicine.
1576:
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2392:"Students' perceptions of anatomy across the undergraduate problem-based learning medical curriculum: a phenomenographical study"
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2432:
Together with physiology and biochemistry, anatomy is one of the basic sciences that are to be taught in the medical curriculum.
1589:
In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the
5987:
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performed research on "conditional responses" that involved dogs' saliva production in response to a bell and visual stimuli.
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808:
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1895:
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1924:, was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the genetic composition and function of
1728:, for example, was founded in 1887 and included only men in its ranks. In 1902, the American Physiological Society elected
6062:
5914:
4503:
1624:
6134:
5611:
4508:
3921:
2219:
Moyes, C.D., Schulte, P.M. Principles of Animal
Physiology, second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008.
1903:
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2080:
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2822:
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nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function in animals.
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1826:, also known as the Lactic acid cycle, which describes how muscle tissue converts glycogen into lactic acid via
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human physiology is essential for diagnosing and treating health conditions and promoting overall wellbeing.
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and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in
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1902:, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2008 for their work on the identification of the
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189:
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Neill, Jimmy D.; Benos, Dale J. (1993). "Relationship of
Molecular Biology to Integrative Physiology".
1569:
in the operating room, and as a result, decreased the death rate from surgery by a substantial amount.
1194:, and microbial cells, the basic physiological functions of cells can be divided into the processes of
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Initially, women were largely excluded from official involvement in any physiological society. The
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1979:
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1397:, comparative physiology considers the diversity of functional characteristics across organisms.
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439:
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103:
91:
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studied respiration in animal dissection and lesions and found the center of respiration in the
3687:
Marieb, E.N. Essentials of Human
Anatomy and Physiology. 10th Edition, Benjamin Cummings, 2012.
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2019:
1994:
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984:
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642:
607:
5340:
3251:
Noble, Denis (2002-03-01). "Modeling the Heart--from Genes to Cells to the Whole Organ".
3071:
3395:
3264:
3022:
2638:
2500:
2464:
1803:, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947 for their discovery of the
1535:
described the sensory roots and produced the first evidence of the cerebellum's role in
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1199:
1007:
952:
775:
499:
309:
47:
3869:
3864:
2594:
Fell, C.; Pearson, F. (November 2007). "Historical
Perspectives of Thoracic Anatomy".
1747:, which had been founded in 1876. On 3 July 1915, six women were officially admitted:
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2652:
Rampling, M. W. (2016). "The history of the theory of the circulation of the blood".
1984:
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1310:
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1195:
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1884:, received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004 for their discovery of
1685:
and Hugh Huxley, alongside their research team, discovered the sliding filaments in
1370:
are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.
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2029:
1964:
1881:
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as a result of these substances is often used to assess the health of individuals.
1246:
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389:
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329:
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3149:
3090:"Dissecting the Meanings of "Physiology" to Assess the Vitality of the Discipline"
2526:
Medicine Across
Cultures: History and Practice of Medicine in Non-Western Cultures
2300:
1678:
won the Nobel Prize for discovering how, in capillaries, blood flow is regulated.
2948:
2725:
1836:
was rewarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in
Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of
5943:
5858:
5854:
5767:
5743:
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5316:
5112:
5029:
4659:
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4155:
4120:
4080:
3970:
3960:
3955:
1628:
1612:
1590:
1583:
1528:
1527:, which compared functional differences between dorsal and ventral roots of the
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125:
3629:"Carol W. Greider | Biography, Nobel Prize, & Facts | Britannica"
3186:
3109:
1944:
770:
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5053:
5001:
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4355:
4350:
4295:
4220:
4185:
4180:
4150:
4110:
4090:
4020:
4000:
3887:
2253:"Electrical synapses and their functional interactions with chemical synapses"
2075:
2014:
2004:
1969:
1940:
1929:
1840:. McClintock is the only female recipient who has won an unshared Nobel Prize.
1823:
1819:
1796:
1702:
1566:
1547:
1343:
1333:
1254:
1207:
1071:
1040:
for exceptional scientific achievements in physiology related to the field of
995:
657:
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524:
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324:
304:
164:
159:
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2408:
2229:
1511:
described the role of electricity in the nerves of dissected frogs. In 1811,
17:
5995:
5547:
4270:
4255:
4240:
4190:
4165:
3272:
2923:
2126:
Comparative Animal
Physiology, Environmental and Metabolic Animal Physiology
1925:
1816:
1804:
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1016:
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222:
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135:
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3126:
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2615:
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2286:
1366:. Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and
3893:
3359:
3318:
3140:
Kremer, Richard L. (2009). "Physiology". In Bowler & Pickstone (ed.).
3030:
2830:
2472:
1464:(1497–1558), a French physician, introduced the term "physiology". Galen,
5790:
4360:
4285:
4215:
4145:
4140:
3965:
3450:
3421:
2167:
2034:
1855:
1812:
1732:
as the first female member of the society. Hyde, a representative of the
1729:
1611:(internal environment), which would later be taken up and championed as "
1450:
1423:
1302:
1250:
1233:
concerned with the functioning of plants. Closely related fields include
1078:
1041:
968:
940:
662:
587:
519:
449:
444:
269:
238:
217:
2801:
2727:
The Pulse of
Modernism: Physiological Aesthetics in Fin-de-Siècle Europe
1601:. It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells.
1362:
Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by
4375:
4105:
3975:
3058:
Pinter, G. G.; Pinter, V. (1993). "Is Physiology a Dying Discipline?".
2852:"Introduction to physiology: History, biological systems, and branches"
1867:
1808:
1636:
1367:
1322:
1278:
1057:
1026:
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964:
936:
916:
677:
409:
279:
226:
212:
70:
62:
3913:
2665:
4040:
1871:
1230:
1187:
906:
889:
344:
234:
2631:
Encyclopedia of the Scientific Revolution: From Copernicus to Newton
2268:
1605:'s (1813–1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of
1098:
There are many ways to categorize the subdisciplines of physiology:
4412:
3472:"Bodil M. Schmidt-Nielsen Distinguished Mentor and Scientist Award"
3797:. Volumes 1, 2, and 3. Academic Press: New York, NY, 1979; 2nd ed.
1493:
1427:
1419:
1306:
1191:
1103:
908:
230:
41:
3142:
The Cambridge History of the Modern Biological and Earth Science
2908:"Walter Bradford Cannon: Pioneer Physiologist of Human Emotions"
1863:
1822:
mechanisms for energy production. Moreover, they discovered the
928:
150:
4580:
4416:
3917:
2710:. University of Virginia, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library.
1410:
The study of human physiology as a medical field originates in
3711:, second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008.
2893:
Lectures on the Phenomena of Life Common to Animals and Plants
1422:, India and elsewhere. Hippocrates incorporated the theory of
3804:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press; 1984.
3788:
Cell physiology sourcebook: essentials of membrane biophysics
3727:. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997.
1342:
It seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the
3786:
Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In:
3341:"Ida Henrietta Hyde: the first woman member of the society"
3173:
Noble, Denis (2013). "More on Physiology Without Borders".
3144:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 342–366.
2191:
Widmaier, Eric P.; Raff, Hershel; Strang, Kevin T. (2016).
867:
861:
849:
3593:"Francoise Barre-Sinoussi - biography - French virologist"
1140:
based on the process that causes physiological variation:
967:
functions in a living system. According to the classes of
864:
855:
843:
29:
Science regarding function of organisms or living systems
3666:(12th ed.). Philadelphia, Pa.: Saunders/Elsevier.
2974:
Feder, ME; Bennett, AF; WW, Burggren; Huey, RB (1987).
2878:
An Introduction to the Study of Ex- perimental Medicine
3532:"Facts on the Nobel Prizes in Physiology and Medicine"
1523:
finished work on what would later become known as the
1492:
in 1610s was the first to use a device to measure the
1484:, are credited as making important discoveries in the
3400:
Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia
2950:
The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science
2753:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2193:
Vander's Human Physiology Mechanisms of Body Function
846:
840:
837:
3762:(5th ed.), Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer, 2010.
3317:. The American Physiological Society. Archived from
1352:
in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.
858:
5777:
5442:
5103:
4839:
4618:
4533:
4517:
4491:
4451:
4384:
852:
3825:. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1974.
3716:Eckert Animal Physiology: Mechanism and Adaptation
1014:is the condition of normal function. In contrast,
50:, the father of modern physiology, with his pupils
2906:Brown Theodore M.; Fee Elizabeth (October 2002).
2704:"Santorio Santorio (1561-1636): Medicina statica"
2571:
2569:
2567:
3575:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004"
2880:. New York: Dover Publications (published 1957).
1743:proposed that women be allowed to formally join
1575:was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club.
3701:, 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, 2012.
3853:, 4th ed. Wiley-Liss, Inc. New York, NY, 2002.
3734:. Saunders College Publishing, New York, 1992.
3718:, 5th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, 2002.
3664:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology
3311:"American Physiological Society > Founders"
2160:Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology
1689:, known today as the sliding filament theory.
4592:
4428:
3929:
3776:, Second Edition. Wiley-Liss, New York, 1994.
3725:Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment
2540:From Physiology and Chemistry to Biochemistry
2045:International Union of Physiological Sciences
1430:would later expand. The critical thinking of
1154:based on the ultimate goals of the research:
809:
8:
3802:A Functional Biology of Free-Living Protozoa
3088:Lemoine, Maël; Pradeu, Thomas (2018-07-01).
3907:– public information site sponsored by the
3839:. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 2008.
2823:"American Physiological Society > About"
4599:
4585:
4577:
4435:
4421:
4413:
3936:
3922:
3914:
3837:Bacterial Physiology: A Molecular Approach
3714:Randall, D., Burggren, W., and French, K.
2654:Clinical Hemorheology and Microcirculation
816:
802:
53:
4402:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
3108:
2931:
2417:
2407:
2276:
1623:Nineteenth-century physiologists such as
994:Central to physiological functioning are
3849:Moat, A.G., Foster, J.W., Spector, M.P.
2978:. New York: Cambridge University Press.
2953:. Oxford University Press. p. 649.
2719:
2717:
2153:
2151:
2149:
1734:American Association of University Women
1659:. Major figures in these fields include
1114:, microbial physiology, viral physiology
3795:Biochemistry and physiology of protozoa
3790:. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012.
3680:Widmaier, E.P., Raff, H., Strang, K.T.
2976:New directions in ecological physiology
2895:. Springfield: Thomas (published 1974).
2066:
1782:Prominent women physiologists include:
1323:Biology § Animal form and function
1229:Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of
1186:Although there are differences between
1171:Subdisciplines by level of organisation
61:
2759:"Milestones in Physiology (1822-2013)"
2444:Garland, T. Jr.; P. A. Carter (1994).
2106:, Faculty of Biology. 16 February 2016
1542:In the 1820s, the French physiologist
4612:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
4397:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
3793:Levandowski, M., Hutner, S.H. (eds).
3697:Hill, R.W., Wyse, G.A., Anderson, M.
3238:10.1152/physiologyonline.1993.8.5.233
3083:
3081:
2538:Burma, D. P.; Chakravorty, Maharani.
1693:today's biological sciences, such as
1671:has become a distinct subdiscipline.
1034:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
7:
3072:10.1152/physiologyonline.1993.8.2.94
2724:Brain, Robert Michael (2015-05-01).
1888:and the complex organization of the
1374:Subdisciplines by research objective
3844:Bacterial Physiology and Metabolism
3818:. Cambridge University Press, 1997.
3023:10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051
2465:10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051
2158:Guyton, Arthur; Hall, John (2011).
1789:, the first woman president of the
1539:to complete the Bell–Magendie law.
1133:physiology, organismal physiology,
896: 'nature, origin' and
3684:. 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2009.
2730:. University of Washington Press.
2332:. F.A. Davis. 2017. Archived from
1908:Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
1577:The American Physiological Society
25:
3823:Algal Physiology and Biochemistry
2912:American Journal of Public Health
1815:, as well as its function within
1038:Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
4482:
3892:
3877:
3863:
3379:
2947:Heilbron, John L. (2003-03-27).
2768:. 1 October 2013. Archived from
1943:
971:, the field can be divided into
833:
783:
782:
769:
69:
32:For the scientific journal, see
3709:Principles of Animal Physiology
3394:Butin, Jan (31 December 1999).
2554:"Early Medicine and Physiology"
2542:. Pearson Education. p. 8.
2162:(12th ed.). Philadelphia:
2055:Brazilian Society of Physiology
3909:American Physiological Society
3816:Seaweed ecology and physiology
2608:10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.001
2040:American Physiological Society
1791:American Physiological Society
1726:American Physiological Society
1:
4509:Physiological plant disorders
4504:Plant perception (physiology)
3868:The dictionary definition of
3814:Lobban, C.S., Harrison, P.J.
3732:Comparative animal physiology
3150:10.1017/CHOL9780521572019.019
2128:(4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ:
1443:
3339:Tucker, GS (December 1981).
2364:. F.A. Davis. Archived from
2257:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
1904:Human Immunodeficiency Virus
1334:Human body § Physiology
1158:(e.g., medical physiology),
939:, physiology focuses on how
5704:Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
3755:. Brooks/Cole Pub Co., 1992
3751:Salisbury, F.B, Ross, C.W.
3746:Physiological plant ecology
3011:Annual Review of Physiology
2453:Annual Review of Physiology
2081:Online Etymology Dictionary
1615:" by American physiologist
1513:César Julien Jean Legallois
1261:. Fundamental processes of
6151:
3748:(4th ed.). Springer, 2001.
3496:"Carl Cori and Gerty Cori"
3187:10.1152/physiol.00044.2012
3110:10.1152/physiol.00015.2018
2633:. Routledge. p. 344.
2629:Applebaum, Wilbur (2000).
1739:Soon thereafter, in 1913,
1712:
1382:
1331:
1320:
1222:
1179:
899:
882:
31:
4901:Charles Scott Sherrington
4877:Frederick Gowland Hopkins
4480:
3951:
3821:Stewart, W. D. P. (ed.).
3682:Vander's Human Physiology
3476:www.pathwaystoscience.org
3402:. Jewish Women's Archive.
3004:"Evolutionary physiology"
2446:"Evolutionary physiology"
2305:World Health Organization
2251:Pereda, AE (April 2014).
2124:Prosser, C. Ladd (1991).
2050:The Physiological Society
1799:, along with her husband
1745:The Physiological Society
1573:The Physiological Society
915: 'study of') is the
722:List of unsolved problems
5891:Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
3611:"Elizabeth H. Blackburn"
3002:; Carter, P. A. (1994).
2891:Bernard, Claude (1878).
2876:Bernard, Claude (1865).
2856:www.medicalnewstoday.com
2596:Thoracic Surgery Clinics
2409:10.1186/1472-6920-13-152
1896:Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
1828:lactic acid fermentation
1504:to measure temperature.
1486:circulation of the blood
1395:environmental physiology
1146:environmental physiology
1137:, integrative physiology
1006:control mechanisms, and
717:List of research methods
4556:Evolutionary physiology
4474:Physiology of dinosaurs
3634:Encyclopædia Britannica
3615:Encyclopædia Britannica
3597:Encyclopædia Britannica
3561:Encyclopædia Britannica
3500:Encyclopædia Britannica
3273:10.1126/science.1069881
2924:10.2105/ajph.92.10.1594
2794:"The Society's history"
2581:Encyclopædia Britannica
2104:University of Cambridge
1765:Constance Leetham Terry
1669:evolutionary physiology
1391:evolutionary physiology
1150:evolutionary physiology
190:Response to environment
46:Oil painting depicting
4672:Santiago Ramón y Cajal
4541:Comparative physiology
4011:Biological engineering
3842:Kim, B.H., Gadd, M.G.
3835:El-Sharoud, W. (ed.).
2132:-Liss. pp. 1–12.
1928:and the enzyme called
1653:comparative physiology
1385:Comparative physiology
1379:Comparative physiology
1364:animal experimentation
1214:Subdisciplines by taxa
1164:comparative physiology
989:comparative physiology
707:List of biology awards
315:Biological engineering
51:
5173:Dickinson W. Richards
4857:Julius Wagner-Jauregg
4096:Developmental biology
4071:Computational biology
4051:Cellular microbiology
3758:Taiz, L., Zieger, E.
3518:TheFreeDictionary.com
3443:"Women in Physiology"
3418:Physiological Society
3414:"Women in Physiology"
3000:Garland, Theodore Jr.
2798:Physiological Society
2396:BMC Medical Education
2232:. Basic Biology. 2019
2197:McGraw-Hill Education
2096:"What is physiology?"
1960:Outline of physiology
1838:genetic transposition
1787:Bodil Schmidt-Nielsen
1715:List of physiologists
1709:Notable physiologists
1135:ecological physiology
1119:level of organization
1110:, animal physiology,
400:Developmental biology
375:Computational biology
355:Cellular microbiology
45:
5596:Rita Levi-Montalcini
4957:Albert Szent-Györgyi
4561:Molecular physiology
4316:Reproductive biology
4201:Mathematical biology
4126:Evolutionary biology
4076:Conservation biology
3901:at Wikimedia Commons
3851:Microbial Physiology
3830:Bacterial physiology
3781:Protistan physiology
3396:"Ida Henrietta Hyde"
2371:on December 22, 2017
2339:on November 24, 2017
1906:(HIV), the cause of
1860:autoimmune disorders
1807:-containing form of
1661:Knut Schmidt-Nielsen
1519:. In the same year,
1127:molecular physiology
1086:Evolutionary biology
740:Agricultural science
618:Reproductive biology
505:Mathematical biology
430:Evolutionary biology
380:Conservation biology
6135:Branches of biology
5988:William C. Campbell
5899:Elizabeth Blackburn
5736:Robert F. Furchgott
5728:Stanley B. Prusiner
5720:Rolf M. Zinkernagel
5620:George H. Hitchings
5584:Joseph L. Goldstein
5544:Bengt I. Samuelsson
5373:Earl Sutherland Jr.
4101:Ecological genetics
3945:Branches of biology
3882:Works on the topic
3722:Schmidt-Nielsen, K.
3662:Hall, John (2011).
3563:. 29 February 2024.
3557:"Gertrude B. Elion"
3502:. 23 February 2024.
3265:2002Sci...295.1678N
3259:(5560): 1678–1682.
2639:2000esrc.book.....A
2577:"Galen of Pergamum"
1990:Exercise physiology
1914:Elizabeth Blackburn
1720:Women in physiology
1544:Henri Milne-Edwards
1457:Early modern period
1023:abnormal conditions
1012:Physiological state
745:Biomedical sciences
405:Ecological genetics
57:Part of a series on
6048:William Kaelin Jr.
6044:Peter J. Ratcliffe
5787:Leland H. Hartwell
5676:Richard J. Roberts
5556:Barbara McClintock
5500:Godfrey Hounsfield
5401:Nikolaas Tinbergen
5333:Marshall Nirenberg
5301:Charles B. Huggins
5090:Tadeusz Reichstein
5078:António Egas Moniz
4873:Christiaan Eijkman
4392:History of biology
4326:Structural biology
4311:Relational biology
4136:Generative biology
4131:Freshwater biology
3905:physiologyINFO.org
3846:. Cambridge, 2008.
3800:Laybourn-Parry J.
2301:"Mental disorders"
2230:"Plant physiology"
2199:. pp. 14–15.
1980:Defense physiology
1834:Barbara McClintock
1761:Sarah C. M. Sowton
1665:George Bartholomew
1647:Late modern period
1595:Matthias Schleiden
1554:(called by him as
1291:photomorphogenesis
1156:applied physiology
1036:is awarded by the
1025:, including human
973:medical physiology
776:Biology portal
628:Structural biology
613:Relational biology
440:Generative biology
435:Freshwater biology
52:
6117:
6116:
6082:Ardem Patapoutian
5931:Ralph M. Steinman
5927:Jules A. Hoffmann
5915:Robert G. Edwards
5883:Harald zur Hausen
5807:H. Robert Horvitz
5708:Eric F. Wieschaus
5644:E. Donnall Thomas
5628:J. Michael Bishop
5616:Gertrude B. Elion
5488:Hamilton O. Smith
5413:Christian de Duve
5149:Frederick Robbins
5026:Alexander Fleming
4965:Corneille Heymans
4811:Frederick Banting
4716:Allvar Gullstrand
4574:
4573:
4551:Electrophysiology
4469:Insect physiology
4410:
4409:
4331:Synthetic biology
4211:Molecular biology
4066:Cognitive biology
3897:Media related to
3774:Fungal Physiology
3767:Fungal physiology
3699:Animal Physiology
3692:Animal physiology
3673:978-1-4160-4574-8
2985:978-0-521-34938-3
2960:978-0-19-974376-6
2918:(10): 1594–1595.
2737:978-0-295-80578-8
2708:Vaulted Treasures
2666:10.3233/CH-168031
2505:Science Clarified
2206:978-1-259-29409-9
2177:978-1-4160-4574-8
2139:978-0-471-85767-9
2100:biology.cam.ac.uk
2074:Harper, Douglas.
2010:Molecular biology
2000:Insect physiology
1886:odorant receptors
1777:978-0-9933410-0-7
1749:Florence Buchanan
1667:. Most recently,
1533:François Magendie
1525:Bell–Magendie law
1517:medulla oblongata
1490:Santorio Santorio
1414:, at the time of
1406:The classical era
1317:Animal physiology
1295:circadian rhythms
1259:molecular biology
977:animal physiology
826:
825:
750:Health technology
633:Synthetic biology
515:Molecular biology
370:Cognitive biology
165:Energy processing
16:(Redirected from
6142:
6110:
6095:
6084:
6069:
6063:Michael Houghton
6050:
6040:Gregg L. Semenza
6034:
6028:James P. Allison
6022:
6020:Michael W. Young
6006:
6004:Yoshinori Ohsumi
5998:
5982:
5966:
5964:Thomas C. Südhof
5950:
5938:
5917:
5909:
5903:Carol W. Greider
5893:
5877:
5861:
5849:
5837:
5825:
5813:
5797:
5770:
5754:
5746:
5730:
5722:
5716:Peter C. Doherty
5710:
5694:
5688:Alfred G. Gilman
5682:
5670:
5658:
5646:
5634:
5632:Harold E. Varmus
5622:
5606:
5598:
5586:
5574:
5558:
5550:
5534:
5518:
5508:Baruj Benacerraf
5502:
5490:
5474:
5458:
5435:
5419:
5403:
5387:
5375:
5367:
5351:
5335:
5325:Robert W. Holley
5319:
5303:
5291:
5275:
5263:
5247:
5231:
5229:Georg von Békésy
5223:
5211:
5199:
5197:Joshua Lederberg
5183:
5175:
5169:Werner Forssmann
5159:
5151:
5135:
5123:
5115:
5096:
5080:
5068:
5060:
5058:Bernardo Houssay
5044:
5036:
5020:
5008:
4996:
4995:
4989:
4988:
4982:
4981:
4975:
4967:
4959:
4951:
4939:
4931:
4915:
4907:
4895:
4887:
4885:Karl Landsteiner
4879:
4867:
4859:
4851:
4849:Johannes Fibiger
4832:
4831:
4825:
4823:Willem Einthoven
4817:
4805:
4793:
4792:
4786:
4778:
4770:
4769:
4763:
4762:
4756:
4755:
4749:
4748:
4742:
4734:
4726:
4718:
4710:
4702:
4694:
4688:Élie Metchnikoff
4682:
4680:Alphonse Laveran
4674:
4662:
4654:
4646:
4638:
4630:
4601:
4594:
4587:
4578:
4499:Plant physiology
4486:
4464:Human physiology
4437:
4430:
4423:
4414:
4056:Chemical biology
3938:
3931:
3924:
3915:
3896:
3881:
3867:
3809:Algal physiology
3760:Plant Physiology
3753:Plant physiology
3739:Plant physiology
3677:
3656:Human physiology
3645:
3644:
3642:
3641:
3625:
3619:
3618:
3607:
3601:
3600:
3589:
3583:
3582:
3571:
3565:
3564:
3553:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3538:. Nobel Media AB
3528:
3522:
3521:
3510:
3504:
3503:
3492:
3486:
3485:
3483:
3482:
3468:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3458:
3449:. Archived from
3439:
3433:
3432:
3430:
3429:
3420:. Archived from
3410:
3404:
3403:
3391:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3377:
3375:
3374:
3368:
3362:. Archived from
3348:The Physiologist
3345:
3336:
3330:
3329:
3327:
3326:
3307:
3301:
3300:
3248:
3242:
3241:
3221:
3215:
3214:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3112:
3094:
3085:
3076:
3075:
3055:
3049:
3048:
3046:
3045:
3039:
3033:. Archived from
3008:
2996:
2990:
2989:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2944:
2938:
2937:
2935:
2903:
2897:
2896:
2888:
2882:
2881:
2873:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2863:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2839:
2838:
2829:. Archived from
2819:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2809:
2800:. Archived from
2790:
2784:
2783:
2781:
2780:
2774:
2763:
2755:
2742:
2741:
2721:
2712:
2711:
2700:
2694:
2693:
2649:
2643:
2642:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2573:
2562:
2561:
2550:
2544:
2543:
2535:
2529:
2522:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2512:
2497:
2491:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2481:
2475:. Archived from
2450:
2441:
2435:
2434:
2421:
2411:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2370:
2363:
2355:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2344:
2338:
2331:
2323:
2317:
2316:
2314:
2312:
2297:
2291:
2290:
2280:
2248:
2242:
2241:
2239:
2237:
2226:
2220:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2195:. New York, NY:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2155:
2144:
2143:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2112:
2111:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2071:
1975:Cytoarchitecture
1953:
1948:
1947:
1918:Carol W. Greider
1890:olfactory system
1848:George Hitchings
1617:Walter B. Cannon
1608:milieu interieur
1470:Michael Servetus
1448:
1445:
1412:classical Greece
1328:Human physiology
1299:seed germination
1283:nastic movements
1263:plant physiology
1235:plant morphology
1225:Plant physiology
1219:Plant physiology
1112:plant physiology
1108:human physiology
981:plant physiology
912:
903:
893:
886:
874:
873:
870:
869:
866:
863:
860:
857:
854:
851:
848:
845:
842:
839:
818:
811:
804:
791:
786:
785:
778:
774:
773:
712:List of journals
360:Chemical biology
73:
54:
21:
6150:
6149:
6145:
6144:
6143:
6141:
6140:
6139:
6120:
6119:
6118:
6113:
6098:
6087:
6072:
6067:Charles M. Rice
6059:Harvey J. Alter
6053:
6037:
6025:
6016:Michael Rosbash
6012:Jeffrey C. Hall
6009:
6001:
5985:
5976:May-Britt Moser
5969:
5953:
5948:Shinya Yamanaka
5941:
5920:
5912:
5907:Jack W. Szostak
5896:
5880:
5875:Oliver Smithies
5864:
5852:
5840:
5828:
5823:Peter Mansfield
5816:
5811:John E. Sulston
5800:
5784:
5773:
5757:
5749:
5733:
5725:
5713:
5700:Edward B. Lewis
5697:
5685:
5673:
5661:
5649:
5637:
5625:
5609:
5604:Susumu Tonegawa
5601:
5589:
5577:
5561:
5553:
5537:
5521:
5505:
5493:
5477:
5464:Roger Guillemin
5461:
5456:Daniel Gajdusek
5452:Baruch Blumberg
5449:
5438:
5429:Renato Dulbecco
5425:David Baltimore
5422:
5406:
5393:Karl von Frisch
5390:
5378:
5370:
5354:
5338:
5322:
5313:Haldan Hartline
5306:
5294:
5278:
5266:
5250:
5245:Maurice Wilkins
5234:
5226:
5214:
5209:Arthur Kornberg
5202:
5186:
5178:
5162:
5154:
5138:
5126:
5118:
5110:
5099:
5083:
5071:
5063:
5047:
5039:
5023:
5014:Joseph Erlanger
5011:
4999:
4993:
4992:
4986:
4985:
4979:
4978:
4970:
4962:
4954:
4942:
4934:
4918:
4910:
4898:
4890:
4882:
4870:
4865:Charles Nicolle
4862:
4854:
4846:
4835:
4829:
4828:
4820:
4808:
4796:
4790:
4789:
4781:
4773:
4767:
4766:
4760:
4759:
4753:
4752:
4746:
4745:
4737:
4729:
4721:
4713:
4708:Albrecht Kossel
4705:
4697:
4685:
4677:
4665:
4657:
4649:
4641:
4633:
4625:
4614:
4605:
4575:
4570:
4566:Neurophysiology
4529:
4525:Cell physiology
4513:
4487:
4478:
4459:Fish physiology
4447:
4441:
4411:
4406:
4380:
4341:Systems biology
4306:Quantum biology
3947:
3942:
3860:
3674:
3661:
3653:
3648:
3639:
3637:
3627:
3626:
3622:
3609:
3608:
3604:
3599:. 26 July 2023.
3591:
3590:
3586:
3573:
3572:
3568:
3555:
3554:
3550:
3541:
3539:
3530:
3529:
3525:
3512:
3511:
3507:
3494:
3493:
3489:
3480:
3478:
3470:
3469:
3465:
3456:
3454:
3441:
3440:
3436:
3427:
3425:
3412:
3411:
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2805:
2792:
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2776:
2775:on Sep 18, 2015
2772:
2766:Physiology Info
2761:
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2592:
2588:
2583:. 6 March 2024.
2575:
2574:
2565:
2552:
2551:
2547:
2537:
2536:
2532:
2524:Helaine Selin,
2523:
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2299:
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2294:
2269:10.1038/nrn3708
2250:
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2118:
2109:
2107:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2073:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2025:Pathophysiology
2020:Neurophysiology
1995:Fish physiology
1949:
1942:
1939:
1922:Jack W. Szostak
1852:Sir James Black
1757:Ruth C. Skelton
1753:Winifred Cullis
1722:
1717:
1711:
1687:skeletal muscle
1649:
1620:of physiology.
1599:Theodor Schwann
1459:
1446:
1408:
1403:
1387:
1381:
1376:
1336:
1330:
1325:
1319:
1275:plant nutrition
1227:
1221:
1216:
1208:cell metabolism
1184:
1182:Cell physiology
1178:
1176:Cell physiology
1173:
1123:cell physiology
1096:
1050:
1010:between cells.
985:cell physiology
836:
832:
822:
781:
768:
767:
760:
759:
735:
727:
726:
693:
685:
684:
683:
682:
643:Systems biology
608:Quantum biology
253:
245:
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209:
194:
156:
145:
121:
113:
78:
76:Science of life
40:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
6148:
6146:
6138:
6137:
6132:
6122:
6121:
6115:
6114:
6112:
6111:
6104:Katalin Karikó
6096:
6085:
6070:
6051:
6035:
6023:
6007:
5999:
5983:
5967:
5960:Randy Schekman
5951:
5939:
5918:
5910:
5894:
5887:Luc Montagnier
5878:
5867:Mario Capecchi
5862:
5850:
5843:Barry Marshall
5838:
5826:
5819:Paul Lauterbur
5814:
5803:Sydney Brenner
5798:
5781:
5779:
5775:
5774:
5772:
5771:
5764:Paul Greengard
5760:Arvid Carlsson
5755:
5747:
5731:
5723:
5711:
5695:
5692:Martin Rodbell
5683:
5671:
5668:Edwin G. Krebs
5664:Edmond Fischer
5659:
5647:
5635:
5623:
5612:James W. Black
5607:
5599:
5587:
5575:
5572:César Milstein
5568:Georges Köhler
5559:
5551:
5540:Sune Bergström
5535:
5532:Torsten Wiesel
5528:David H. Hubel
5519:
5503:
5491:
5484:Daniel Nathans
5475:
5468:Andrew Schally
5459:
5446:
5444:
5440:
5439:
5437:
5436:
5420:
5404:
5388:
5381:Gerald Edelman
5376:
5368:
5365:Julius Axelrod
5352:
5349:Salvador Luria
5345:Alfred Hershey
5336:
5320:
5304:
5292:
5281:François Jacob
5276:
5264:
5248:
5232:
5224:
5212:
5200:
5184:
5176:
5165:André Cournand
5160:
5152:
5136:
5124:
5121:Selman Waksman
5116:
5107:
5105:
5101:
5100:
5098:
5097:
5086:Edward Kendall
5081:
5069:
5061:
5045:
5042:Hermann Muller
5037:
5021:
5018:Herbert Gasser
5009:
4997:
4990:
4983:
4976:
4973:Gerhard Domagk
4968:
4960:
4952:
4940:
4932:
4929:William Murphy
4921:George Whipple
4916:
4908:
4896:
4888:
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4868:
4860:
4852:
4843:
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4806:
4799:Archibald Hill
4794:
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4779:
4771:
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4757:
4750:
4743:
4735:
4732:Charles Richet
4727:
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4703:
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4683:
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4639:
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4572:
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4553:
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4543:
4537:
4535:
4534:Related topics
4531:
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4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4196:Marine biology
4193:
4188:
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4173:
4168:
4163:
4158:
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4148:
4143:
4138:
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4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4006:Bioinformatics
4003:
3998:
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3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
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3858:External links
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3778:
3777:
3772:Griffin, D.H.
3764:
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3749:
3736:
3735:
3730:Withers, P.C.
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3579:nobelprize.org
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3536:nobelprize.org
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3243:
3232:(5): 233–235.
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3103:(4): 236–245.
3077:
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3017:(1): 579–621.
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2660:(4): 541–549.
2644:
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2530:
2528:(2003), p. 53.
2517:
2507:. Advameg, Inc
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2012:
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1982:
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1962:
1956:
1955:
1954:
1951:Biology portal
1938:
1935:
1934:
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1911:
1900:Luc Montagnier
1893:
1875:
1844:Gertrude Elion
1841:
1831:
1794:
1721:
1718:
1713:Main article:
1710:
1707:
1648:
1645:
1625:Michael Foster
1603:Claude Bernard
1482:William Harvey
1478:Amato Lusitano
1474:Realdo Colombo
1458:
1455:
1436:Ancient Greece
1407:
1404:
1402:
1399:
1383:Main article:
1380:
1377:
1375:
1372:
1332:Main article:
1329:
1326:
1321:Main article:
1318:
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1287:photoperiodism
1267:photosynthesis
1243:phytochemistry
1223:Main article:
1220:
1217:
1215:
1212:
1200:cell signaling
1180:Main article:
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149:Properties of
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122:
120:Key components
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48:Claude Bernard
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6147:
6136:
6133:
6131:
6128:
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6109:
6108:Drew Weissman
6105:
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6094:
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6083:
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6064:
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6029:
6024:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6008:
6005:
6000:
5997:
5993:
5992:Satoshi Ōmura
5989:
5984:
5981:
5977:
5973:
5968:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5956:James Rothman
5952:
5949:
5945:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5923:Bruce Beutler
5919:
5916:
5911:
5908:
5904:
5900:
5895:
5892:
5888:
5884:
5879:
5876:
5872:
5868:
5863:
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5856:
5851:
5848:
5844:
5839:
5836:
5835:Linda B. Buck
5832:
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5824:
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5815:
5812:
5808:
5804:
5799:
5796:
5792:
5788:
5783:
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5776:
5769:
5765:
5761:
5756:
5753:
5752:Günter Blobel
5748:
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5740:Louis Ignarro
5737:
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5724:
5721:
5717:
5712:
5709:
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5696:
5693:
5689:
5684:
5681:
5680:Phillip Sharp
5677:
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5648:
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5641:
5640:Joseph Murray
5636:
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5608:
5605:
5600:
5597:
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5592:Stanley Cohen
5588:
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5580:Michael Brown
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5496:Allan Cormack
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5472:Rosalyn Yalow
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5457:
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5417:George Palade
5414:
5410:
5409:Albert Claude
5405:
5402:
5398:
5397:Konrad Lorenz
5394:
5389:
5386:
5385:Rodney Porter
5382:
5377:
5374:
5369:
5366:
5362:
5361:Ulf von Euler
5358:
5353:
5350:
5346:
5342:
5337:
5334:
5330:
5326:
5321:
5318:
5314:
5310:
5309:Ragnar Granit
5305:
5302:
5298:
5293:
5290:
5289:Jacques Monod
5286:
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5274:
5270:
5265:
5262:
5261:Andrew Huxley
5258:
5254:
5249:
5246:
5242:
5238:
5237:Francis Crick
5233:
5230:
5225:
5222:
5221:Peter Medawar
5218:
5213:
5210:
5206:
5201:
5198:
5194:
5190:
5189:George Beadle
5185:
5182:
5177:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5161:
5158:
5157:Hugo Theorell
5153:
5150:
5146:
5145:Thomas Weller
5142:
5137:
5134:
5133:Fritz Lipmann
5130:
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5117:
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5109:
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5034:Howard Florey
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4803:Otto Meyerhof
4800:
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4777:
4772:
4765:
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4751:
4744:
4741:
4740:Róbert Bárány
4736:
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4728:
4725:
4724:Alexis Carrel
4720:
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4712:
4709:
4704:
4701:
4696:
4693:
4689:
4684:
4681:
4676:
4673:
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4668:Camillo Golgi
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4546:Ecophysiology
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4276:Phylogenetics
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4171:Human biology
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4152:
4149:
4147:
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4139:
4137:
4134:
4132:
4129:
4127:
4124:
4122:
4119:
4117:
4114:
4112:
4109:
4107:
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4099:
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4089:
4087:
4084:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4074:
4072:
4069:
4067:
4064:
4062:
4061:Chronobiology
4059:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4036:Biotechnology
4034:
4032:
4031:Biostatistics
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
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4009:
4007:
4004:
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3999:
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3876:
3874:at Wiktionary
3873:
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3729:
3726:
3723:
3720:
3717:
3713:
3710:
3707:
3706:Schulte, P.M.
3704:Moyes, C.D.,
3703:
3700:
3696:
3695:
3694:
3693:
3686:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3669:
3665:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3650:
3636:
3635:
3630:
3624:
3621:
3617:. 2 May 2024.
3616:
3612:
3606:
3603:
3598:
3594:
3588:
3585:
3580:
3576:
3570:
3567:
3562:
3558:
3552:
3549:
3537:
3533:
3527:
3524:
3519:
3515:
3509:
3506:
3501:
3497:
3491:
3488:
3477:
3473:
3467:
3464:
3453:on 2018-11-06
3452:
3448:
3444:
3438:
3435:
3424:on 2018-11-06
3423:
3419:
3415:
3409:
3406:
3401:
3397:
3390:
3387:
3382:
3369:on 2017-01-22
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3342:
3335:
3332:
3321:on 2017-01-07
3320:
3316:
3312:
3306:
3303:
3298:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3247:
3244:
3239:
3235:
3231:
3227:
3220:
3217:
3212:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3180:
3176:
3169:
3166:
3161:
3159:9781139056007
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3136:
3133:
3128:
3124:
3120:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3098:
3091:
3084:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3054:
3051:
3040:on 2021-04-12
3036:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3005:
3001:
2995:
2992:
2987:
2981:
2977:
2970:
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2962:
2956:
2952:
2951:
2943:
2940:
2934:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2902:
2899:
2894:
2887:
2884:
2879:
2872:
2869:
2857:
2853:
2847:
2844:
2833:on 2018-10-21
2832:
2828:
2824:
2818:
2815:
2804:on 2017-02-14
2803:
2799:
2795:
2789:
2786:
2771:
2767:
2760:
2754:
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2728:
2720:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2705:
2699:
2696:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2679:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2655:
2648:
2645:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2625:
2622:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2564:
2559:
2555:
2549:
2546:
2541:
2534:
2531:
2527:
2521:
2518:
2506:
2502:
2496:
2493:
2482:on 2021-04-12
2478:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2462:
2458:
2454:
2447:
2440:
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2433:
2429:
2425:
2420:
2415:
2410:
2405:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2386:
2383:
2367:
2360:
2354:
2351:
2335:
2328:
2327:"Eszopiclone"
2322:
2319:
2306:
2302:
2296:
2293:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2263:(4): 250–63.
2262:
2258:
2254:
2247:
2244:
2231:
2225:
2222:
2216:
2213:
2208:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2187:
2184:
2179:
2173:
2170:. p. 3.
2169:
2165:
2161:
2154:
2152:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2135:
2131:
2127:
2120:
2117:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2082:
2077:
2070:
2067:
2061:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
1986:
1985:Ecophysiology
1983:
1981:
1978:
1976:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1966:
1963:
1961:
1958:
1957:
1952:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1916:, along with
1915:
1912:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1898:, along with
1897:
1894:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1880:, along with
1879:
1878:Linda B. Buck
1876:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1846:, along with
1845:
1842:
1839:
1835:
1832:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1802:
1798:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1785:
1784:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1769:Enid M. Tribe
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1737:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1719:
1716:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1699:endocrinology
1696:
1690:
1688:
1684:
1683:Andrew Huxley
1679:
1677:
1672:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1657:ecophysiology
1654:
1646:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1621:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1587:
1585:
1580:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1563:Joseph Lister
1559:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1540:
1538:
1537:equilibration
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1509:Luigi Galvani
1505:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1405:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1386:
1378:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1360:
1358:
1353:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1327:
1324:
1316:
1314:
1312:
1311:transpiration
1309:function and
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1240:
1239:plant ecology
1236:
1232:
1226:
1218:
1213:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1196:cell division
1193:
1189:
1183:
1175:
1170:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1142:developmental
1139:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1117:based on the
1116:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1102:based on the
1101:
1100:
1099:
1093:
1087:
1084:
1080:
1077:
1073:
1070:
1066:
1063:
1059:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1030:
1028:
1024:
1020:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1008:communication
1005:
1001:
997:
992:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
947:, individual
946:
945:organ systems
942:
938:
934:
933:subdiscipline
930:
929:living system
926:
922:
918:
914:
911:
910:
902:
898:
895:
892:
885:
881:
878:
877:Ancient Greek
872:
830:
819:
814:
812:
807:
805:
800:
799:
797:
796:
790:
780:
777:
772:
766:
765:
764:
763:
756:
753:
751:
748:
746:
743:
741:
738:
737:
731:
730:
723:
720:
718:
715:
713:
710:
708:
705:
703:
699:
696:
695:
689:
688:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
639:
636:
634:
631:
629:
626:
624:
621:
619:
616:
614:
611:
609:
606:
604:
601:
599:
596:
594:
591:
589:
586:
583:
581:
580:Phylogenetics
578:
576:
573:
571:
568:
566:
563:
561:
558:
556:
553:
551:
548:
546:
543:
541:
538:
536:
533:
531:
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526:
523:
521:
518:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
478:
476:
475:Human biology
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
436:
433:
431:
428:
426:
423:
421:
418:
416:
413:
411:
408:
406:
403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
391:
388:
386:
383:
381:
378:
376:
373:
371:
368:
366:
365:Chronobiology
363:
361:
358:
356:
353:
351:
348:
346:
343:
341:
340:Biotechnology
338:
336:
335:Biostatistics
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
321:
318:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
257:
249:
248:
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236:
232:
228:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
210:
206:
204:
200:
196:
195:
191:
188:
186:
183:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
161:
158:
157:
153:
152:
147:
146:
142:
139:
137:
134:
132:
129:
127:
124:
123:
117:
116:
109:
105:
102:
101:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
84:
82:
81:
77:
72:
68:
67:
64:
60:
56:
55:
49:
44:
38:
36:
27:
19:
18:Physiological
6093:Svante Pääbo
6078:David Julius
6032:Tasuku Honjo
5980:Edvard Moser
5972:John O'Keefe
5935:posthumously
5934:
5871:Martin Evans
5847:Robin Warren
5831:Richard Axel
5778:2001–present
5656:Bert Sakmann
5524:Roger Sperry
5516:George Snell
5512:Jean Dausset
5480:Werner Arber
5433:Howard Temin
5357:Bernard Katz
5341:Max Delbrück
5297:Francis Rous
5273:Feodor Lynen
5269:Konrad Bloch
5257:Alan Hodgkin
5241:James Watson
5217:Frank Burnet
5205:Severo Ochoa
5193:Edward Tatum
5181:Daniel Bovet
5094:Philip Hench
5006:Edward Doisy
4937:Hans Spemann
4925:George Minot
4905:Edgar Adrian
4893:Otto Warburg
4815:John Macleod
4784:August Krogh
4776:Jules Bordet
4692:Paul Ehrlich
4644:Niels Finsen
4628:Emil Behring
4443:
4321:Sociobiology
4301:Protistology
4280:
4266:Photobiology
4261:Pharmacology
4251:Parasitology
4246:Paleontology
4226:Neuroscience
4206:Microbiology
4116:Epidemiology
4086:Cytogenetics
4046:Cell biology
4026:Biosemiotics
4016:Biomechanics
3996:Biogeography
3991:Biochemistry
3986:Bacteriology
3981:Astrobiology
3870:
3850:
3843:
3836:
3829:
3828:
3822:
3815:
3808:
3807:
3801:
3794:
3787:
3780:
3779:
3773:
3766:
3765:
3759:
3752:
3745:
3744:Larcher, W.
3738:
3737:
3731:
3724:
3715:
3708:
3698:
3691:
3690:
3681:
3663:
3655:
3654:
3651:Bibliography
3638:. Retrieved
3632:
3623:
3614:
3605:
3596:
3587:
3578:
3569:
3560:
3551:
3540:. Retrieved
3535:
3526:
3517:
3514:"Cori cycle"
3508:
3499:
3490:
3479:. Retrieved
3475:
3466:
3455:. Retrieved
3451:the original
3446:
3437:
3426:. Retrieved
3422:the original
3417:
3408:
3399:
3389:
3371:. Retrieved
3364:the original
3351:
3347:
3334:
3323:. Retrieved
3319:the original
3314:
3305:
3256:
3252:
3246:
3229:
3225:
3219:
3178:
3174:
3168:
3141:
3135:
3100:
3096:
3066:(2): 94–95.
3063:
3059:
3053:
3042:. Retrieved
3035:the original
3014:
3010:
2994:
2975:
2969:
2949:
2942:
2915:
2911:
2901:
2892:
2886:
2877:
2871:
2860:. Retrieved
2858:. 2017-10-13
2855:
2846:
2835:. Retrieved
2831:the original
2826:
2817:
2806:. Retrieved
2802:the original
2797:
2788:
2777:. Retrieved
2770:the original
2765:
2726:
2707:
2698:
2657:
2653:
2647:
2630:
2624:
2602:(4): 443–8.
2599:
2595:
2589:
2580:
2557:
2548:
2539:
2533:
2525:
2520:
2509:. Retrieved
2504:
2501:"Physiology"
2495:
2484:. Retrieved
2477:the original
2456:
2452:
2439:
2431:
2399:
2395:
2385:
2373:. Retrieved
2366:the original
2353:
2341:. Retrieved
2334:the original
2321:
2309:. Retrieved
2304:
2295:
2260:
2256:
2246:
2234:. Retrieved
2224:
2215:
2192:
2186:
2159:
2125:
2119:
2108:. Retrieved
2099:
2090:
2079:
2076:"physiology"
2069:
2030:Pharmacology
1965:Biochemistry
1882:Richard Axel
1872:viral herpes
1781:
1741:J.S. Haldane
1738:
1723:
1695:neuroscience
1691:
1680:
1676:August Krogh
1673:
1650:
1641:cell biology
1633:Alfred Binet
1622:
1606:
1588:
1581:
1571:
1560:
1555:
1541:
1521:Charles Bell
1506:
1497:
1466:Ibn al-Nafis
1460:
1409:
1388:
1361:
1354:
1341:
1337:
1247:cell biology
1228:
1185:
1144:physiology,
1097:
1089:environment.
1075:environment.
1065:Biochemistry
1051:
1031:
1017:pathological
1015:
1011:
993:
957:biomolecules
907:
904:
897:
890:
887:
880:
828:
827:
734:Applications
623:Sociobiology
603:Protistology
570:Photobiology
565:Pharmacology
555:Parasitology
550:Paleontology
530:Neuroscience
510:Microbiology
420:Epidemiology
390:Cytogenetics
350:Cell biology
330:Biosemiotics
320:Biomechanics
300:Biogeography
295:Biochemistry
290:Bacteriology
285:Astrobiology
197:
185:Reproduction
148:
75:
34:
26:
5944:John Gurdon
5859:Craig Mello
5855:Andrew Fire
5768:Eric Kandel
5744:Ferid Murad
5652:Erwin Neher
5564:Niels Jerne
5329:Har Khorana
5317:George Wald
5285:André Lwoff
5253:John Eccles
5141:John Enders
5113:Max Theiler
5074:Walter Hess
5066:Paul Müller
5030:Ernst Chain
4700:Emil Kocher
4660:Robert Koch
4652:Ivan Pavlov
4636:Ronald Ross
4371:Xenobiology
4366:Virophysics
4336:Systematics
4291:Primatology
4236:Ornithology
4176:Ichthyology
4161:Herpetology
4156:Gerontology
4121:Epigenetics
4081:Cryobiology
3971:Agrostology
3961:Aerobiology
3956:Abiogenesis
3315:the-aps.org
2827:the-aps.org
2459:: 579–621.
1635:, based on
1629:Max Verworn
1613:homeostasis
1591:Cell theory
1584:Ivan Pavlov
1567:antiseptics
1531:. In 1824,
1529:spinal cord
1502:thermoscope
1498:pulsilogium
1462:Jean Fernel
1440:Hippocrates
1416:Hippocrates
1349:Homeostasis
1271:respiration
1204:cell growth
1160:non-applied
1048:Foundations
1004:homeostatic
1002:processes,
1000:biochemical
996:biophysical
875:; from
673:Xenobiology
668:Virophysics
638:Systematics
593:Primatology
540:Ornithology
480:Ichthyology
465:Herpetology
460:Gerontology
425:Epigenetics
385:Cryobiology
275:Agrostology
265:Aerobiology
260:Abiogenesis
126:Cell theory
6130:Physiology
6124:Categories
5795:Paul Nurse
5129:Hans Krebs
5054:Gerty Cori
5002:Henrik Dam
4949:Otto Loewi
4945:Henry Dale
4444:Physiology
4356:Toxicology
4351:Teratology
4296:Proteomics
4281:Physiology
4221:Neontology
4186:Lipidology
4181:Immunology
4151:Geobiology
4111:Embryology
4091:Dendrology
4021:Biophysics
4001:Biogeology
3899:Physiology
3888:Wikisource
3884:Physiology
3871:physiology
3640:2023-02-08
3542:2016-09-23
3481:2020-10-01
3457:2015-05-15
3447:physoc.org
3428:2018-01-11
3373:2017-04-27
3354:(6): 1–9.
3325:2017-02-08
3226:Physiology
3181:(1): 2–3.
3175:Physiology
3097:Physiology
3060:Physiology
3044:2008-04-11
2862:2020-10-01
2837:2017-02-21
2808:2017-02-21
2779:2015-07-25
2511:2010-08-29
2486:2008-04-11
2359:"Zolpidem"
2236:16 January
2110:2018-07-07
2062:References
2015:Metabolome
2005:Human body
1970:Biophysics
1930:telomerase
1824:Cori cycle
1817:eukaryotic
1797:Gerty Cori
1703:immunology
1548:Adam Smith
1496:rate (the
1447: 130
1389:Involving
1344:human body
1255:biophysics
1082:phenotype.
1072:Biophysics
1068:organisms.
1021:refers to
959:carry out
925:mechanisms
917:scientific
829:Physiology
658:Toxicology
653:Teratology
598:Proteomics
584:Physiology
525:Neontology
490:Lipidology
485:Immunology
455:Geobiology
415:Embryology
395:Dendrology
325:Biophysics
305:Biogeology
180:Regulation
160:Adaptation
35:Physiology
5996:Tu Youyou
5548:John Vane
5443:1976–2000
5104:1951–1975
5050:Carl Cori
4840:1926–1950
4619:1901–1925
4608:Laureates
4271:Phycology
4256:Pathology
4241:Osteology
4231:Nutrition
4191:Mammalogy
4166:Histology
3281:0036-8075
3195:1548-9213
3119:1548-9221
2674:1875-8622
2375:April 15,
2343:April 15,
1926:telomeres
1820:metabolic
1811:known as
1805:phosphate
1801:Carl Cori
1681:In 1954,
1674:In 1920,
1582:In 1891,
1561:In 1858,
1556:appareils
1500:), and a
1432:Aristotle
1106:studied:
969:organisms
941:organisms
921:functions
919:study of
698:Biologist
575:Phycology
560:Pathology
545:Osteology
535:Nutrition
495:Mammalogy
470:Histology
141:Phylogeny
136:Evolution
131:Ecosystem
37:(journal)
5791:Tim Hunt
4385:See also
4361:Virology
4346:Taxonomy
4286:Pomology
4216:Mycology
4146:Genomics
4141:Genetics
3966:Agronomy
3289:11872832
3211:22271159
3203:23280350
3127:29873600
2682:27791994
2616:18271159
2558:ship.edu
2428:24252155
2311:15 April
2287:24619342
2168:Elsevier
2164:Saunders
2035:Physiome
1937:See also
1856:leukemia
1813:glycogen
1793:in 1975.
1730:Ida Hyde
1507:In 1791
1451:medicine
1424:humorism
1357:behavior
1303:dormancy
1279:tropisms
1265:include
1251:genetics
1079:Genetics
1061:another.
1042:medicine
1027:diseases
965:physical
961:chemical
789:Category
755:Pharming
692:Research
663:Virology
648:Taxonomy
588:Pomology
520:Mycology
450:Genomics
445:Genetics
270:Agronomy
252:Branches
239:Protists
218:Bacteria
203:Kingdoms
108:timeline
97:Glossary
4610:of the
4452:Animals
4376:Zoology
4106:Ecology
3976:Anatomy
3360:7043502
3297:6756983
3261:Bibcode
3253:Science
3031:8010752
2933:1447286
2690:3304540
2635:Bibcode
2473:8010752
2419:4225514
2402:: 152.
2278:4091911
1910:(AIDS).
1868:malaria
1858:, some
1809:glucose
1637:Haeckel
1552:systems
1438:. Like
1401:History
1368:anatomy
1307:stomata
1162:(e.g.,
1131:systems
1058:Anatomy
937:biology
931:. As a
678:Zoology
410:Ecology
280:Anatomy
227:Animals
223:Eukarya
213:Archaea
205:of life
199:Domains
104:History
92:Outline
63:Biology
6038:2019:
6026:2018:
6010:2017:
6002:2016:
5986:2015:
5970:2014:
5954:2013:
5942:2012:
5921:2011:
5913:2010:
5897:2009:
5881:2008:
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4650:1904:
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4626:1901:
4492:Plants
4041:Botany
3670:
3358:
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3279:
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1870:, and
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1767:, and
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1631:, and
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1257:, and
1231:botany
1206:, and
1188:animal
987:, and
955:, and
949:organs
909:-logía
901:-λογία
891:phúsis
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345:Botany
235:Plants
170:Growth
4518:Cells
4446:types
3367:(PDF)
3344:(PDF)
3293:S2CID
3207:S2CID
3093:(PDF)
3038:(PDF)
3007:(PDF)
2773:(PDF)
2762:(PDF)
2686:S2CID
2480:(PDF)
2449:(PDF)
2369:(PDF)
2362:(PDF)
2337:(PDF)
2330:(PDF)
2307:. WHO
2130:Wiley
1494:pulse
1428:Galen
1420:China
1192:plant
1019:state
953:cells
927:in a
884:φύσις
879:
702:list)
231:Fungi
175:Order
87:Index
6100:2023
6089:2022
6074:2021
6055:2020
4994:1942
4987:1941
4980:1940
4830:1925
4791:1921
4768:1918
4761:1917
4754:1916
4747:1915
3668:ISBN
3356:PMID
3285:PMID
3277:ISSN
3199:PMID
3191:ISSN
3154:ISBN
3123:PMID
3115:ISSN
3027:PMID
2980:ISBN
2955:ISBN
2732:ISBN
2678:PMID
2670:ISSN
2612:PMID
2469:PMID
2424:PMID
2377:2017
2345:2017
2313:2017
2283:PMID
2238:2019
2201:ISBN
2172:ISBN
2134:ISBN
1920:and
1864:gout
1850:and
1773:ISBN
1663:and
1655:and
1597:and
1480:and
1393:and
1104:taxa
1032:The
998:and
963:and
923:and
201:and
151:life
3886:at
3269:doi
3257:295
3234:doi
3183:doi
3146:doi
3105:doi
3068:doi
3019:doi
2928:PMC
2920:doi
2662:doi
2604:doi
2461:doi
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