977:
963:
949:
289:
610:
moisture as it is exposed to dry air. On the other hand, a moderately high wind allows the plant to cool its leaves more easily when exposed to full sunlight. Plants are not entirely passive in their interaction with wind. Plants can make their leaves less vulnerable to changes in wind speed, by coating their leaves in fine hairs (
645:
damaged or uprooted by wind. This has been a major selective pressure acting over terrestrial plants. Nowadays, it is one of the major threatening for agriculture and forestry even in temperate zones. It is worse for agriculture in hurricane-prone regions, such as the banana-growing
Windward Islands in the Caribbean.
491:
535:
have shown that photosynthetic efficiency does indeed increase. Plant growth rates also increase, by an average of 17% for above-ground tissue and 30% for below-ground tissue. However, detrimental impacts of global warming, such as increased instances of heat and drought stress, mean that the overall
397:
Waterlogging reduces the supply of oxygen to the roots and can kill a plant within days. Plants cannot avoid waterlogging, but many species overcome the lack of oxygen in the soil by transporting oxygen to the root from tissues that are not submerged. Species that are tolerant of waterlogging develop
627:
results in shorter, stockier plants with strengthened stems, as well as to an improved anchorage. It was once believed that this occurs mostly in very windy areas. But it has been found that it happens even in areas with moderate winds, so that wind-induced signal were found to be a major ecological
402:
to allow the diffusion of oxygen from the shoot to the root. Roots that are not killed outright may also switch to less oxygen-hungry forms of cellular respiration. Species that are frequently submerged have evolved more elaborate mechanisms that maintain root oxygen levels, such as the aerial roots
125:
Plant ecophysiology is concerned largely with two topics: mechanisms (how plants sense and respond to environmental change) and scaling or integration (how the responses to highly variable conditions—for example, gradients from full sunlight to 95% shade within tree canopies—are coordinated with one
644:
Wind can damage most of the organs of the plants. Leaf abrasion (due to the rubbing of leaves and branches or to the effect of airborne particles such as sand) and leaf of branch breakage are rather common phenomena, that plants have to accommodate. In the more extreme cases, plants can be mortally
609:
and in effect insulates the leaf from the environment, providing an atmosphere rich in moisture and less prone to convective heating or cooling. As wind speed increases, the leaf environment becomes more closely linked to the surrounding environment. It may become difficult for the plant to retain
519:. This would be expected to increase the efficiency of photosynthesis and possibly increase the overall rate of plant growth. This possibility has attracted considerable interest in recent years, as an increased rate of plant growth could absorb some of the excess CO
327:
plants found in the uplands of New
Zealand are said to resemble 'vegetable sheep' as they form tight cushion-like clumps to insulate the most vulnerable plant parts and shield them from cooling winds. The same principle has been applied in agriculture by using
300:. Plants can reduce light absorption using reflective leaf hairs, scales, and waxes. These features are so common in warm dry regions that these habitats can be seen to form a 'silvery landscape' as the light scatters off the canopies. Some species, such as
931:
diagram, which formed the basis for much of Rahn's future work. Rahn's research into applications of this diagram led to the development of aerospace medicine and advancements in hyperbaric breathing and high-altitude respiration. Rahn later joined the
622:
Plants can sense the wind through the deformation of its tissues. This signal leads to inhibits the elongation and stimulates the radial expansion of their shoots, while increasing the development of their root system. This syndrome of responses known as
346:
Too much or too little water can damage plants. If there is too little water then tissues will dehydrate and the plant may die. If the soil becomes waterlogged then the soil will become anoxic (low in oxygen), which can kill the roots of the plant.
536:
effect is likely to be a reduction in plant productivity. Reduced plant productivity would be expected to accelerate the rate of global warming. Overall, these observations point to the importance of avoiding further increases in atmospheric CO
276:
and become a gel in cold conditions or to become leaky in hot conditions. This can affect the movement of compounds across the membrane. To prevent these changes, plants can change the composition of their membranes. In cold conditions, more
631:
Trees have a particularly well-developed capacity to reinforce their trunks when exposed to wind. From the practical side, this realisation prompted arboriculturalists in the UK in the 1960s to move away from the practice of staking young
936:
in 1956 as the
Lawrence D. Bell Professor and Chairman of the Department of Physiology. As Chairman, Rahn surrounded himself with outstanding faculty and made the University an international research center in environmental physiology.
182:
has a positive slope representing the efficiency of light use, and is called quantum efficiency; the x-intercept is the light intensity at which biochemical assimilation (gross assimilation) balances leaf respiration so that the net
495:
2415:. Definitions and Opinions by: G. A. Bartholomew, A. F. Bennett, W. D. Billings, B. F. Chabot, D. M. Gates, B. Heinrich, R. B. Huey, D. H. Janzen, J. R. King, P. A. McClure, B. K. McNab, P. C. Miller, P. S. Nobel, B. R. Strain.
206:
Excess light occurs at the top of canopies and on open ground when cloud cover is low and the sun's zenith angle is low, typically this occurs in the tropics and at high altitudes. Excess light incident on a leaf can result in
493:
410:
However, for many terminally overwatered houseplants, the initial symptoms of waterlogging can resemble those due to drought. This is particularly true for flood-sensitive plants that show drooping of their leaves due to
781:
In both types of temperature-related stress, it is important to remain well-hydrated. Hydration reduces cardiovascular strain, enhances the ability of energy processes to occur, and reduces feelings of exhaustion.
614:) to break up the airflow and increase the boundary layer. In fact, leaf and canopy dimensions are often finely controlled to manipulate the boundary layer depending on the prevailing environmental conditions.
178:). The shape is typically described by a non-rectangular hyperbola. Three quantities of the light response curve are particularly useful in characterising a plant's response to light intensities. The inclined
494:
652:
occurs in natural systems, the only solution is to ensure that there is an adequate stock of seeds or seedlings to quickly take the place of the mature plants that have been lost- although, in many cases, a
390:. As well as closing their stomata, most plants can also respond to drought by altering their water potential (osmotic adjustment) and increasing root growth. Plants that are adapted to dry environments (
198:
As with most abiotic factors, light intensity (irradiance) can be both suboptimal and excessive. Suboptimal light (shade) typically occurs at the base of a plant canopy or in an understory environment.
369:). In irrigated fields, the fact that plants close their stomata in response to drying of the roots can be exploited to 'trick' plants into using less water without reducing yields (see
145:
that aid in acclimating to changing conditions. It is hypothesized that this large number of genes can be partly explained by plant species' need to live in a wider range of conditions.
1507:"What have we learned from 15 years of free-air CO2 enrichment (FACE)? A meta-analytic review of the responses of photosynthesis, canopy properties and plant production to rising CO2"
215:. Plants adapted to high light environments have a range of adaptations to avoid or dissipate the excess light energy, as well as mechanisms that reduce the amount of injury caused.
1549:
Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and
Vulnerability : Working Group II Contribution to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
832:
365:
In very dry soil, plants close their stomata to reduce transpiration and prevent water loss. The closing of the stomata is often mediated by chemical signals from the root (i.e.,
605:
Wind influences the way leaves regulate moisture, heat, and carbon dioxide. When no wind is present, a layer of still air builds up around each leaf. This is known as the
191:; and a horizontal asymptote representing the maximum assimilation rate. Sometimes after reaching the maximum assimilation declines for processes collectively known as
492:
2465:
2373:
504:
354:
of the root cells. When soil water content is low, plants can alter their water potential to maintain a flow of water into the roots and up to the leaves (
2007:
1475:
137:
are unable to move away and therefore must endure the adverse conditions or perish (animals go places, plants grow places). Plants are therefore
1060:
2358:
2333:
2310:
2291:
2272:
2253:
2228:
1557:
1245:
1219:
1080:
166:
is the food of plants, i.e. the form of energy that plants use to build themselves and reproduce. The organs harvesting light in plants are
2367:
Spicer, J. I., and K. J. Gaston. 1999. Physiological diversity and its ecological implications. Blackwell
Science, Oxford, U.K. x + 241 pp.
1261:
Farrell, A. D.; Gilliland, T. J. (2011). "Yield and quality of forage maize grown under marginal climatic conditions in
Northern Ireland".
733:, and detects changes in surrounding blood to make decisions of whether to stimulate internal heat production or to stimulate evaporation.
1449:
2166:
767:, circulatory adaptations (that provide an efficient transfer of heat to the epidermis), and increased blood flow to the extremities.
311:
2458:
532:
1006:
907:(1912–1990) was an early leader in the field of environmental physiology. Starting out in the field of zoology with a Ph.D. from
836:
203:
plants have a range of adaptations to help them survive the altered quantity and quality of light typical of shade environments.
1338:
2733:
2421:
355:
1341:. Plant Physiology Online, A Companion to Plant Physiology, Fifth Edition by Lincoln Taiz and Eduardo Zeiger. Archived from
296:
Plants can avoid overheating by minimising the amount of sunlight absorbed and by enhancing the cooling effects of wind and
1825:
Jaffe, M. J. (1 June 1973). "Thigmomorphogenesis: The response of plant growth and development to mechanical stimulation".
1397:
288:
2855:
677:. Environmental effects on human physiology are numerous; one of the most carefully studied effects is the alterations in
116:
2875:
2451:
472:
80:
1673:
241:
1745:"Wind effects on juvenile trees: a review with special reference to toppling of radiata pine growing in New Zealand"
2865:
1700:
Gardiner, Barry; Berry, Peter; Moulia, Bruno (2016). "Review: Wind impacts on plant growth, mechanics and damage".
1049:: "I proposed long ago to call this special part of biology œcology (the science of home-relations) or bionomy." "
2870:
670:
570:) and of energy (heat) between the plant and the atmosphere by renewing the air at the contact with the leaves (
394:) have a range of more specialized mechanisms to maintain water and/or protect tissues when desiccation occurs.
358:). This remarkable mechanism allows plants to lift water as high as 120 m by harnessing the gradient created by
133:
are able to escape unfavourable and changing environmental factors such as heat, cold, drought or floods, while
218:
Light intensity is also an important component in determining the temperature of plant organs (energy budget).
188:
120:
2027:
Płoszczyca, Kamila; Czuba, Miłosz; Chalimoniuk, Małgorzata; Gajda, Robert; Baranowski, Marcin (15 June 2021).
1151:"Lighting from Top and Side Enhances Photosynthesis and Plant Performance by Improving Light Usage Efficiency"
2029:"Red Blood Cell 2,3-Diphosphoglycerate Decreases in Response to a 30 km Time Trial Under Hypoxia in Cyclists"
774:
protects itself against damage by warming the incoming air to 80-90 degrees
Fahrenheit before it reaches the
2880:
2766:
2533:
996:
912:
908:
799:
370:
261:
126:
another), and how their collective effect on plant growth and gas exchange can be understood on this basis.
96:
2885:
2776:
2175:
991:
898:
852:
541:
377:
92:
2088:
1021:
933:
886:
736:
There are two main types of stresses that can be experienced due to extreme environmental temperatures:
654:
649:
593:
138:
729:
The hypothalamus plays an important role in thermoregulation. It connects to thermal receptors in the
2771:
2698:
2495:
2120:
1932:
1893:
1834:
1709:
1629:
1582:
1270:
894:
282:
2180:
2108:
2860:
2817:
2807:
2753:
2500:
709:
To achieve this, the body alters three main things to achieve a constant, normal body temperature:
624:
578:
2802:
2708:
2673:
2574:
2552:
2474:
2406:
2398:
1866:
1655:
982:
795:
771:
476:
464:
257:
249:
154:
2350:
2344:
2245:
2239:
447:
gain and water loss is central to plant productivity. The trade-off is all the more critical as
304:, can move their leaves throughout the day so that they are always orientated to avoid the sun (
174:. The response of photosynthesis to light is called light response curve of net photosynthesis (
1103:
373:). The use of this technique was largely developed by Dr Peter Dry and colleagues in Australia
260:
increases. Metabolic imbalances associated with temperature extremes result in the build-up of
2781:
2723:
2718:
2586:
2562:
2557:
2390:
2354:
2329:
2306:
2287:
2268:
2249:
2224:
2203:
2195:
2138:
2068:
2050:
1989:
1981:
1909:
1858:
1850:
1807:
1766:
1725:
1647:
1598:
1553:
1547:
1528:
1379:
1319:
1241:
1215:
1190:
1172:
1121:
1076:
748:
682:
778:. This means that not even the most frigid of temperatures can damage the respiratory tract.
2678:
2650:
2382:
2185:
2128:
2058:
2040:
1971:
1940:
1901:
1842:
1797:
1756:
1717:
1637:
1590:
1518:
1369:
1309:
1278:
1180:
1162:
1129:
1111:
1068:
1011:
976:
714:
678:
553:
306:
245:
212:
897:(1915–2007) was also an important contributor to this specific scientific field as well as
2829:
2812:
2786:
2743:
2738:
2713:
2683:
2012:
1298:"Effect of long-term drought and waterlogging stress on photosynthetic pigments in potato"
1016:
916:
893:
from 1947 to 1989, and almost 1,200 individuals can trace their academic lineages to him.
864:
794:
also pose serious physiological challenges on the body. Some of these effects are reduced
752:
694:
383:
351:
341:
208:
192:
2008:"We mustn't abandon the Windward Islands' farmers | Renwick Rose and Nick Mathiason"
350:
The ability of plants to access water depends on the structure of their roots and on the
332:
to insulate the growing points of crops in cool climates in order to boost plant growth.
2124:
1936:
1897:
1838:
1713:
1633:
1586:
1274:
1134:
2640:
2635:
2628:
2596:
2490:
2217:
2063:
2028:
1185:
1150:
1072:
968:
954:
889:(1919–2006) was a founder of animal physiological ecology. He served on the faculty at
844:
606:
585:
557:
524:
431:
is vital for plant growth, as it is the substrate for photosynthesis. Plants take in CO
200:
171:
158:
2109:"History of Ecological Sciences, Part 64: History of Physiological Ecology of Animals"
1905:
1573:
Long, S. P.; Ort, D. R. (2010). "More than taking the heat: Crops and global change".
1424:
1296:
Orsák, Matyáš; Kotíková, Zora; Hnilička, František; Lachman, Jaromír (25 April 2023).
2849:
2693:
2655:
2623:
2615:
2601:
2591:
2510:
2322:
2092:
1976:
1959:
1944:
1802:
1785:
1523:
1506:
1342:
1282:
791:
512:
366:
359:
329:
297:
269:
236:. These protect them from the damaging effects of ice formation and falling rates of
100:
34:
17:
2435:
2410:
1870:
1659:
2834:
2728:
2703:
2645:
2523:
2518:
1721:
1026:
904:
633:
577:
It is sensed as a signal driving a wind-acclimation syndrome by the plant known as
516:
318:
273:
272:
are also affected by changes in temperature and can cause the membrane to lose its
227:
1374:
1357:
1235:
1209:
2761:
2482:
1743:
Moore, J. R.; Tombleson, J. D.; Turner, J. A.; van der Colff, M. (1 July 2008).
1401:
871:
760:
741:
737:
720:
698:
265:
1116:
962:
657:
stage will be needed before the ecosystem can be restored to its former state.
382:
If drought continues, the plant tissues will dehydrate, resulting in a loss of
2547:
2542:
2045:
1761:
1744:
1594:
944:
875:
860:
848:
840:
756:
674:
581:, leading to modified growth and development and eventually to wind hardening.
571:
399:
391:
292:
Infrared image showing the importance of transpiration in keeping leaves cool.
278:
88:
2394:
2199:
2142:
2054:
1985:
1854:
1770:
1323:
1176:
1125:
588:
can damage the plant (leaf abrasion, wind ruptures in branches and stems and
2665:
2219:
Vertebrate ecophysiology: an introduction to its principles and applications
1642:
1617:
1358:"Hormonal changes induced by partial rootzone drying of irrigated grapevine"
1314:
611:
589:
179:
2207:
2190:
2161:
2072:
1993:
1913:
1862:
1811:
1729:
1651:
1602:
1532:
1383:
1297:
1194:
770:
There is one part of the body fully equipped to deal with cold stress. The
27:
Study of adaptation of an organism's physiology to environmental conditions
1476:"Effects of Rising Atmospheric Concentrations of Carbon Dioxide on Plants"
2824:
1167:
870:
Environmental factors can play a huge role in the human body's fight for
764:
436:
412:
404:
253:
175:
84:
2402:
2265:
Physiological ecology: how animals process energy, nutrients, and toxins
1337:
George Koch; Stephen
Sillett; Gregg Jennings; Stephen Davis (May 2006).
763:. Cold stress is physiologically combated by shivering, accumulation of
1846:
1001:
775:
448:
387:
323:
317:
Plants can avoid the full impact of low temperatures by altering their
233:
77:
2443:
2133:
1786:"Leaves in the lowest and highest winds: temperature, force and shape"
2386:
2371:
Tracy, C. R.; J. S. Turner (1982). "What is physiological ecology?".
2328:. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates. xxvii + 576 pp.
730:
686:
459:
in the leaf. Some plants overcome this difficulty by concentrating CO
237:
130:
2223:. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. p. xi + 287 pp.
1149:
Yang, Jingli; Song, Jinnan; Jeong, Byoung Ryong (23 February 2022).
1450:"Crassulacean Acid Metabolism - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
1102:
Zhang, Man; Ming, Yu; Wang, Hong-Bin; Jin, Hong-Lei (13 May 2024).
232:
In response to extremes of temperature, plants can produce various
2611:
2578:
2267:. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. xv + 741 pp.
2085:
790:
Extreme temperatures are not the only obstacles that humans face.
690:
489:
287:
163:
134:
64:
170:
and the process through which light is converted into biomass is
2324:
The physiological ecology of vertebrates: a view from energetics
1960:"Plant growth forms: an ecological and evolutionary perspective"
890:
167:
142:
2447:
443:
enters the stomata, moisture escapes. This trade-off between CO
1061:"Radiation-Use Efficiency Under Different Climatic Conditions"
1674:"How Climate Change Will Affect Plants – State of the Planet"
847:
synthesis, enhanced circulation, and increased levels of the
57:
47:
37:
455:, is efficient only when there is a high concentration of CO
2346:
Physiological ecology of animals: an evolutionary approach
248:
at high temperatures. As temperatures fall, production of
1616:
Lobell, D. B.; Schlenker, W.; Costa-Roberts, J. (2011).
527:. Extensive experiments growing plants under elevated CO
566:
It affects the exchanges of mass (water evaporation, CO
281:
are placed in the membrane and in hot conditions, more
91:
to environmental conditions. It is closely related to
1618:"Climate Trends and Global Crop Production Since 1980"
1339:"How Water Climbs to the Top of a 112 Meter-Tall Tree"
1065:
Changing
Climate and Resource Use Efficiency in Plants
747:
Heat stress is physiologically combated in four ways:
2349:. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications. p.
802:
921:
A Graphical
Analysis of the Respiratory Gas Exchange
2795:
2752:
2664:
2610:
2573:
2532:
2509:
2481:
1398:"The Impact of Flooding Stress on Plants and Crops"
1104:"Strategies for adaptation to high light in plants"
2321:
2216:
826:
2244:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.
2162:"The academic genealogy of George A. Bartholomew"
2113:The Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America
1884:Ennos, A (1997). "Wind as an ecological factor".
874:. However, humans have found ways to adapt, both
562:Wind has three very different effects on plants.
310:). Knowledge of these mechanisms has been key to
1927:Grace, J. (1988). "3. Plant response to wind".
256:increases. As temperatures rise, production of
240:catalysis at low temperatures, and from enzyme
911:(1933), Rahn began teaching physiology at the
2459:
2374:Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America
915:in 1941. It is there that he partnered with
439:pores on their leaves. At the same time as CO
8:
2263:Karasov, W. H.; C. Martinez del Rio (2007).
1211:Nature's Palette: The Science of Plant Color
923:in 1955. This paper included the landmark O
701:must remain at consistent, balanced levels.
398:specialised roots near the soil surface and
1552:. Cambridge University Press. p. 214.
1155:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
2466:
2452:
2444:
1958:Rowe, Nick; Speck, Thomas (1 April 2005).
2189:
2179:
2132:
2062:
2044:
1975:
1929:Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment
1801:
1760:
1641:
1522:
1373:
1313:
1184:
1166:
1133:
1115:
816:
810:
809:
807:
801:
685:. This is necessary because in order for
487:whenever photosynthesis is taking place.
483:and must open their stomata to take in CO
1356:Stoll, M.; Loveys, B.; Dry, P. (2000).
1038:
2102:
2100:
1505:Ainsworth, E. A.; Long, S. P. (2004).
827:{\displaystyle P_{{\mathrm {O} }_{2}}}
1695:
1693:
1691:
1429:A Guide to the Mangroves of Singapore
1423:Ng, Peter K.L.; Sivasothi, N (2001).
499:Plant Productivity in a Warming World
187:exchange of the leaf is zero, called
7:
107:is sometimes employed as a synonym.
2167:Integrative and Comparative Biology
673:can have major influences on human
2241:Evolutionary physiological ecology
2107:Egerton, Frank N. (October 2019).
1425:"How plants cope in the mangroves"
1073:10.1016/B978-0-12-816209-5.00002-7
811:
312:breeding for heat stress tolerance
25:
1886:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
855:, which promotes off-loading of O
533:Free-Air Concentration Enrichment
2215:Bradshaw, Sidney Donald (2003).
2160:Bennett, A. F.; C. Lowe (2005).
1977:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01309.x
1803:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.02854.x
1575:Current Opinion in Plant Biology
1524:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2004.01224.x
1283:10.1111/j.1365-2494.2010.00778.x
1007:Phylogenetic comparative methods
975:
961:
947:
837:acid-base content in body fluids
141:and have an impressive array of
83:that studies the response of an
2343:Sibly, R. M.; P. Calow (1986).
1214:. University of Chicago Press.
451:, the enzyme used to capture CO
356:Soil plant atmosphere continuum
1722:10.1016/j.plantsci.2016.01.006
1362:Journal of Experimental Botany
693:to flow, and for various body
228:Plant adaptations to wildfires
1:
2286:. New York: Springer-Verlag.
1906:10.1016/s0169-5347(96)10066-5
1067:, Elsevier, pp. 51–109,
1059:Bhattacharya, Amitav (2019),
636:to offer artificial support.
475:. However, most species used
117:Plant perception (physiology)
1945:10.1016/0167-8809(88)90008-4
473:Crassulacean acid metabolism
264:, which can be countered by
2303:Physiological plant ecology
2284:Plant physiological ecology
1546:Martin Lewis Parry (2007).
1302:Plant, Soil and Environment
725:The rate of heat production
681:in the body due to outside
601:Exchange of mass and energy
2902:
2305:(4th ed.). Springer.
1480:Nature Education Knowledge
1375:10.1093/jexbot/51.350.1627
1117:10.1007/s42994-024-00164-6
592:and toppling in trees and
551:
463:within their leaves using
375:
339:
225:
152:
114:
58:
48:
38:
2436:Resources in your library
2046:10.3389/fphys.2021.670977
1595:10.1016/j.pbi.2010.04.008
835:, the rebalancing of the
1486:(10). www.nature.com. 21
1474:Taub, Daniel R. (2010).
1263:Grass and Forage Science
314:in agricultural plants.
189:light compensation point
121:Plant stress measurement
70:environmental physiology
56:, "nature, origin"; and
2767:Ecological anthropology
2033:Frontiers in Physiology
1762:10.1093/forestry/cpn023
1643:10.1126/science.1204531
997:Evolutionary physiology
913:University of Rochester
909:University of Rochester
523:and reduce the rate of
415:(rather than wilting).
371:partial rootzone drying
279:unsaturated fatty acids
262:reactive oxygen species
97:evolutionary physiology
2777:Ecological engineering
992:Comparative physiology
899:comparative physiology
853:2,3 diphosphoglycerate
828:
542:runaway climate change
515:and the combustion of
500:
378:Nominative determinism
302:Macroptilium purpureum
293:
139:phenotypically plastic
93:comparative physiology
2320:McNab, B. K. (2002).
1454:www.sciencedirect.com
1345:on 14 September 2013.
1315:10.17221/415/2022-pse
1022:Theodore Garland, Jr.
934:University at Buffalo
887:George A. Bartholomew
829:
713:Heat transfer to the
503:The concentration of
498:
376:Further information:
291:
283:saturated fatty acids
115:Further information:
74:physiological ecology
18:Physiological ecology
2856:Subfields of ecology
2772:Ecological economics
2699:Evolutionary ecology
2666:Ecological phenomena
2496:Quantitative ecology
2301:Larcher, W. (2001).
2282:Lambers, H. (1998).
2191:10.1093/icb/45.2.231
1168:10.3390/ijms23052448
895:Knut Schmidt-Nielsen
800:
540:rather than risking
2876:Ecology terminology
2818:Restoration ecology
2808:Glossary of ecology
2754:Interdisciplinarity
2501:Theoretical ecology
2475:Branches of ecology
2125:2019BuESA.100E1616E
2016:. 23 December 2010.
1937:1988AgEE...22...71G
1898:1997TEcoE..12..108E
1839:1973Plant.114..143J
1714:2016PlnSc.245...94G
1634:2011Sci...333..616L
1587:2010COPB...13..240L
1275:2011GForS..66..214F
1047:The Wonders of Life
625:thigmomorphogenesis
579:thigmomorphogenesis
386:that is visible as
258:heat shock proteins
250:antifreeze proteins
2803:History of ecology
2709:Functional ecology
2674:Behavioral ecology
2553:Population ecology
2238:Calow, P. (1987).
1847:10.1007/bf00387472
1784:Vogel, S. (2009).
1368:(350): 1627–1634.
1240:. Springer. 2005.
1208:David Lee (2010).
983:Environment portal
824:
772:respiratory system
648:When this type of
501:
294:
155:Photomorphogenesis
2866:Animal physiology
2843:
2842:
2782:Political ecology
2724:Molecular ecology
2719:Landscape ecology
2587:Microbial ecology
2563:Ecosystem ecology
2558:Community ecology
2422:Library resources
2360:978-0-632-01494-1
2335:978-0-8014-3913-1
2312:978-3-540-43516-7
2293:978-0-387-98326-4
2274:978-0-691-07453-5
2255:978-0-521-32058-0
2230:978-0-521-81797-4
2134:10.1002/bes2.1616
1676:. 27 January 2022
1628:(6042): 616–620.
1559:978-0-521-88010-7
1247:978-3-540-20833-4
1221:978-0-226-47105-1
1082:978-0-12-816209-5
511:is rising due to
509:in the atmosphere
496:
362:from the leaves.
46:, "house(hold)";
16:(Redirected from
2893:
2871:Plant physiology
2679:Chemical ecology
2651:Tropical ecology
2468:
2461:
2454:
2445:
2414:
2387:10.2307/20166334
2364:
2339:
2327:
2316:
2297:
2278:
2259:
2234:
2222:
2211:
2193:
2183:
2147:
2146:
2136:
2104:
2095:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2066:
2048:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1979:
1955:
1949:
1948:
1931:. 22–23: 71–88.
1924:
1918:
1917:
1881:
1875:
1874:
1822:
1816:
1815:
1805:
1781:
1775:
1774:
1764:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1697:
1686:
1685:
1683:
1681:
1670:
1664:
1663:
1645:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1570:
1564:
1563:
1543:
1537:
1536:
1526:
1502:
1496:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1471:
1465:
1464:
1462:
1460:
1446:
1440:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1420:
1414:
1413:
1411:
1409:
1400:. Archived from
1394:
1388:
1387:
1377:
1353:
1347:
1346:
1334:
1328:
1327:
1317:
1293:
1287:
1286:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1232:
1226:
1225:
1205:
1199:
1198:
1188:
1170:
1146:
1140:
1139:
1137:
1119:
1099:
1093:
1092:
1091:
1089:
1056:
1050:
1043:
1012:Plant physiology
985:
980:
979:
971:
966:
965:
957:
952:
951:
950:
833:
831:
830:
825:
823:
822:
821:
820:
815:
814:
705:Thermoregulation
679:thermoregulation
554:wind pollination
497:
307:paraheliotropism
274:fluid properties
246:photorespiration
213:photodestruction
61:
60:
51:
50:
41:
40:
21:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2892:
2891:
2890:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2839:
2830:Natural history
2813:Applied ecology
2791:
2787:Systems ecology
2748:
2744:Thermal ecology
2739:Spatial ecology
2714:Genetic ecology
2684:Disease ecology
2660:
2616:biogeographical
2606:
2569:
2528:
2505:
2477:
2472:
2442:
2441:
2440:
2430:
2429:
2425:
2418:
2370:
2361:
2342:
2336:
2319:
2313:
2300:
2294:
2281:
2275:
2262:
2256:
2237:
2231:
2214:
2181:10.1.1.589.3158
2159:
2155:
2153:Further reading
2150:
2106:
2105:
2098:
2091:7 July 2012 at
2084:
2080:
2026:
2025:
2021:
2013:TheGuardian.com
2006:
2005:
2001:
1964:New Phytologist
1957:
1956:
1952:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1883:
1882:
1878:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1790:New Phytologist
1783:
1782:
1778:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1699:
1698:
1689:
1679:
1677:
1672:
1671:
1667:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1572:
1571:
1567:
1560:
1545:
1544:
1540:
1511:New Phytologist
1504:
1503:
1499:
1489:
1487:
1473:
1472:
1468:
1458:
1456:
1448:
1447:
1443:
1433:
1431:
1422:
1421:
1417:
1407:
1405:
1396:
1395:
1391:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1295:
1294:
1290:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1234:
1233:
1229:
1222:
1207:
1206:
1202:
1148:
1147:
1143:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1058:
1057:
1053:
1045:Ernst Haeckel,
1044:
1040:
1036:
1031:
1017:Raymond B. Huey
981:
974:
967:
960:
953:
948:
946:
943:
930:
926:
917:Wallace O. Fenn
884:
876:physiologically
865:hypoxic tissues
858:
808:
803:
798:
797:
788:
707:
671:The environment
668:
663:
642:
620:
603:
569:
560:
550:
539:
530:
522:
508:
490:
486:
481:carbon fixation
480:
469:carbon fixation
468:
462:
458:
454:
446:
442:
434:
430:
425:
422:
384:turgor pressure
380:
352:water potential
344:
342:Moisture stress
338:
321:. For example,
230:
224:
209:photoinhibition
193:photoinhibition
186:
161:
151:
129:In many cases,
123:
113:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2899:
2897:
2889:
2888:
2883:
2881:Animal ecology
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2848:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2821:
2820:
2810:
2805:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2769:
2764:
2758:
2756:
2750:
2749:
2747:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2734:Social ecology
2731:
2726:
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2701:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2676:
2670:
2668:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2643:
2641:Forest ecology
2638:
2636:Desert ecology
2633:
2632:
2631:
2629:Arctic ecology
2620:
2618:
2608:
2607:
2605:
2604:
2599:
2597:Insect ecology
2594:
2589:
2583:
2581:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2567:
2566:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2545:
2539:
2537:
2530:
2529:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2515:
2513:
2507:
2506:
2504:
2503:
2498:
2493:
2487:
2485:
2479:
2478:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2463:
2456:
2448:
2439:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2416:
2381:(4): 340–347.
2368:
2365:
2359:
2340:
2334:
2317:
2311:
2298:
2292:
2279:
2273:
2260:
2254:
2235:
2229:
2212:
2174:(2): 231–233.
2156:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2096:
2078:
2019:
1999:
1950:
1919:
1892:(3): 108–111.
1876:
1833:(2): 143–157.
1817:
1776:
1755:(3): 377–387.
1735:
1687:
1665:
1608:
1565:
1558:
1538:
1517:(2): 351–371.
1497:
1466:
1441:
1415:
1389:
1348:
1329:
1308:(4): 152–160.
1288:
1253:
1246:
1227:
1220:
1200:
1141:
1094:
1081:
1051:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1024:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1004:
999:
994:
988:
987:
986:
972:
969:Biology portal
958:
955:Ecology portal
942:
939:
928:
924:
883:
880:
878:and tangibly.
856:
819:
813:
806:
792:High altitudes
787:
784:
727:
726:
723:
717:
706:
703:
667:
664:
662:
659:
641:
638:
619:
616:
607:boundary layer
602:
599:
598:
597:
582:
575:
567:
558:seed dispersal
549:
546:
537:
528:
525:global warming
520:
506:
484:
478:
466:
460:
456:
452:
444:
440:
432:
428:
424:
420:
417:
337:
334:
285:are inserted.
270:Cell membranes
244:and increased
223:
220:
201:Shade tolerant
184:
172:photosynthesis
159:Photoperiodism
150:
147:
112:
109:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2898:
2887:
2886:Plant ecology
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2853:
2851:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2816:
2815:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2804:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2788:
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2751:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2705:
2702:
2700:
2697:
2695:
2694:Ecotoxicology
2692:
2690:
2689:Ecophysiology
2687:
2685:
2682:
2680:
2677:
2675:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2663:
2657:
2656:Urban ecology
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2630:
2627:
2626:
2625:
2624:Polar ecology
2622:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2603:
2602:Human ecology
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2592:Plant ecology
2590:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2531:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2511:Spatial scale
2508:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2491:Field ecology
2489:
2488:
2486:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2464:
2462:
2457:
2455:
2450:
2449:
2446:
2437:
2434:
2433:
2428:
2427:Ecophysiology
2423:
2412:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2375:
2369:
2366:
2362:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2347:
2341:
2337:
2331:
2326:
2325:
2318:
2314:
2308:
2304:
2299:
2295:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2276:
2270:
2266:
2261:
2257:
2251:
2247:
2243:
2242:
2236:
2232:
2226:
2221:
2220:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2168:
2163:
2158:
2157:
2152:
2144:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2101:
2097:
2094:
2093:archive.today
2090:
2087:
2082:
2079:
2074:
2070:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2023:
2020:
2015:
2014:
2009:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1951:
1946:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1923:
1920:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1877:
1872:
1868:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1821:
1818:
1813:
1809:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1780:
1777:
1772:
1768:
1763:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1702:Plant Science
1696:
1694:
1692:
1688:
1675:
1669:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1612:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1569:
1566:
1561:
1555:
1551:
1550:
1542:
1539:
1534:
1530:
1525:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1501:
1498:
1485:
1481:
1477:
1470:
1467:
1455:
1451:
1445:
1442:
1430:
1426:
1419:
1416:
1404:on 3 May 2013
1403:
1399:
1393:
1390:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1349:
1344:
1340:
1333:
1330:
1325:
1321:
1316:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1292:
1289:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1264:
1257:
1254:
1249:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1237:Plant Ecology
1231:
1228:
1223:
1217:
1213:
1212:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1142:
1136:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1098:
1095:
1084:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1042:
1039:
1033:
1028:
1025:
1023:
1020:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
989:
984:
978:
973:
970:
964:
959:
956:
945:
940:
938:
935:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
900:
896:
892:
888:
881:
879:
877:
873:
868:
866:
862:
854:
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
817:
804:
793:
785:
783:
779:
777:
773:
768:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
745:
743:
739:
734:
732:
724:
722:
718:
716:
712:
711:
710:
704:
702:
700:
696:
692:
689:to function,
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
665:
660:
658:
656:
651:
646:
639:
637:
635:
634:amenity trees
629:
626:
617:
615:
613:
608:
600:
595:
591:
587:
583:
580:
576:
573:
565:
564:
563:
559:
555:
547:
545:
543:
534:
526:
518:
514:
513:deforestation
510:
488:
482:
474:
470:
450:
438:
423:concentration
418:
416:
414:
408:
406:
401:
395:
393:
389:
385:
379:
374:
372:
368:
367:abscisic acid
363:
361:
360:transpiration
357:
353:
348:
343:
335:
333:
331:
330:plastic mulch
326:
325:
320:
315:
313:
309:
308:
303:
299:
298:transpiration
290:
286:
284:
280:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
235:
229:
221:
219:
216:
214:
210:
204:
202:
196:
194:
190:
181:
177:
173:
169:
165:
160:
156:
148:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
127:
122:
118:
110:
108:
106:
102:
101:Ernst Haeckel
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
79:
75:
71:
67:
66:
55:
45:
36:
32:
31:Ecophysiology
19:
2835:Biogeography
2729:Paleoecology
2704:Fire ecology
2688:
2646:Soil ecology
2534:Organisation
2524:Macroecology
2519:Microecology
2426:
2378:
2372:
2345:
2323:
2302:
2283:
2264:
2240:
2218:
2171:
2165:
2116:
2112:
2086:BartGen Tree
2081:
2036:
2032:
2022:
2011:
2002:
1970:(1): 61–72.
1967:
1963:
1953:
1928:
1922:
1889:
1885:
1879:
1830:
1826:
1820:
1796:(1): 13–26.
1793:
1789:
1779:
1752:
1748:
1738:
1705:
1701:
1678:. Retrieved
1668:
1625:
1621:
1611:
1581:(3): 241–8.
1578:
1574:
1568:
1548:
1541:
1514:
1510:
1500:
1488:. Retrieved
1483:
1479:
1469:
1457:. Retrieved
1453:
1444:
1432:. Retrieved
1428:
1418:
1406:. Retrieved
1402:the original
1392:
1365:
1361:
1351:
1343:the original
1332:
1305:
1301:
1291:
1266:
1262:
1256:
1236:
1230:
1210:
1203:
1158:
1154:
1144:
1107:
1097:
1086:, retrieved
1064:
1054:
1046:
1041:
1027:Tyrone Hayes
920:
905:Hermann Rahn
903:
885:
869:
843:, increased
839:, increased
789:
780:
769:
746:
735:
728:
719:The rate of
708:
697:to operate,
669:
655:successional
647:
643:
630:
621:
604:
561:
517:fossil fuels
502:
426:
409:
396:
381:
364:
349:
345:
322:
319:microclimate
316:
305:
301:
295:
242:denaturation
231:
217:
205:
197:
162:
128:
124:
104:
73:
69:
63:
53:
43:
30:
29:
2762:Agroecology
2483:Methodology
1680:2 September
1459:1 September
1161:(5): 2448.
1088:1 September
919:to publish
872:homeostasis
761:evaporation
742:cold stress
738:heat stress
721:evaporation
699:temperature
650:disturbance
640:Wind damage
618:Acclimation
266:antioxidant
222:Temperature
103:'s coinage
2861:Physiology
2850:Categories
2548:Synecology
2543:Autecology
2039:: 670977.
1708:: 94–118.
1490:8 February
1269:(2): 214.
1034:References
882:Scientists
861:hemoglobin
851:byproduct
849:glycolysis
841:hemoglobin
757:convection
753:conduction
675:physiology
596:in crops).
590:windthrows
586:drag force
572:convection
552:See also:
400:aerenchyma
392:Xerophytes
340:See also:
226:See also:
153:See also:
89:physiology
81:discipline
78:biological
2395:0012-9623
2200:1540-7063
2176:CiteSeerX
2143:0012-9623
2055:1664-042X
1986:1469-8137
1855:0032-0935
1771:0015-752X
1324:1214-1178
1177:1422-0067
1126:2662-1738
796:arterial
749:radiation
715:epidermis
612:trichomes
407:forests.
268:systems.
254:dehydrins
180:asymptote
2825:Ecosophy
2575:Taxonomy
2536:or scope
2411:86354445
2403:20166334
2208:21676766
2089:Archived
2073:34211402
1994:15760351
1914:21237994
1871:25308919
1863:24458719
1812:19413689
1749:Forestry
1730:26940495
1660:19177121
1652:21551030
1603:20494611
1533:15720649
1434:19 April
1408:29 April
1384:11006312
1195:35269590
1135:11399379
1108:Abiotech
941:See also
786:Altitude
765:body fat
683:stresses
628:factor.
437:stomatal
435:through
413:epinasty
405:mangrove
403:seen in
234:proteins
176:PI curve
85:organism
2121:Bibcode
2064:8239298
1933:Bibcode
1894:Bibcode
1835:Bibcode
1710:Bibcode
1630:Bibcode
1622:Science
1583:Bibcode
1271:Bibcode
1186:8910434
1002:Ecology
863:in the
776:bronchi
687:enzymes
661:Animals
594:lodging
449:Rubisco
388:wilting
324:Raoulia
131:animals
105:bionomy
2424:about
2409:
2401:
2393:
2357:
2351:179 pp
2332:
2309:
2290:
2271:
2252:
2246:239 pp
2227:
2206:
2198:
2178:
2141:
2071:
2061:
2053:
1992:
1984:
1912:
1869:
1861:
1853:
1827:Planta
1810:
1769:
1728:
1658:
1650:
1601:
1556:
1531:
1382:
1322:
1244:
1218:
1193:
1183:
1175:
1132:
1124:
1079:
759:, and
731:dermis
695:organs
666:Humans
531:using
238:enzyme
168:leaves
135:plants
111:Plants
65:-logia
59:-λογία
54:physis
33:(from
2796:Other
2612:Biome
2579:taxon
2407:S2CID
2399:JSTOR
2119:(4).
1867:S2CID
1656:S2CID
691:blood
336:Water
164:Light
149:Light
143:genes
76:is a
49:φύσις
44:oikos
39:οἶκος
35:Greek
2391:ISSN
2355:ISBN
2330:ISBN
2307:ISBN
2288:ISBN
2269:ISBN
2250:ISBN
2225:ISBN
2204:PMID
2196:ISSN
2139:ISSN
2069:PMID
2051:ISSN
1990:PMID
1982:ISSN
1910:PMID
1859:PMID
1851:ISSN
1808:PMID
1767:ISSN
1726:PMID
1682:2024
1648:PMID
1599:PMID
1554:ISBN
1529:PMID
1492:2023
1461:2024
1436:2019
1410:2013
1380:PMID
1320:ISSN
1242:ISBN
1216:ISBN
1191:PMID
1173:ISSN
1122:ISSN
1090:2024
1077:ISBN
891:UCLA
740:and
584:Its
556:and
548:Wind
252:and
211:and
157:and
119:and
95:and
2614:or
2577:or
2383:doi
2186:doi
2129:doi
2117:100
2059:PMC
2041:doi
1972:doi
1968:166
1941:doi
1902:doi
1843:doi
1831:114
1798:doi
1794:183
1757:doi
1718:doi
1706:245
1638:doi
1626:333
1591:doi
1519:doi
1515:165
1370:doi
1310:doi
1279:doi
1181:PMC
1163:doi
1130:PMC
1112:doi
1069:doi
927:-CO
859:by
845:RBC
471:or
87:'s
72:or
68:),
2852::
2405:.
2397:.
2389:.
2379:63
2377:.
2353:.
2248:.
2202:.
2194:.
2184:.
2172:45
2170:.
2164:.
2137:.
2127:.
2115:.
2111:.
2099:^
2067:.
2057:.
2049:.
2037:12
2035:.
2031:.
2010:.
1988:.
1980:.
1966:.
1962:.
1939:.
1908:.
1900:.
1890:12
1888:.
1865:.
1857:.
1849:.
1841:.
1829:.
1806:.
1792:.
1788:.
1765:.
1753:81
1751:.
1747:.
1724:.
1716:.
1704:.
1690:^
1654:.
1646:.
1636:.
1624:.
1620:.
1597:.
1589:.
1579:13
1577:.
1527:.
1513:.
1509:.
1482:.
1478:.
1452:.
1427:.
1378:.
1366:51
1364:.
1360:.
1318:.
1306:69
1304:.
1300:.
1277:.
1267:66
1265:.
1189:.
1179:.
1171:.
1159:23
1157:.
1153:.
1128:.
1120:.
1110:.
1106:.
1075:,
1063:,
901:.
867:.
755:,
751:,
744:.
574:).
544:.
505:CO
427:CO
419:CO
195:.
183:CO
99:.
62:,
52:,
42:,
2467:e
2460:t
2453:v
2413:.
2385::
2363:.
2338:.
2315:.
2296:.
2277:.
2258:.
2233:.
2210:.
2188::
2145:.
2131::
2123::
2075:.
2043::
1996:.
1974::
1947:.
1943::
1935::
1916:.
1904::
1896::
1873:.
1845::
1837::
1814:.
1800::
1773:.
1759::
1732:.
1720::
1712::
1684:.
1662:.
1640::
1632::
1605:.
1593::
1585::
1562:.
1535:.
1521::
1494:.
1484:3
1463:.
1438:.
1412:.
1386:.
1372::
1326:.
1312::
1285:.
1281::
1273::
1250:.
1224:.
1197:.
1165::
1138:.
1114::
1071::
929:2
925:2
857:2
818:2
812:O
805:P
568:2
538:2
529:2
521:2
507:2
485:2
479:3
477:C
467:4
465:C
461:2
457:2
453:2
445:2
441:2
433:2
429:2
421:2
185:2
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.