146:& Gadlin, 1968). In reverse picture superiority it was observed that learning was much slower when the responses were pictures (Postman, 1978). Words produced a faster response than pictures and pictures did not have an advantages of having easier access to semantic memory or superior effect over words for dual-coding theory (Amrhein, McDaniel & Waddill 2002). Similarly, studies where response time deadlines have been implemented, the reverse superiority effect was reported. This is related to the dual-process model of familiarity and recollection. When deadlines for the response were short, the process of familiarity was present, along with an increased tendency to recall words over pictures. When response deadlines were longer, the process of recollection was being utilized, and a strong picture superiority effect was present. In addition, equivalent response time was reported for pictures and words for intelligence comparison (Paivio & Marschark, 1980). Contrary to the assumption that pictures have faster access to the same semantic code than words do; all semantic information is stored in a single system. The only difference is that pictures and words access different features of the semantic code (te Linde, 1982).
184:: Percy and Rossiter (1997, p. 295) stated, "The picture is the most important structural element in magazine advertising, for both consumer and business audiences." Visually framed messages were more effective under the condition where the audience was less motivated and had less ability to process information semantically. Visual ads require less exposure than verbal ads for long-term memory effect (Childers & Houston, 1984). The pictorial component in the ad is more likely to be viewed before words, and it generates an expectation for the verbal component of the ad (Houston, Childers & Heckler, 1987). Maximizing the size of pictures regardless of advertising contents will improve attention to the entire advertisement as pictures draw significant attention to baseline in the ads (Pieters & Wedel, 2004).
178:: A study by Ally, Gold and Budson (2009) confirm that picture superiority effect was observed among mild Alzheimer's disease (AD) and amnestic-type mild cognitive impairment (MC). Pictures have a significantly positive effect on four areas of communication: attention, comprehension, recall, and intention/adherence. Health education materials can benefit greatly by adding pictures as pictures can be especially beneficial for people who lack literacy skill (Houts, C.Doak, L.Doak &Loscalzo, 2006). Picture superiority effect can be implemented in creating materials for health communication that inclusion of fearful or disgusting images led to improved recognition memory in comparison with the condition without a presence of image (Leshner, Vultee, Bolls & Moore, 2010).
160:
information (Cherry et al., 2008). While memory for words is impaired for older adults, pictures help restore their impaired memory and function properly (Ally et al., 2008). In addition, older adults have shown the same level of capability for identifying correct items in comparison with young adults when items were accompanied with pictures (Smith, Hunt & Dunlap, 2015). In populations with
Alzheimer's disease, and other mild cognitive impairments, the picture superiority effect remains evident. ERP activity indicates that patients with amnesic mild cognitive impairment utilized frontal-lobe based memory processes to support successful recognition for pictures, which was similar to healthy controls, but not for words.
172:: Learners can structure a mental model when processing a picture initially so that no further model construction may be required for subsequent processing of a text. Presenting picture before text is beneficial to students with low prior knowledge (Eitel & Scheiter, 2015). In a similar vein, reading a picture prior to processing textual information improves comprehension levels for students with low prior knowledge (Salmerón, Baccino, Cañas, Madrid, & Fajardo, 2009). Pictures can be more effective than word translation for language learning when individuals are not overconfident in the mnemonic power of pictures (Carpenter & Olson, 2011). If they are overconfident, pictures lose superiority over words.
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contribution in picture superiority in recognition memory among children was familiarity (Defeyter, Russo & McPartlin, 2009). During childhood, specifically among seven-year-olds, the picture superiority effect is lesser in magnitude than in other age groups. This could be due to the lack of inner speech among younger children supporting the
137:& Houston, 1984). Moreover, pictures in pairs or group were better organized in our memory than words thus resulting in superiority in recall (Pavio & Csapo, 1973). The picture superiority effect is also present in spatial memory, where locations of items and photographs were remembered better than locations of words.
145:
The advantage of pictures over words is only evident when visual similarity is a reliable cue; because it takes longer to understand pictures than words (Snodgrass & McCullough, 1986). Pictures are only superior to words for list learning because differentiation is easier for pictures (Dominowski
154:
Across the lifespan, a gradual development of the picture superiority effect is evident. Some studies have shown that it appears to become more pronounced with age, while others have found that this effect is also observed among younger children (Whitehouse, Mayber, Durkin, 2006). However, the major
119:
Greater overlap of processing at study and test result in increased performance. TAP accounts for picture superiority by an interaction of encoding and retrieval. If items are encoded during a semantic task, performance should be higher for a memory test that relies on concepts related to the items
52:
is a basis of picture superiority effect. Paivio claims that pictures have advantages over words with regards to coding and retrieval of stored memory because pictures are coded more easily and can be retrieved from symbolic mode, while the dual coding process using words is more difficult for both
136:
Pictures have distinctive features that enable to distinguish pictures from words and such discriminability increase memory ability in comparison with verbal cues (Jenkins, Neale & Deno, 19 67). Picture
Superiority effect was also evident for memory recall during semantic procession (Childers
128:
This effect has been shown to occur in recognition memory tasks, where items studied as pictures are better remembered than items studied as words, even when targets are presented as words during the test phase. Whether the picture superiority effect influences the familiarity and/or recollection
31:
refers to the phenomenon in which pictures and images are more likely to be remembered than are words. This effect has been demonstrated in numerous experiments using different methods. It is based on the notion that "human memory is extremely sensitive to the symbolic modality of presentation of
132:
In experiments of associative recognition memory, participants studied random concrete word pairs, and line drawing pairs. They had to discriminate between intact and rearranged pairs at test. The picture superiority effect continued to express a strong effect with a greater hit rate for intact
107:
Pictures hold two encoding advantages over words. Pictures are perceptually more distinct from one another than are words, thus increasing their chance for retrieval. In experiments when similarity among pictures was high, no picture superiority effect was present. Pictures are also believed to
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picture pairs. This further supports encoding theories More recent research in associative recognition shows support that semantic meaning of nameable pictures is activated faster than that of words, allowing for more meaningful associations between items depicted as pictures to be generated.
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of Paivio. In healthy older adults, the picture superiority effect was found to be greater than it was for younger adults, in comparison to recognition for words, which was disadvantaged for older adults. In that regard, seniors can benefit from using pictorial information to retain textual
53:
coding and retrieval. Another explanation of the higher recall in picture superiority is the higher familiarity or frequency of pictured objects (Asch & Ebenholtz, 1962). According to dual-coding theory (1971, 1986), memory exists either (or both) verbally or through imagery.
98:
Picture stimuli have an advantage over word stimuli because they are dually encoded; they generate a verbal and image code, whereas word stimuli only generate a verbal code. Pictures are likely to generate a verbal label, whereas words are not likely to generate image labels.
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assess meaning more directly than words. Levels of processing theory apply when words and pictures are compared under semantic study instructions (rate the pleasantness of each item), recall is very similar for pictures and words, as both were encoded at deeper levels.
36:
has a long history stretching back millions of years and was crucial to survival in the past, whereas reading is a relatively recent invention, and requires specific cognitive processes, such as decoding symbols and linking them to meaning.
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Houts, Peter S.; Doak, Cecilia C.; Doak, Leonard G.; Loscalzo, Matthew J. (2006). "The role of pictures in improving health communication: A review of research on attention, comprehension, recall, and adherence".
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Salmerón, Ladislao; Baccino, Thierry; Cañas, Jose J; Madrid, Rafael I; Fajardo, Inmaculada (2009). "Do graphical overviews facilitate or hinder comprehension in hyptertext?".
450:
Defetyer, M. A.; Russo, R.; McPartlin, P. L. (2009). "The picture superiority effect in recognition memory: a developmental study using the response signal procedure".
916:
Amrhein, Paul C; McDaniel, Mark; Waddill, Paula (2002). "Revisiting the picture superiority effect in symbolic comparison: Do pictures provide privileged access?".
1369:
Leshner, Glenn; Volte, Fred; Bolls, Paul D; Moore, Jensen (2010). "When a fear appeal isn't just a fear appeal: The effects of graphic anti-tobacco messages".
400:
McBride, D. M.; Dosher, B.A. (2002). "A comparison of conscious and automatic memory processes for picture and word stimuli: a process dissociation analysis".
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event information". Explanations for the picture superiority effect are not concrete and are still being debated, however an evolutionary explanation is that
768:
Cattaneo, Z.; Rosen, M.; Vecchi, T.; Pelz, J. B. (2008). "Monitoring eye movements to investigate the picture superiority effect in spatial memory".
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Carpenter, Shana K; Olson, Kellie M (2012). "Are pictures good for learning new vocabulary in a foreign language? Only if you think they are not".
1419:
Houston, Michael J; Childers, Terry L; Heckler, Susan E (1987). "Picture-word consistency and the elaborative processing of advertisements".
1065:"Aging memory for pictures: using high-density event-related potentials to understand the effect of aging on the picture superiority effect"
1217:
Eitel, Alexander; Scheiter, Katharina (2015). "Picture or Text First? Explaining
Sequence Effects when Learning with Pictures and Text".
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Picture superiority results from superior encoding for pictures over words, which facilitates greater recollection of pictures.
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Curran, T.; Doyle, J. (2011). "Picture superiority doubly dissociates the ERP correlates of recollection and familiarity".
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Childers, Terry L; Houston, Michael J (1984). "Conditions for a picture-superiority effect on consumer memory".
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Jenkins, Joseph R; Neale, Daniel C; Reno, Stanley L (1967). "Differential memory for picture and word stimuli".
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Hockley, W.E.; Bancroft, T. (2011). "Extensions of the picture superiority effect in associative recognition".
238:
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te Linde, John (1982). "Picture-word difference in decision latency: A test of common-coding assumptions".
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Whitehouse, A. J.; Maybery, M.T.; Durkin, K. (2006). "The development of the picture-superiority effect".
322:
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Clinical setting to evaluate pictures for health communication (Houts, C.Doak, L.Doak &Loscalzo, 2006)
74:
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Snodgrass, Joan G; McCullough, Brian (1987). "The role of visual similarity in picture categorisation".
82:
54:
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Postman, L. (1978). "Picture-word differences in the acquisition and retention of paired associates".
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processes, according to the dual-process models, thought to underlie recognition memory is not clear.
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Paivio, Allan; Csapo, Kalman (1973). "Picture superiority in free recall: Imagery or dual coding?".
718:
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516:"The picture superiority effect in patients with Alzheimer's disease and mild cognitive impairment"
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1458:(2004). "Attention Capture and Transfer in Advertising: Brand, Pictorial, and Text-Size Effects".
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Ally, B. A.; Waring, J. D.; Beth, E. H.; McKeever, J. D.; Milberg, W. P.; Budson, A. E. (2008).
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1170:"Preserved frontalmemorial processing for pictures in patients with mild cognitive impairment"
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953:"Reversing picture superiority effect: a speed-accuracy trade-off study of recognition memory"
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Empirical studies on simplicity of picture for encoding and decoding the pictorial information
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Asch, Solomon E.; Ebenholtz, Sheldon M. (1962). "The
Principle of Associative Symmetry".
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Dominowski, Roger L.; Gadlin, Howard (1968). "Imagery and paired-associate learning".
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Nelson, D.L.; Reed, U.S.; Walling, J.R. (1976). "Pictorial superiority effect".
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Shepard, R.N. (1967). "Recognition memory for words, sentences, and pictures".
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Imagery, Memory and
Cognition (PLE: Memory): Essays in Honor of Allan Paivio
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concepts presented as pictures are encoded into both systems; however,
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Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
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Ally, B. A.; McKeever, J. D.; Waring, J. D.; Budson, A. E. (2009).
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Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
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Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
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Journal of
Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition
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994:"Comparative judgements of animal intelligence and pleasantness"
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for retrieval than a test that relies on perceptual features.
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Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory
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Proposed Model of Picture Superiority Effect by Sung Eun Park
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Weldon and Roediger-transfer appropriate processing theories
592:"The picture superiority effect in associative recognition"
951:
Boldini, A.; Russo, R.; Punia, S.; Avons, S. E. (2007).
1118:"Pictorial superiority effects in oldest-old people"
1112:Cherry, Katie E; Hawley, Karri S; Jackson, Erin M;
1406:A theory-based approach to pretesting advertising
283:Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society
514:Ally, B. A.; Gold, C. A.; Budson, A. E. (2009).
1534:Mental representations: A dual-coding approach.
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1371:Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media
197:Dual coding process by Clark and Paivio (1991)
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61:concepts are recorded only verbally. In
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1529:New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
1404:Percy, Larry; Rossiter, John R (1997).
992:Paivio, Allan; Marschark, Marc (1980).
368:Journal of Learning and Verbal Behavior
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1186:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.03.015
1081:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2007.09.011
532:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.10.010
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229:A picture is worth a thousand words
23:Visual storytelling by Suhani Gowan
1536:New York: Oxford University Press.
65:, the effect has implications for
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668:Journal of Educational Psychology
315:Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience
1328:Patient Education and Counseling
103:Nelson – Sensory semantic theory
856:Canadian Journal of Psychology
563:Yuille, John C. (2014-05-09).
1:
1527:Imagery and verbal processes.
1421:Journal of Marketing Research
1266:10.1016/j.compedu.2009.06.013
1219:Educational Psychology Review
414:10.1016/s1053-8100(02)00007-7
380:10.1016/s0022-5371(67)80067-7
170:Education (language learning)
1383:10.1080/08838151.2010.498850
755:10.1016/0010-0285(73)90032-7
706:Journal of Consumer Research
464:10.1016/j.cogdev.2009.05.002
210:Direction for future studies
402:Consciousness and Cognition
94:Paivio – Dual coding theory
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930:10.1037/0278-7393.28.5.843
825:10.1037/0278-7393.12.1.147
29:picture superiority effect
1511:10.1037/0278-7393.2.5.523
1340:10.1016/j.pec.2005.05.004
1254:Computers & Education
1231:10.1007/s10648-014-9264-4
1134:10.1080/09658210802215534
1039:10.1037/0278-7393.8.6.584
895:10.1037/0278-7393.4.2.146
77:. It is also relevant to
1408:. WD Wells. p. 295.
239:List of cognitive biases
16:Psychological phenomenon
590:Hockley, W. E. (2008).
498:10.1348/026151005X74153
337:10.1162/jocn.2010.21464
1560:Educational psychology
998:Memory & Cognition
957:Memory & Cognition
596:Memory & Cognition
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75:availability heuristic
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452:Cognitive Development
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83:user interface design
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743:Cognitive Psychology
609:10.3758/MC.36.7.1351
569:. Psychology Press.
176:Health communication
1532:Paivio, A. (1986).
1525:Paivio, A. (1971).
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970:10.3758/BF03195948
249:Dual process model
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71:attribution theory
50:dual-coding theory
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1180:(10): 2044–2055.
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