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air. Furthermore, if timber is regularly removed from the forest and turned into lasting wood products, those products continue sequestering carbon, while the replacement tree farm trees absorb more carbon dioxide, thus effecting a continuous reduction in greenhouse gas. The fact that managed woodlands tend to be younger and younger trees grow faster and die less contributes to this distinction.
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percent of the total forest area. Globally, 44 percent of plantation forests are composed mainly of introduced species. There are large differences between regions: for example, plantation forests in North and
Central America mostly comprise native species and those in South America consist almost entirely of introduced species.
508:, is carried out in a number of ways; one of the more popular methods is the pick-your-own tree farm, where customers are allowed to roam the farm, select their tree, and cut it down themselves. Other farmers cultivate potted trees, with balled roots, which can be replanted after Christmas and used again the following year.
563:, about 7% of the natural closed forest being lost in the tropics is land being converted to plantations. The remaining 93% of the loss is land being converted to agriculture and other uses. Worldwide, an estimated 15% of plantations in tropical countries are established on closed canopy natural forest.
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the forest area provides 99% of the supply of industrial round wood. It has been estimated that the world's demand for fiber could be met by just 5% of the world forest (Sedjo & Botkin 1997). However, in practice, plantations are replacing natural forest, for example in
Indonesia. According to the
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Many forestry experts claim that the establishment of plantations will reduce or eliminate the need to exploit natural forest for wood production. In principle this is true because due to the high productivity of plantations less land is needed. Many point to the example of New
Zealand, where 19% of
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Around year 10-60 the plantation is now mature and (in economic terms) is falling off the back side of its growth curve. That is to say, it is passing the point of maximum wood growth per hectare per year, and so is ready for the final harvest. All remaining trees are felled, delimbed, and taken to
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began to establish high-yield, intensively managed, short rotation plantations. These types of plantations are sometimes called fast-wood plantations or fiber farms and often managed on a short-rotation basis, as little as 5 to 15 years. They are becoming more widespread in South
America, Asia and
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The replacement of natural forest with tree plantations has also caused social problems. In some countries, again, notably
Indonesia, conversions of natural forest are made with little regard for rights of the local people. Plantations established purely for the production of fiber provide a much
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A forest sequesters carbon in its trees. The forest removes carbon dioxide from the air as trees grow and returns it to the air as trees die and rot or burn. As long as the forest is experiencing net growth, the forest is reducing the amount of carbon dioxide, the leading greenhouse gas, from the
698:
In South
America, Oceania, and East and Southern Africa, planted forests are dominated by introduced species: 88%, 75% and 65%, respectively. In North America, West and Central Asia, and Europe the proportions of introduced species in plantations are much lower at 1%, 3% and 8% of the total area
167:
The highest share of plantation forest is in South
America, where this forest type represents 99 percent of the total planted-forest area and 2 percent of the total forest area. The lowest share of plantation forest is in Europe, where it represents 6 percent of the planted forest estate and 0.4
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Wood production on a tree plantation is generally higher than that of natural forests. While forests managed for wood production commonly yield between 1 and 3 cubic meters per hectare per year, plantations of fast-growing species commonly yield between 20 and 30 cubic meters or more per hectare
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has sought to limit this damage by limiting the amount of land owned by one entity and, as a result, smaller plantations are owned by local farmers who then sell the wood to larger companies. Some large environmental organizations are critical of these high-yield plantations and are running an
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was established in 1901, but most consumers continued to obtain their trees from forests until the 1930s and 1940s. Christmas tree farming was once seen only as a viable alternative for low-quality farmland, but that perception has changed within the agriculture industry. For optimum yield and
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Industrial plantations are actively managed for the commercial production of forest products. Industrial plantations are usually large-scale. Individual blocks are usually even-aged and often consist of just one or two species. These species can be exotic or indigenous. The plants used for the
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species. They hoped to grow them in the tropics, but most experimental results failed until breakthroughs in the 1960s-1980s in species selection, silviculture, and breeding programs "unlocked" the potential of eucalypts in the tropics. Prior to then, as Brett
Bennett noted in a 2010 article,
641:
production. Plantations are always young forests in ecological terms. Typically, trees grown in plantations are harvested after 10 to 60 years, rarely up to 120 years. This means that the forests produced by plantations do not contain the type of growth, soil or wildlife typical of
664:, for example, large multi-national pulp companies have harvested large areas of natural forest without regard for regeneration. From 1980 to 2000, about 50% of the 1.4 million hectares of pulpwood plantations in Indonesia have been established on what was formerly natural
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After the canopy closes, with the tree crowns touching each other, the plantation is becoming dense and crowded, and tree growth is slowing due to competition. This stage is termed 'pole stage'. When competition becomes too intense (for
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plantation are often genetically altered for desired traits such as growth and resistance to pests and diseases in general and specific traits, for example in the case of timber species, volumic wood production and stem straightness.
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and then saplings are planted by human crew or by machine. The saplings are usually obtained in bulk from industrial nurseries, which may specialize in selective breeding in order to produce fast growing disease- and pest-resistant
117:
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As the trees grow and become dense and crowded again, the thinning process is repeated. Depending on growth rate and species, trees at this age may be large enough for timber milling; if not, they are again used as pulp and
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are widely planted far beyond their natural range because of their fast growth rate, tolerance of rich or degraded agricultural land and potential to produce large volumes of raw material for industrial use.
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Plantations are usually near- or total monocultures. That is, the same species of tree is planted across a given area, whereas a natural forest would contain a far more diverse range of tree species.
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can yield up to 40 cubic meters per hectare per year. In 2000, while plantations accounted for 5% of global forest, it is estimated that they supplied about 35% of the world's roundwood.
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1238:
Why does this forest look like a fingerprint? We set out to solve why a forest in the middle of
Uruguay looked like that — and wound up discovering something much bigger.
1044:
Luyssaert, Sebastiaan; -Detlef
Schulze, E.; Börner, Annett; Knohl, Alexander; Hessenmöller, Dominik; Law, Beverly E.; Ciais, Philippe; Grace, John (11 September 2008).
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because their leaf oils and resins are highly flammable. Conversely, an afflicted plantation can in some cases be cleared of pest species cheaply through the use of a
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In the first few years until the canopy closes, the saplings are looked after, and may be dusted or sprayed with fertilizers or pesticides until established.
1316:
1242:– explores issues surrounding monoculture plantation forestry and its impact upon the economy, previously existing habitats, wildlife, and people.
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of this carbon depends on what is done with the harvested materials. Forests continue to absorb atmospheric carbon for centuries if left undisturbed.
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A wide variety of pine and fir species are grown as Christmas trees, although a handful of varieties stand out in popularity. In the United States,
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A variety of analytical tools are used to quantify the carbon sequestration in forest, varying considerably in their detail and intended purpose.
207:, but where topography permits, the most popular is 'row-thinning', where every third or fourth or fifth row of trees is removed, usually with a
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Plantations may include tree species that would not naturally occur in the area. They may include unconventional types such as hybrids, and
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can produce a high volume of wood in a short period of time. Plantations are grown by state forestry authorities (for example, the
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219:, forwarded to the forest road, loaded onto trucks, and sent to a mill. A typical pole stage plantation tree is 7–30 cm in
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215:, leaving regular clear lanes through the section so that the remaining trees have room to expand again. The removed trees are
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Payn, T. et al. 2015. Changes in planted forests and future global implications, Forest Ecology and Management 352: 57–67
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other areas. The environmental and social impacts of this type of plantation has caused them to become controversial. In
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1185:"An overview of industrial tree plantation conflicts in the global South. Conflicts, trends, and resistance struggles"
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is less than a third of the tree's total height), it is time to thin out the section. There are several methods for
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714:, the types of trees found in plantations are those that are best-suited to industrial applications. For example,
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Everard, J.E.; Fourt, D.F. (1974). "Monterey Pine and Bishop Pine as plantation trees in southern Britain".
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In the first year, the ground is prepared usually by the combination of burning, herbicide spraying, and/or
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649:. Most conspicuous is the absence of decaying dead wood, a crucial component of natural forest ecosystems.
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levels (though this idea is being challenged by some groups on the grounds that the sequestered CO
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is a forest planted for high volume production of wood, usually by planting one type of tree as a
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quality, land should be flat or gently rolling and relatively free of debris and undergrowth.
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may be used sometime in the future. Since the primary interest in plantations is to produce
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In contrast to a naturally regenerated forest, plantations are typically grown as even-aged
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in Britain) and/or the paper and wood industries and other private landowners (such as
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The potential of Western hemlock, Western red cedar, Grand fir and Noblefir in Britain
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989:"A synthesis of current knowledge on forests and carbon storage in the United States"
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narrower range of services than the original natural forest for the local people.
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explains the pruning and shearing process of cultivation to a government employee.
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901:"In Plantations or Natural Stands: Ponderosa Is Programmed to Partner with Fire"
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1104:"Forest carbon calculators: a review for managers, policymakers, and educators"
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Notable corporations include Greenwood Resources, which is owned by TIAA-CREF.
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Zald, Harold S.J; Spies, Thomas A.; Harmon, Mark E.; Twery, Mark J. (2016).
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is the most widely planted type of tree in plantations around the world, in
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Some plantation trees, such as pines and eucalyptus, can be at risk of
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are often grown on plantations, and in southern and southeastern Asia,
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are the basis for genetic alteration. Selected individuals grown in
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In the 20th century, scientists around the world experimented with
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are a good source for seeds to develop adequate planting material.
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has a growth rate of 34 cubic meters per hectare per year, and
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1137:"Family Forest Owners: The Critical Link to Forest Resources"
1151:"Portland's GreenWood Resources nears $ 1B in timber assets"
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27:
Type of forest planted for high volume production of wood
494:, the latter being popular throughout Europe. Like all
826:. United Nations Environment Programme. Archived from
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Tree planting § Role in climate change mitigation
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The ground is cleared, and the cycle can be restarted.
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plantations have recently replaced the natural forest.
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223:(dbh). Such trees are sometimes not suitable for
931:"Global Eucalyptus Map 2009... in Buenos Aires!"
755: – Method for land and forest regeneration
498:, Christmas trees are vulnerable to a range of
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8:
611:in the United States are owned by families.
1046:"Old-growth forests as global carbon sinks"
539:While tree farms absorb large amounts of CO
364:is a tropical hardwood tree from the genus
1268:
1254:
1246:
987:McKinley, Duncan C.; et al. (2011).
785:(Report). London: H.M. Stationery Office.
957:"Managing Forests for Carbon Mitigation"
850:"Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020"
770:
578:is eventually released after harvest).
876:"How Eucalyptus Trees Stoke Wildfires"
682:anti-plantation campaign, notably the
824:United Nations System-wide Earthwatch
227:, but are used as pulp for paper and
7:
519:Carbon sequestration § Forestry
2193:
962:. Dovetail Partners. Archived from
778:Aldhous, J. R.; Low, A. J. (1974).
30:For the act of planting trees, see
1219:American Tree Farm System Timeline
443:occupation which involves growing
51:tree plantation, forest plantation
25:
1542:Global Forest Information Service
1213:American Tree Farm System History
513:Role in climate change mitigation
288:eucalypts were something of the "
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607:As of 2019, an estimated 49% of
523:Deforestation and climate change
504:The final stage of cultivation,
404:This section is an excerpt from
346:This section is an excerpt from
272:This section is an excerpt from
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416:A Christmas tree farmer in the
45:plantation in the United States
455:trees specifically for use as
1:
1233:, Australia Forest Foundation
874:Wills, Matthew (2018-08-23).
798:Quarterly Journal of Forestry
585:A tea plantation in Ciwidey,
1227:, American Forest Foundation
935:GIT Forestry Eucalyptologics
899:Brown, Marjie (July 2009).
743:Even aged timber management
629:Monoculture § Forestry
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1653:Growth and yield modelling
955:Bowyer, Jim (2011-10-11).
704:genetically modified trees
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429:Christmas tree cultivation
406:Christmas tree cultivation
403:
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2227:Earth sciences portal
2213:Climate change portal
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1794:Great Green Wall (Africa)
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1225:American Tree Farm System
684:Rainforest Action Network
644:old-growth natural forest
221:diameter at breast height
99:Sierra Pacific Industries
73:also is used to refer to
1799:Great Green Wall (China)
1372:Close to nature forestry
1221:, Forest History Society
1215:, Forest History Society
160:plantations in southern
138:Forest genetic resources
101:in the United States or
1833:Million Tree Initiative
996:Ecological Applications
699:planted, respectively.
2255:Environment portal
1687:Sustainable management
1582:Trillion Tree Campaign
1231:Perth Tree Farm System
806:Royal Forestry Society
593:
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372:ecological restoration
359:
292:" of forestry. Today,
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2180:Wood process engineer
1884:Urban forest inequity
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278:as plantation species
233:oriented strand board
119:
103:Asia Pulp & Paper
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1843:Shifting cultivation
1784:Forest fragmentation
1754:Carbon sequestration
1624:Woodland Carbon Code
1589:Forest certification
1497:Even-aged management
1412:Sustainable forestry
1183:Overbeek W. (2012).
462:The first Christmas
399:Christmas tree farms
358:Teak tree plantation
79:Christmas tree farms
2340:Domesticated plants
1648:Formally designated
1492:Ecological thinning
1402:Plantation forestry
1310:Research institutes
1155:www.bizjournals.com
1111:Journal of Forestry
1073:10.1038/nature07276
1065:2008Natur.455..213L
1008:2011EcoAp..21.1902M
554:Natural forest loss
231:, and as chips for
87:Forestry Commission
83:Plantation forestry
2241:Ecology portal
1774:Forest degradation
1769:Ecosystem services
1377:Community forestry
1123:10.5849/jof.15-019
908:Fire Science Brief
830:on January 6, 2010
694:Introduced species
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67:monoculture forest
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2330:Forest management
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2269:Plants portal
2055:green woodworking
1059:(7210): 213–215.
1016:10.1890/10-0697.1
490:sell well in the
211:. Many trees are
59:timber plantation
55:plantation forest
16:(Redirected from
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2011:Christmas trees
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1362:Analog forestry
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1207:External links
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1117:(2): 134–143.
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748:Forest farming
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695:
692:
673:
670:
655:In the 1970s,
624:
621:
619:
616:
601:Main article:
598:
595:
575:
572:carbon dioxide
568:Kyoto Protocol
555:
552:
540:
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492:United Kingdom
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336:and many more.
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176:Main article:
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75:tree nurseries
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1764:Deforestation
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1740:Environmental
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969:on 2012-04-03
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820:"Forest loss"
815:
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759:Wood industry
757:
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737:Afforestation
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583:
579:
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569:
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562:
553:
551:
548:
546:
545:sequestration
537:
532:
528:
527:Reforestation
524:
520:
512:
507:
503:
501:
497:
493:
489:
488:Norway spruce
485:
481:
477:
473:
468:
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450:
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442:
441:horticultural
438:
434:
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319:
315:
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307:
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299:
298:South America
295:
291:
286:
279:
277:
274:Eucalyptus §
266:
261:
259:
257:
253:
245:
243:be processed.
241:
237:
234:
230:
229:particleboard
226:
222:
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202:
198:
193:
190:
186:
182:
181:
179:
171:
169:
165:
163:
159:
158:Monterey Pine
155:
151:
145:
143:
142:seed orchards
139:
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127:
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118:
114:
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108:
104:
100:
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88:
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80:
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72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
44:
39:
33:
32:Tree planting
19:
2274:
2260:
2246:
2232:
2218:
2204:
2197:
2175:Tree planter
2155:Resin tapper
2135:Truck driver
2130:River driver
1879:Tree hugging
1864:
1847:
1814:timber mafia
1804:High grading
1789:Ghost forest
1759:Clearcutting
1682:Silviculture
1658:Horticulture
1502:Fire ecology
1417:Urban forest
1401:
1392:Mycoforestry
1352:
1348:Agroforestry
1329:
1322:
1315:
1308:
1301:
1296:Forest areas
1294:
1287:
1237:
1195:
1191:
1178:
1169:
1158:. Retrieved
1154:
1145:
1131:
1114:
1110:
1097:
1056:
1052:
1039:
1027:. Retrieved
999:
995:
982:
971:. Retrieved
964:the original
950:
938:. Retrieved
934:
925:
916:
907:
894:
883:. Retrieved
879:
869:
859:20 September
857:. Retrieved
853:
844:
832:. Retrieved
828:the original
823:
814:
801:
797:
791:
773:
701:
697:
675:
654:
651:
635:monocultures
632:
623:Monocultures
613:
606:
565:
557:
549:
538:
534:
484:Nordmann fir
469:
461:
433:agricultural
427:
365:
318:South Africa
293:
284:
275:
249:
178:Silviculture
172:Growth cycle
166:
148:annually; a
146:
134:
91:Weyerhaeuser
82:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
48:
2325:Plantations
2199:WikiProject
2123:smokejumper
2103:Firefighter
2066:Occupations
2050:Woodworking
1631:Forestation
1562:restoration
1517:informatics
1382:Ecoforestry
940:22 November
880:JSTOR Daily
854:www.fao.org
834:October 27,
666:forest land
472:Douglas-fir
300:(mainly in
252:fire damage
185:cultivation
122:Douglas-fir
69:. The term
2319:Categories
2145:Lumberjack
2140:Log scaler
2023:engineered
1974:non-timber
1947:sawmilling
1899:Industries
1866:svedjebruk
1577:transition
1557:protection
1547:old-growth
1532:governance
1487:Dendrology
1437:management
1303:Ministries
1240: Vox
1160:2019-09-02
973:2024-02-10
885:2022-04-23
808:: 111–125.
765:References
724:eucalyptus
688:Greenpeace
647:ecosystems
627:See also:
517:See also:
506:harvesting
480:Fraser fir
476:Scots pine
418:U.S. state
388:Bangladesh
294:Eucalyptus
285:Eucalyptus
276:Eucalyptus
267:Eucalyptus
201:live crown
126:Washington
2093:Ecologist
2006:Tree farm
1907:Coppicing
1849:chitemene
1749:Acid rain
1697:allometry
1619:SmartWood
1567:secondary
1552:pathology
1527:inventory
1465:driftwood
1331:Arbor Day
662:Indonesia
597:Ownership
591:Indonesia
464:tree farm
376:Indonesia
322:Australia
306:Argentina
290:El Dorado
209:harvester
162:Australia
150:Grand Fir
71:tree farm
63:tree farm
2294:Category
2108:handcrew
2078:Arborist
2073:Forester
2033:mahogany
1979:palm oil
1969:charcoal
1954:Products
1889:Wildfire
1702:breeding
1663:GM trees
1512:dynamics
1324:Journals
1317:Colleges
1277:Forestry
1081:18784722
1024:21939033
731:See also
618:Problems
496:conifers
437:forestry
392:Thailand
334:Portugal
310:Paraguay
217:delimbed
205:thinning
188:strains.
154:Scotland
95:Rayonier
2304:Outline
2118:lookout
2113:hotshot
1994:tanbark
1964:biomass
1959:biochar
1937:plywood
1922:Logging
1826:wilding
1475:log jam
1432:Ecology
1089:4424430
1061:Bibcode
1029:9 March
1004:Bibcode
609:forests
587:Bandung
566:In the
422:Florida
380:Myanmar
367:Tectona
330:Galicia
314:Uruguay
213:removed
2150:Ranger
2098:Feller
2083:Bucker
1989:rubber
1932:lumber
1742:topics
1729:volume
1724:height
1670:i-Tree
1507:Forest
1460:coarse
1455:Debris
1354:dehesa
1087:
1079:
1053:Nature
1022:
720:spruce
657:Brazil
639:timber
529:, and
451:, and
449:spruce
439:, and
431:is an
302:Brazil
239:chips.
225:timber
1984:rayon
1719:girth
1714:crown
1675:urban
1572:stand
1480:slash
1470:large
1341:Types
1289:Index
1198:: 84.
1192:EJOLT
1188:(PDF)
1107:(PDF)
1085:S2CID
1049:(PDF)
992:(PDF)
967:(PDF)
960:(PDF)
910:(56).
904:(PDF)
804:(2).
783:(PDF)
679:India
500:pests
384:India
326:India
262:Types
2043:teak
2028:fuel
2018:Wood
1838:REDD
1692:Tree
1609:PEFC
1594:ATFS
1077:PMID
1031:2013
1020:PMID
942:2013
861:2020
836:2011
722:and
716:pine
712:pulp
708:wood
686:and
486:and
478:and
445:pine
390:and
341:Teak
312:and
197:pine
130:U.S.
111:teak
97:and
77:and
43:pine
1614:SFI
1604:FSC
1599:CFS
1537:law
1522:IPM
1434:and
1119:doi
1115:114
1069:doi
1057:455
1012:doi
710:or
589:in
561:FAO
453:fir
420:of
316:),
124:in
61:or
2321::
1194:.
1190:.
1153:.
1113:.
1109:.
1083:.
1075:.
1067:.
1055:.
1051:.
1018:.
1010:.
1000:21
998:.
994:.
933:.
906:.
878:.
852:.
822:.
802:68
800:.
718:,
690:.
668:.
525:,
521:,
502:.
474:,
459:.
447:,
435:,
386:,
382:,
378:,
332:,
328:,
324:,
320:,
308:,
304:,
128:,
93:,
81:.
57:,
53:,
49:A
41:A
1269:e
1262:t
1255:v
1196:3
1163:.
1139:.
1125:.
1121::
1091:.
1071::
1063::
1033:.
1014::
1006::
976:.
944:.
888:.
863:.
838:.
576:2
541:2
408:.
350:.
280:.
235:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
