727:
more resilient to fusiform rust, it is not always the case that landowners want to or can afford to buy the genetically modified seedlings so there are a couple of ways to help reduce the possibility of fusiform rust infected trees. The first initial step to take to reduce fusiform rust infection is to reduce the amount of site preparation used to establish the stand. These site preps, while desired, cause increased rapid growth of pines. When this happens the outer layer of bark is thin enough for fusiform rust to infect and often it will be the main stem. When loblolly pine reach around the age of eight years old you can use more fertilization and forest prescriptions because at this time fusiform rust is not as likely to infect the main stem. Due to oaks being the alternate host for fusiform rust, where it lives out three of its spore lifecycles, it is a good idea to remove any hardwoods that are adjacent to your loblolly stand. This can be difficult considering that oaks also share an importance in the economic and environmental aspect of the
Southeast. Doing this will allow the pathogen to hit a dead end. In an older loblolly plantation, it is safe to keep those trees in rotation if the disease is not along the stem of the tree.
651:
362:
736:
537:. Slash pine generally grows better in warm, humid areas where the average annual temperature is above 17 °C (63 °F), with extreme ranges from −18 to 41 °C (0 to 106 °F). Factors such as competition, fire, and precipitation may limit the natural distribution of these trees. Slash pines are able to grow in an array of soils, but pine stands that are close to bodies of water such as swamps and ponds grow better because of higher soil moisture and seedling protection from wildfire. These forests have been managed through
617:
processes. Fire can be a good management strategy for invasive species because many invasive plants are not adapted to fire. Therefore, fire can eliminate the parental plant or reduce seed viability. Controlled burning is also used to help reduce pathogen load in an ecosystem. For example, fire can eliminate pest populations or resting fungal spores that could infect new seedlings. Low-intensity burns can also clear space in the understory and provide nutrient pulses that benefit the understory vegetation.
693:, which infect the pine needles between March and May. The basidiospores germinate and grow into the stems of the tree where the fungus can overwinter for 4–6 months in the wood. In the fall, the spermatia form and fertilize the aceiospores in the following spring. The aceiospores are released from the pine and are the primary inocula that infect the oak trees in the following growing season. Aceiospores grow through the oak leaves producing urediniospores on the underside of the oak leaves. These
588:
431:
77:
287:
639:
rather new at the time of this initial outbreak, so many newly planted forests had large-scale mortality because the trees were not yet old enough to be resilient to the disease or harvested. Florida’s pine industry in particular was booming with an increase in plantation acreage from 291,000 acres (118,000 ha) in 1952 to upwards of 5.59 million acres (2,260,000 ha) in 1990. Because of the complicated lifecycle of
33:
52:
1714:
1700:
575:
with the lack of consistent burning, much of the open land of the South reverted to forest land. Logging began to increase in the
Southeast, which created some tension between the loggers and local farmers. The loggers wanted to continue to burn the forest, but the local farmers were concerned about how burning would affect cattle grazing and
802:-soaked lesions. Resin is generally produced in plants to protect against pathogens. Sometimes, the tissue above the canker dies, causing girdling of the stem. The severity of the disease depends on weather conditions and may require moisture and insect wounds or hail to infect the trees. Some insects such as
574:
Fire has long been an important element in
Southeastern forests. Native Americans burned land to improve grass growth for grazing and visibility for hunting. When European settlers arrived in the New World, they brought new diseases that severely diminished the Native American populations. Over time,
377:
are glossy red-brown, 5–15 cm (2.0–5.9 in) in length, with a short (2–3 mm or 0.079–0.118 in), thick prickle on each scale. It is known for its conical shape and unusually high strength, especially for a pine. Its wood has an average crush strength of 8,140 lb/in (56.1 MPa), which
616:
can convert to a rockland hammock dominated by woody shrubs and invasive plants. Invasive species are a major management issue in the South. Many pine trees and native plants are adapted to fire, meaning they require fire disturbance to open their pine cones, germinate seeds, and cue other metabolic
726:
There are many ways to go about reducing high-hazard areas for fusiform rust, but it starts with understanding why fusiform rust occurs more often during certain instances than others. Even though we have seen newer genetic work from seedling nurseries that has helped loblolly and slash pine become
638:
on
Southeastern pine trees including slash pine, loblolly pine, and longleaf pine led to massive tree mortality within the pine industry. This obligate parasitic pathogen is notorious for infecting young trees in newly planted areas within the first few years of growing. The pine industry was still
620:
Fire is also used to prevent "fuel" buildup, the highly flammable plants such as grasses and scrub under the canopy that could burn easily in a wildfire. Most prescribed burn intervals are about every 2–5 years, which allows the ecosystem to regenerate after the burn. Much of the South
Florida pine
789:
This disease continues to be a problem in nurseries, and has been reported in other countries. A major problem in
Florida is that artificial replanting of pines may be contributing to high disease incidences. The disease can be passed through seed and spores, but requires open wounds to infect the
717:
Understanding the climate conditions that can lead to rust outbreaks is an important component for management strategies, but this was not well understood in the early decades of this epidemic. More recent information has shown that certain weather patterns such as high humidity, wet pine needles,
583:
campaign to prevent wildfires promoted a shift toward fire suppression. Subsequently, many of these fire-dependent ecosystems became increasingly dominated by more shade-tolerant tree species (hardwoods). Despite many reports from the U.S. Forest
Service about the benefits fire has on forage
768:
on diseased seed. The pathogen has been reported in Mexico; however, high fungal diversity and low tree mortality from the disease suggests that this pathogen may have co-evolved in Mexico before being introduced to other parts of the world. Many reports describe the pathogen as endemic to
760:), was first described in 1946 by Hepting and Roth. When it was first described, disease levels were low until the 1970s, when a massive epidemic of pitch canker caused mass tree mortality in Florida slash pine. Some hypotheses suggest that the pathogen may have originated in
777:
disease. In areas where the pathogen is newly introduced, the fungal population is mostly clonal, because fewer mating types are present within the population, so sexual reproduction may be lower. Pitch canker infects nearly all pine species, including longleaf pine,
378:
exceeds many hardwoods such as white ash (7,410 lb/in) and black maple (6,680 lb/in). It is not as strong as black ironwood (9,940 lb/in), but because its average density is less than half that of ironwood, slash pine has a far greater strength-to-weight ratio.
404:
are described, but recent genetic studies have indicated that the varieties may not be more closely related to each other than they are to other pines in the
Southeast. If this is the case, reclassifying these varieties as separate species would be warranted.
621:
rockland ecosystem is highly fragmented and has not been burned because of the proximity to buildings. Risks such as smoke, air quality, and residual particulate matter in the environment pose safety issues for controlled burns near homes and businesses.
713:
that infect the pine trees and complete the life rust cycle. Symptoms on the pine include gall formation, stem swelling, cankers, bushiness, and dieback. The cankers in the stem allow secondary fungal infections or other pests to enter the trees easily.
325:. Slash pine is named after the "slashes" – swampy ground overgrown with trees and bushes – that constitute its habitat. Other common names include swamp pine, yellow slash pine, and southern Florida pine. Slash pine has two different varieties:
1595:
Correll, J. C., Gordon, T. R., McCain, A. H., Fox, J. W., Koehler, C. S., Wood, D. L., & Schultz, M. E. (1991). Pitch canker disease in
California: pathogenicity, distribution, and canker development on Monterey pine (Pinus radiata).
492:. Leaves are nearly all in bundles of two, with longer needles. The cones are smaller, 5–12 cm (2.0–4.7 in), the wood is denser, and the tree has a thicker taproot. Unlike the typical variety of slash pine, seedlings of
650:
1364:
Lavoie, M., Starr, G., Mack, M. C., Martin, T. A., & Gholz, H. L. (2010). Effects of a prescribed fire on understory vegetation, carbon pools, and soil nutrients in a longleaf pine-slash pine forest in
Florida.
647:, the fungal causal agent of fusiform rust, the management strategies of pruning diseased stems, reducing fertilization, and discarding infected seed were not sufficient to prevent million-dollar annual loses.
797:
and reddening of shoots (called "flagging") that later die. Cankers or lesions that form on the trunks can turn the bark yellow or dark brown and cause resin to exude. Stems may die and get crystalized in
369:
This tree is fast-growing, but not very long-lived by pine standards (to 200 years). It reaches heights of 18–30 m (59–98 ft) with a trunk diameter of 0.6–0.8 m (2.0–2.6 ft). The
1076:
Carey, Jennifer H. 1992. Pinus elliottii. In: Fire Effects Information System, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory.
773:, likely because the disease was introduced a long time therefore the population has become more diverse. By 1974, over half of the slash pine population in Florida was infected with
1660:
Jeewon, R.; Yeung, S.Y.Q.; Hyde, K.D. (June 2009). "A novel phylogenetic group within Thozetella (Chaetosphaeriaceae): a new taxon based on morphology and DNA sequence analyses".
1284:
Horn, Sally P.; Grissino-Mayer, Henri D.; Harley, Grant L. (2013-06-03). "Fire history and forest structure of an endangered subtropical ecosystem in the Florida Keys, USA".
600:
Without regular fire intervals in slash pine forests, the ecosystem can change over time. For example, in the northern range for slash pine, forests can convert from mesic
584:
production, pine regeneration, control of tree pathogens, and reducing risks of wildfires, controlled burning did not begin to regain traction until the 1950s and 1960s.
349:. The wood of slash pine is known for its unusually high strength, especially for a pine. It exceeds many hardwoods and is even comparable to very dense woods such as
1970:
2035:
1523:
1494:
361:
2164:
1618:
Gordon, T. R., Storer, A. J., & Okamoto, D. (1996). Population structure of the pitch canker pathogen, Fusarium subglutinans f. sp. pini, in California.
1918:
1254:
Johnson, A. S., & Hale, P. E. (2000, September). The Historical Foundations of Prescribed Burning for Wildlife: a Southeastern Perspective. In
673:, requiring two different plant hosts for reproduction, and is macrocyclic, meaning it contains all five spore stages typical for rust infections:
1996:
1931:
1096:
718:
and temperatures around 15–29 °C (59–84 °F) for about 18 days can increase the spread of basiodiospores, so increase disease severity.
1256:
The Role of Fire in Nongame Wildlife Management and Community Restoration: Traditional Uses and New Directions Proceedings of a Special Workshop
2097:
1215:
76:
2174:
2053:
1718:
697:
can reproduce clonally, asexually, and can continue to infect oak plants as a secondary inoculum. Within two weeks of the primary
1274:. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-53. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station, 2002, p. 612.
735:
1957:
1470:
2001:
1983:
1807:
961:
517:
Communities dominated by slash pine are termed "slash pine forests". Slash pine is predominately found in Florida and
1155:
Schmidt, Robert A. (August 2003). "Fusiform Rust of Southern Pines: A Major Success for Forest Disease Management".
2110:
1704:
1382:
Wade, D.D, Lunsford, J.D. (1988). A guide for prescribed fire in southern forests. Technical Publication R8-TP 11.
322:
2040:
957:
530:
208:
2115:
1905:
613:
481:
1910:
1884:
1556:
943:
1879:
1822:
1730:
373:
are needle-like, very slender, in clusters of two or three, and 18–24 cm (7.1–9.4 in) long. The
235:
192:
1936:
2063:
1843:
1768:
1089:
876:
815:
689:, and spermatia. Oak trees are the secondary host for this pathogen. The primary inocula on pine are
518:
1871:
1642:
Dwinell, David L. Barrows-Broaddus, Jane B. Kuhlman, G. E. (1985). Pitch Canker: A Disease Complex.
748:
743:
635:
587:
41:
2027:
1077:
920:
2136:
1897:
1892:
1309:
1268:
71:
2102:
430:
1975:
2071:
1830:
1677:
1476:
1466:
1415:
1347:
1332:"Developing ecological criteria for prescribed fire in South Florida pine rockland ecosystems"
1301:
1211:
1180:
1172:
176:
830:
trees to try to increase resin production for extraction, but this approach was ineffective.
2076:
1669:
1407:
1339:
1293:
1164:
915:
468:
of twos and threes, mostly threes, and the cones are larger, 7–15 cm (2.8–5.9 in).
410:
251:
2014:
286:
1383:
538:
465:
2089:
1779:
661:
pathogens are difficult to manage because of their complicated reproductive lifecycles.
2169:
2084:
1199:
779:
453:
101:
2158:
2009:
956:. Vol. 2. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press – via eFloras.org,
906:
783:
698:
694:
682:
658:
390:
382:
350:
61:
56:
1524:"Managing Fusiform Rust on Loblolly and Slash Pine in Forest and Landscape Settings"
1398:
Lundquist, J. E. (1982). "Early Symptomatology of Fusiform Rust on Pine Seedlings".
1313:
951:
897:
579:
production. Fire maintenance has long been a controversial issue. In the 1940s, the
2141:
1835:
1232:
864:
860:
710:
690:
674:
670:
485:
419:
374:
341:. Historically, slash pine has been an important economic timber for naval stores,
1812:
1799:
32:
1168:
397:) by the shorter, more slender needles and smaller cones with less broad scales.
2022:
1944:
1762:
1206:; Spellenberg, Richard; Thieret, John W.; Terry Purinton; Block, Andrew (2008).
1043:
803:
580:
389:) by the somewhat longer, glossier needles and larger red-brown cones, and from
1753:
1713:
1789:
1203:
840:
807:
765:
706:
686:
678:
576:
526:
489:
342:
114:
1583:
Gordon, T. R. 2006. Pitch canker disease of pines. Phytopathology 96:657-659.
1419:
1351:
1305:
1176:
1029:
1856:
1480:
1044:"Black Ironwood | the Wood Database - Lumber Identification (Hardwood)"
1001:
794:
601:
534:
522:
457:
318:
2128:
1988:
1681:
1184:
1015:
533:
in 1926. The natural habitat is sandy subtropical maritime forests and wet
1699:
2123:
2048:
1747:
1331:
1330:
Snyder, James R.; Ross, Michael S.; Koptur, Suzanne; Sah, Jay P. (2005).
1060:
1030:"Black maple | the Wood Database - Lumber Identification (Hardwood)"
154:
1432:
Gilman, E. F., & Watson, D. G. (1994). Pinus elliottii: Slash Pine.
1411:
1343:
1002:"Slash Pine | the Wood Database - Lumber Identification (Softwood)"
1923:
1016:"White Ash | the Wood Database - Lumber Identification (Hardwood)"
770:
609:
461:
144:
134:
124:
790:
tree from insect damage, mechanical damage, hail/weather damage, etc.
1949:
1673:
811:
761:
1724:
1297:
1267:
Stanturf, J, and D. Wade, T. Waldrop, D. Kennard and G. Achtemeier.
1125:. University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences
1962:
1861:
1208:
National Wildlife Federation Field Guide to Trees of North America
799:
734:
649:
545:
is particularly susceptible to seedling mortality caused by fire.
429:
360:
346:
88:
1118:
1848:
1269:
Chapter 25, Background Paper: Fire in Southern Forest Landscapes
541:
since the beginning of the 20th century. Within the first year,
370:
164:
1728:
1078:
https://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/pinell/all.html
508:
is not frost tolerant, which limits its range to South Florida.
702:
605:
480:(South Florida slash pine, Dade County pine) is found in the
764:
and was then introduced in Florida and later transmitted to
1237:(8 ed.). College Station, Texas: Texas Forest Service.
1528:
Alabama A&M and Auburn Universities Extension Services
987:
Family, P. P. (1990). Pinus elliottii Engelm. slash pine.
818:, and needle midges may vector the disease into the tree.
1564:
Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services
1384:
https://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr292/1989_wade.pdf
950:. In Flora of North America Editorial Committee (ed.).
521:, and extends from South Carolina west to southeastern
441:
The two commonly accepted varieties are the following:
739:
Example of Pitch Canker symptoms on a slash pine tree
604:
to denser mixed-hardwood canopies with trees such as
1434:
USDA Forest Service Fact Sheet ST-463 Google Scholar
1737:
654:
Example of fusiform rust symptoms on pine tree bark
1555:Barnard, E.L.; Blakesless, G.M. (December 2006).
525:, and south to the Florida Keys. It is common in
1061:"Flora of the Southern and Mid-Atlantic States"
612:, and southern magnolia. In South Florida, the
1325:
1323:
500:has a "grass stage" similar to longleaf pine.
921:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2013-1.RLTS.T42361A2975203.en
634:Starting in the late 1950s, the emergence of
8:
1117:Gilman, Edward F.; Dennis G. Watson (2006).
953:Flora of North America North of Mexico (FNA)
746:, a monocyclic disease caused by the fungus
1725:
1055:
1053:
285:
50:
31:
20:
919:
381:It may be distinguished from the related
793:The predominant symptoms include needle
586:
1097:United States Fish and Wildlife Service
888:
1638:
1636:
1634:
1632:
1614:
1612:
1610:
1591:
1589:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1550:
1548:
1546:
1544:
1456:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1393:
1391:
1286:International Journal of Wildland Fire
1150:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1140:
591:Controlled burn in a slash pine forest
1517:
1515:
1250:
1248:
1246:
1244:
1231:Mattoon, W.R.; Webster, C.B. (1990).
1072:
1070:
983:
981:
979:
977:
975:
973:
971:
7:
2064:bc81570a-e2ad-40c1-b032-a761afba9277
529:, where it was first planted at the
2165:IUCN Red List least concern species
1272:Southern forest resource assessment
907:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
298: generalized natural range of
1210:. New York: Sterling. p. 74.
989:Silvics of North America: Conifers
14:
452:(typical slash pine) ranges from
2116:urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:262921-1
1712:
1698:
1557:"Pitch Canker of Southern Pines"
709:are formed which germinate into
75:
1522:Enebak, Scott (March 1, 2019).
1202:; Craig Tufts; Daniel Mathews;
464:. Its leaves occur in bundles,
1:
859:This tree is widely grown in
561:because it has thicker bark.
1465:. Comstock Pub. Associates.
1463:Diseases of trees and shrubs
1169:10.1094/phyto.2003.93.8.1048
844:was found on leaf litter of
553:is more fire resistant than
484:of southern Florida and the
1499:Alabama Forestry Commission
1461:Sinclair, Wayne A. (2005).
962:Harvard University Herbaria
2193:
323:Southeastern United States
2175:Trees of Northern America
958:Missouri Botanical Garden
293:
284:
263:
258:
241:
234:
72:Scientific classification
70:
48:
39:
30:
23:
531:E.O. Siecke State Forest
357:Description and taxonomy
460:, and south to central
16:Species of conifer tree
960:, St. Louis, MO &
851:in Hong Kong in 2009.
822:was used to inoculate
740:
722:Managing Fusiform Rust
655:
592:
438:
366:
1367:Natural Areas Journal
1234:Forest Trees of Texas
942:Kral, Robert (1993).
863:. It is also used in
738:
653:
590:
433:
364:
1709:at Wikimedia Commons
1620:Mycological Research
914:: e.T42361A2975203.
877:Southern yellow pine
754:Fusarium moniliforme
313:, commonly known as
1412:10.1094/phyto-72-54
1344:10.3133/ofr20061062
896:Farjon, A. (2013).
841:Thozetella pinicola
775:Fusarium circinatum
749:Fusarium circinatum
701:inoculation on the
641:Cronaritum quercuum
321:tree native to the
42:Conservation status
784:eastern white pine
752:(previously named
741:
656:
625:Diseases and pests
593:
439:
367:
365:Slash pine needles
2152:
2151:
2072:Open Tree of Life
1731:Taxon identifiers
1703:Media related to
1217:978-1-4027-3875-3
513:Range and habitat
400:Two varieties of
306:
305:
227:P. elliottii
65:
2182:
2145:
2144:
2132:
2131:
2119:
2118:
2106:
2105:
2093:
2092:
2080:
2079:
2067:
2066:
2057:
2056:
2044:
2043:
2031:
2030:
2018:
2017:
2005:
2004:
1992:
1991:
1979:
1978:
1966:
1965:
1953:
1952:
1940:
1939:
1927:
1926:
1914:
1913:
1901:
1900:
1888:
1887:
1875:
1874:
1865:
1864:
1852:
1851:
1839:
1838:
1826:
1825:
1816:
1815:
1803:
1802:
1793:
1792:
1783:
1782:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1758:
1757:
1756:
1726:
1717:Data related to
1716:
1702:
1686:
1685:
1674:10.1139/wo8-148t
1657:
1651:
1640:
1627:
1616:
1605:
1593:
1584:
1581:
1568:
1567:
1561:
1552:
1539:
1538:
1536:
1534:
1519:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1505:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1458:
1437:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1395:
1386:
1380:
1374:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1336:Open-File Report
1327:
1318:
1317:
1281:
1275:
1265:
1259:
1252:
1239:
1238:
1228:
1222:
1221:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1163:(8): 1048–1051.
1152:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1114:
1108:
1107:
1105:
1103:
1094:
1090:"Pine Rocklands"
1086:
1080:
1074:
1065:
1064:
1057:
1048:
1047:
1040:
1034:
1033:
1026:
1020:
1019:
1012:
1006:
1005:
998:
992:
985:
966:
965:
964:, Cambridge, MA.
939:
933:
932:
930:
928:
923:
893:
861:tree plantations
850:
539:controlled fires
488:, including the
297:
289:
247:
80:
79:
59:
54:
53:
35:
21:
2192:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2179:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2148:
2140:
2135:
2127:
2122:
2114:
2109:
2101:
2096:
2088:
2083:
2075:
2070:
2062:
2060:
2054:Pinus~elliottii
2052:
2047:
2039:
2034:
2026:
2021:
2013:
2008:
2000:
1995:
1987:
1982:
1974:
1969:
1961:
1956:
1948:
1943:
1935:
1930:
1922:
1917:
1909:
1904:
1898:Pinus elliottii
1896:
1891:
1883:
1878:
1870:
1868:
1860:
1855:
1847:
1842:
1834:
1829:
1821:
1819:
1811:
1806:
1798:
1796:
1788:
1786:
1778:
1776:
1769:Pinus elliottii
1767:
1766:
1761:
1752:
1751:
1746:
1739:Pinus elliottii
1733:
1719:Pinus elliottii
1706:Pinus elliottii
1695:
1690:
1689:
1662:Can J Microbiol
1659:
1658:
1654:
1641:
1630:
1617:
1608:
1594:
1587:
1582:
1571:
1559:
1554:
1553:
1542:
1532:
1530:
1521:
1520:
1513:
1503:
1501:
1495:"Fusiform Rust"
1493:
1492:
1488:
1473:
1460:
1459:
1440:
1431:
1427:
1397:
1396:
1389:
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1298:10.1071/WF12071
1283:
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1225:
1218:
1200:Kershner, Bruce
1197:
1196:
1192:
1154:
1153:
1138:
1128:
1126:
1121:Pinus elliottii
1116:
1115:
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946:Pinus elliottii
941:
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936:
926:
924:
900:Pinus elliottii
895:
894:
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846:Pinus elliottii
838:Fungus species
836:
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435:Pinus elliottii
359:
310:Pinus elliottii
302:
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295:
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266:Pinus elliottii
254:
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243:
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74:
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25:Pinus elliottii
17:
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2142:wfo-0000481442
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2019:
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1710:
1694:
1693:External links
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1400:Phytopathology
1387:
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1292:(3): 394–404.
1276:
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1240:
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1198:Moore, Gerry;
1190:
1157:Phytopathology
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780:shortleaf pine
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683:urediniospores
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614:pine rocklands
597:
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1626:(7), 850-854.
1625:
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1123:: Slash Pine"
1122:
1113:
1110:
1102:September 18,
1098:
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817:
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711:basidiospores
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696:
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691:basidiospores
688:
684:
680:
676:
675:basidiospores
672:
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636:fusiform rust
630:Fusiform rust
629:
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417:, sand pine (
416:
412:
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398:
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391:longleaf pine
388:
384:
383:loblolly pine
379:
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236:Binomial name
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102:Tracheophytes
100:
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63:
58:
57:Least Concern
47:
43:
38:
34:
29:
26:
22:
19:
1738:
1705:
1668:(6): 680–7.
1665:
1661:
1655:
1647:
1643:
1623:
1619:
1601:
1597:
1563:
1531:. Retrieved
1527:
1502:. Retrieved
1498:
1489:
1462:
1433:
1428:
1403:
1399:
1378:
1370:
1366:
1360:
1335:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1271:
1263:
1255:
1233:
1226:
1207:
1193:
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1156:
1127:. Retrieved
1120:
1112:
1100:. Retrieved
1084:
1038:
1024:
1010:
996:
988:
952:
945:
937:
925:. Retrieved
911:
905:
899:
891:
865:horticulture
858:
845:
839:
837:
827:
823:
819:
808:spittle bugs
804:bark beetles
792:
788:
774:
758:subglutinans
757:
753:
747:
744:Pitch canker
742:
731:Pitch canker
725:
716:
671:heteroecious
666:
663:C. querecuum
662:
657:
644:
640:
633:
619:
599:
573:
565:Fire ecology
558:
554:
550:
546:
543:P. elliottii
542:
516:
505:
501:
497:
493:
486:Florida Keys
476:
472:
471:
449:
445:
440:
434:
425:P. palustris
424:
420:Pinus clausa
418:
414:
407:P. elliottii
406:
401:
399:
395:P. palustris
394:
386:
380:
368:
338:
334:
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314:
309:
308:
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299:
277:
273:
269:
265:
264:
244:
242:
226:
225:
213:
209:
205:Subsection:
197:
193:
181:
177:
165:
115:Gymnospermae
108:
95:
24:
18:
2090:kew-2562078
2023:NatureServe
1945:iNaturalist
1763:Wikispecies
1373:(1), 82-95.
927:13 November
834:Other fungi
707:teliospores
687:aeciospores
679:teliospores
581:Smokey Bear
402:P. elliotii
2159:Categories
2085:Plant List
1820:Calflora:
1533:October 7,
1504:October 7,
1472:0801443717
1204:Gil Nelson
883:References
766:California
577:turpentine
527:East Texas
490:Everglades
343:turpentine
315:slash pine
259:Varieties
173:Subgenus:
121:Division:
1911:200005333
1885:200005333
1420:0031-949X
1406:(1): 54.
1352:2331-1258
1306:1448-5516
1177:0031-949X
795:chlorosis
667:fusiforme
645:fusiforme
602:flatwoods
559:elliottii
535:flatwoods
523:Louisiana
466:fascicles
458:Louisiana
450:elliottii
411:hybridize
331:elliottii
270:elliottii
221:Species:
214:Australes
212:subsect.
198:Trifoliae
189:Section:
135:Pinopsida
125:Pinophyta
85:Kingdom:
2129:24900134
2124:Tropicos
2049:NSWFlora
2028:2.148214
1976:11121318
1963:262921-1
1754:Q1249109
1748:Wikidata
1682:19767838
1481:60188468
1314:17371128
1258:(p. 11).
1185:18943875
1129:12 April
871:See also
703:oak tree
415:P. taeda
387:P. taeda
155:Pinaceae
151:Family:
62:IUCN 3.1
1924:5285777
1849:1061757
849:Engelm.
812:weevils
771:Florida
665:f. sp.
643:f. sp.
610:hickory
570:History
519:Georgia
462:Florida
423:), and
319:conifer
317:, is a
252:Engelm.
161:Genus:
145:Pinales
141:Order:
131:Class:
89:Plantae
60: (
2098:PLANTS
2077:245809
2061:NZOR:
1872:pinell
1869:FEIS:
1813:164657
1800:231556
1797:APDB:
1777:AoFP:
1680:
1479:
1469:
1418:
1350:
1312:
1304:
1214:
1183:
1175:
782:, and
762:Mexico
371:leaves
345:, and
296:
196:sect.
180:subg.
2170:Pinus
2041:42064
2015:42361
2002:18036
1989:41600
1971:IRMNG
1950:69985
1937:28447
1893:FoAO2
1862:PIUEL
1836:77KTN
1787:APA:
1560:(PDF)
1310:S2CID
1093:(PDF)
828:densa
826:var.
824:P. e.
800:resin
756:var.
555:P. e.
551:densa
549:var.
547:P. e.
506:densa
504:var.
502:P. e.
498:densa
496:var.
494:P. e.
477:densa
475:var.
473:P. e.
448:var.
446:P. e.
437:cones
413:with
375:cones
347:resin
339:densa
337:var.
335:P. e.
329:var.
327:P. e.
278:densa
276:var.
268:var.
182:Pinus
166:Pinus
109:Clade
96:Clade
2111:POWO
2103:PIEL
2036:NCBI
2010:IUCN
1997:ITIS
1958:IPNI
1932:GRIN
1919:GBIF
1857:EPPO
1823:9382
1808:APNI
1780:3239
1678:PMID
1535:2023
1506:2023
1477:OCLC
1467:ISBN
1416:ISSN
1348:ISSN
1302:ISSN
1212:ISBN
1181:PMID
1173:ISSN
1131:2011
1104:2018
929:2021
912:2013
855:Uses
659:Rust
606:oaks
596:Uses
557:var.
409:can
333:and
2137:WFO
1984:ISC
1906:FoC
1880:FNA
1844:EoL
1831:CoL
1790:211
1670:doi
1624:100
1408:doi
1340:doi
1294:doi
1165:doi
916:doi
669:is
456:to
2161::
2139::
2126::
2113::
2100::
2087::
2074::
2051::
2038::
2025::
2012::
1999::
1986::
1973::
1960::
1947::
1934::
1921::
1908::
1895::
1882::
1859::
1846::
1833::
1810::
1765::
1750::
1676:.
1666:55
1664:.
1648:69
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210:P.
194:P.
178:P.
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948:"
944:"
931:.
918::
902:"
898:"
393:(
385:(
64:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
