603:, a poison produced by certain bacteria, fungi, and algae that is found in numerous plants. Animals and humans possess the ability to detoxify cyanide from their systems naturally. Therefore, cyanogenic glycosides can be used for positive benefits in animal systems always. For example, the larvae of the southern armyworm consumes plants that contain this certain metabolite and have shown a better growth rate with this metabolite in their diet, as opposed to other secondary metabolite-containing plants. Although this example shows cyanogenic glycosides being beneficial to the larvae many still argue that this metabolite can do harm. To help in determining whether cyanogenic glycosides are harmful or helpful researchers look closer at its biosynthetic pathway (Figure 2). Past research suggests that cyanogenic glucosides stored in the seed of the plant are metabolized during germination to release nitrogen for seedling to grow. With this, it can be inferred that cyanogenic glycosides play various roles in plant metabolism. Though subject to change with future research, there is no evidence showing that cyanogenic glycosides are responsible for infections in plants.
32:
Specialized compounds from secondary metabolism are essential for communicating with other organisms in mutualistic (e.g. attraction of beneficial organisms such as pollinators) or antagonistic interactions (e.g. deterrent against herbivores and pathogens). They further assist in coping with abiotic stress such as increased UV-radiation. The broad functional spectrum of specialized metabolism is still not fully understood. In any case, a good balance between products of primary and secondary metabolism is best for a plantβs optimal growth and development as well as for its effective coping with often changing environmental conditions. Well known specialized compounds include alkaloids, polyphenols including flavonoids, and terpenoids. Humans use many of these compounds for culinary, medicinal and nutraceutical purposes.
542:. These metabolites are mostly used in plants to produce yellow and other pigments which play a big role in coloring the plants. In addition, Flavonoids are readily ingested by humans and they seem to display important anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic and anti-cancer activities. Flavonoids are also found to be powerful anti-oxidants and researchers are looking into their ability to prevent cancer and cardiovascular diseases. Flavonoids help prevent cancer by inducing certain mechanisms that may help to kill cancer cells, and researches believe that when the body processes extra flavonoid compounds, it triggers specific enzymes that fight carcinogens. Good dietary sources of Flavonoids are all citrus fruits, which contain the specific flavanoids hesperidins,
68:, and give plants characteristics such as color. Secondary plant metabolites are also used in signalling and regulation of primary metabolic pathways. Plant hormones, which are secondary metabolites, are often used to regulate the metabolic activity within cells and oversee the overall development of the plant. As mentioned above in the History tab, secondary plant metabolites help the plant maintain an intricate balance with the environment, often adapting to match the environmental needs. Plant metabolites that color the plant are a good example of this, as the coloring of a plant can attract pollinators and also defend against attack by animals.
55:
metabolites play an indispensable role in the survival of the plant in its environment. One of the most ground breaking ideas of this time argued that plant secondary metabolites evolved in relation to environmental conditions, and this indicated the high gene plasticity of secondary metabolites, but this theory was ignored for about half a century before gaining acceptance. Recently, the research around secondary plant metabolites is focused around the gene level and the genetic diversity of plant metabolites. Biologists are now trying to trace back genes to their origin and re-construct evolutionary pathways.
662:
similar biological properties. Gossypol is a type of aldehyde, meaning that it has a formyl group. The formation of gossypol occurs through an isoprenoid pathway. Isoprenoid pathways are common among secondary metabolites. Gossypol's main function in the cotton plant is to act as an enzyme inhibitor. An example of gossypol's enzyme inhibition is its ability to inhibit nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide-linked enzymes of
Trypanosoma cruzi. Trypanosoma cruzi is a parasite which causes Chaga's disease.
693:
actually blocks the body's natural estrogen. The estrogen receptors in the body which are stimulated by estrogen will acknowledge the phytoestrogen, thus the body may reduce its own production of the hormone. This has a negative result, because there are various abilities of the phytoestrogen which estrogen does not do. Its effects the communication pathways between cells and has effects on other parts of the body where estrogen normally does not play a role.
744:, which then uses this energy for photosynthesis. Second, they can protect plants which are over-exposed to sunlight. They do this by harmlessly dissipating excess light energy which they absorb as heat. In the absence of carotenoids, this excess light energy could destroy proteins, membranes, and other molecules. Some plant physiologists believe that carotenoids may have an additional function as regulators of certain developmental responses in plants.
17:
692:
is important for women's bone and heart health, but high amounts of it has been linked to breast cancer. In the plant, the phytoestrogens are involved in the defense system against fungi. Phytoestrogens can do two different things in a human body. At low doses it mimics estrogen, but at high doses it
674:
paralysis is a disease characterized by muscle weakness or paralysis with a matching fall in potassium levels in the blood. Hypokalemic paralysis associated with gossypol in-take usually occurs in March, when vegetables are in short supply, and in
September, when people are sweating a lot. This side
566:
are aromatic ketones with two phenyl rings that are important in many biological compounds. The closure of chalcones causes the formation of the flavonoid structure. Flavonoids are also closely related to flavones which are actually a sub class of flavonoids, and are the yellow pigments in plants. In
598:
phase. To get a better understanding of how secondary metabolites play a big role in plant defense mechanisms we can focus on the recognizable defense-related secondary metabolites, cyanogenic glycosides. The compounds of these secondary metabolites (As seen in Figure 1) are found in over 2000 plant
45:
were "by-products" of the primary metabolism and were not crucial to the plant's survival. Early research only succeeded as far as categorizing the secondary plant metabolites but did not give real insight into the actual function of the secondary plant metabolites. The study of plant metabolites is
31:
is connected to primary metabolism by using building blocks and biosynthetic enzymes derived from primary metabolism. Primary metabolism governs all basic physiological processes that allow a plant to grow and set seeds, by translating the genetic code into proteins, carbohydrates, and amino acids.
748:
are synthesized from DOXP precursors in plants and some bacteria. Carotenoids involved in photosynthesis are formed in chloroplasts; Others are formed in plastids. Carotenoids formed in fungi are presumably formed from mevalonic acid precursors. Carotenoids are formed by a head-to-head condensation
633:
Phytic acid is also known to bond with many different minerals, and by doing so prevents those minerals from being absorbed; making phytic acid an anti-nutrient. There is a lot of concern with phytic acids in nuts and seeds because of its anti-nutrient characteristics. In preparing foods with high
661:
has a yellow pigment and is found in cotton plants. It occurs mainly in the root and/or seeds of different species of cotton plants. Gossypol can have various chemical structures. It can exist in three forms: gossypol, gossypol acetic acid, and gossypol formic acid. All of these forms have very
649:
found in plant cells that most likely serves the purpose of preservation. This preservation is removed when soaked, reducing the phytic acid and allowing the germination and growth of the seed. When added to foods it can help prevent discoloration by inhibiting lipid peroxidation. There is also
522:
atropine synthesis has been found to take place primarily in the root of the plant. The concentration of synthetic sites within the plant is indicative of the nature of secondary metabolites. Typically, secondary metabolites are not necessary for normal functioning of cells within the organism
63:
Primary metabolism in a plant comprises all metabolic pathways that are essential to the plant's survival. Primary metabolites are compounds that are directly involved in the growth and development of a plant whereas secondary metabolites are compounds produced in other metabolic pathways that,
54:
much easier. However, there was still not much research being conducted into the functions of secondary plant metabolites until around the 1980s. Before then, secondary plant metabolites were thought of as simply waste products. In the 1970s, however, new research showed that secondary plant
46:
thought to have started in the early 1800s when
Friedrich Willhelm Serturner isolated morphine from opium poppy, and after that new discoveries were made rapidly. In the early half of the 1900s, the main research around secondary plant metabolism was dedicated to the formation of
581:
Many plants have adapted to iodine-deficient terrestrial environment by removing iodine from their metabolism, in fact iodine is essential only for animal cells. An important antiparasitic action is caused by the block of the transport of iodide of animal cells inhibiting
665:
For some time it was believed that gossypol was merely a waste product produced during the processing of cottonseed products. Extensive studies have shown that gossypol has other functions. Many of the more popular studies on gossypol discuss how it can act as a male
40:
Research into secondary plant metabolism primarily took off in the later half of the 19th century, however, there was still much confusion over what the exact function and usefulness of these compounds were. All that was known was that secondary plant
740:. In plants, carotenoids can occur in roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and fruits. Carotenoids have two important functions in plants. First, they can contribute to photosynthesis. They do this by transferring some of the light energy they absorb to
567:
addition to flavones, 11 other subclasses of
Flavonoids including, isoflavones, flavans, flavanones, flavanols, flavanolols, anthocyanidins, catechins (including proanthocyanidins), leukoanthocyanidins, dihydrochalcones, and aurones.
683:
Plants synthesize certain compounds called secondary metabolites which are not naturally produced by humans but can play vital roles in protection or destruction of human health. One such group of metabolites is
76:
There is no fixed, commonly agreed upon system for classifying secondary metabolites. Based on their biosynthetic origins, plant secondary metabolites can be divided into three major groups:
514:
and tropate, catalyzed by atropinase. Both of the substrates involved in this reaction are derived from amino acids, tropine from pyridine (through several steps) and tropate directly from
712:
of plants. They are also found in some organisms such as algae, fungi, some bacteria, and certain species of aphids. There are over 600 known carotenoids. They are split into two classes,
27:
produces a large number of specialized compounds (estimated 200,000) that do not aid in the growth and development of plants but are required for the plant to survive in its environment.
855:
Fred R. West, Jr. and Edward S. Mika. "Synthesis of
Atropine by Isolated Roots and Root-Callus Cultures of Belladonna." Botanical Gazette: Vol. 119, No. 1 (Sep., 1957), pp. 50β54
550:, berries, tea, dark chocolate and red wine and many of the health benefits attributed to these foods come from the Flavonoids they contain. Flavonoids are synthesized by the
1004:
Urbano, G; LΓ³pez-Jurado, M; Aranda, P; Vidal-Valverde, C; Tenorio, E; Porres, J (September 2000). "The role of phytic acid in legumes: antinutrient or beneficial function?".
867:
Crozier, Alan, and
Hiroshi Ashihara. Plant Secondary Metabolites: Occurrence, Structure and Role in the Human Diet. Ames, IA: Blackwell Publishing Professional, 2006. Print.
1119:
Montamat, EE; C Burgos; NM Gerez de Burgos; LE Rovai; A Blanco; EL Segura (15 October 1982). "Inhibitory action of gossypol on enzymes and growth of
Trypanosoma cruzi".
764:
Hartmann, Thomas. "From waste products to ecochemicals: fifty years research of plant secondary metabolism." Phytochemistry 68.22β24 (2007): 2831β2846. Web. 31 Mar 2011.
1197:
1211:
Thompson LU, Boucher BA, Liu Z, Cotterchio M, Kreiger N (2006). "Phytoestrogen content of foods consumed in Canada, including isoflavones, lignans, and coumestan".
510:. Tropane is an organic compound containing nitrogen and it is from tropane that atropine is derived. Atropine is synthesized by a reaction between
634:
phytic acid concentrations, it is recommended they be soaked in after being ground to increase the surface area. Soaking allows the seed to undergo
1306:
Warren, Barbour S., and Carol Devine. "Phytoestrogens and Breast Cancer." Cornell
University. Cornell University, 31/03/2010. Web. 1 Apr 2011. <
1293:
Warren, Barbour S., and Carol Devine. "Phytoestrogens and Breast Cancer." Cornell
University. Cornell University, 31/03/2010. Web. 1 Apr 2011. <
1255:
Warren, Barbour S., and Carol Devine. "Phytoestrogens and Breast Cancer." Cornell
University. Cornell University, 31/03/2010. Web. 1 Apr 2011. <
64:
although important, are not essential to the functioning of the plant. However, secondary plant metabolites are useful in the long term, often for
877:
Venturi, S.; Donati, F.M.; Venturi, A.; Venturi, M. (2000). "Environmental Iodine Deficiency: A Challenge to the Evolution of Terrestrial Life?".
642:, ultimately increasing the nutritional value. Cooking can also reduce the amount of phytic acid in food but soaking is much more effective.
1278:
774:
Crozier, Alan; Clifford, Michael N; Ashihara, Hiroshi, eds. (Nov 12, 2007). "Chapter 1. Phenols, Polyphenols and Tannins: An Overview".
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effect of gossypol in-take is very rare however. Gossypol induced hypokalemic paralysis is easily treatable with potassium repletion.
826:
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and NIS, is poisonous only for a large part of parasites and herbivores and not for the plant cells in which it seems useful in
65:
807:
Wink, Michael (26 Mar 2010). "1. Introduction: Biochemistry, Physiology and Ecological Functions of Secondary Metabolites".
614:
is the main method of phosphorus storage in plant seeds, but is not readily absorbed by many animals (only absorbed by
688:, found in nuts, oilseeds, soy, and other foods. Phytoestrogens are chemicals which act like the hormone estrogen.
1358:
527:, it does not interact specifically with any part of the organism, allowing it to travel throughout the plant.
1162:
Qian, Shao-Zhen and, Wang, Zhen-Gang; Wang, Z (1984). "Gossypol: A Potential Antifertility Agent for Males".
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animals). Not only is phytic acid a phosphorus storage unit, but it also is a source of energy and
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some belief that the chelating of phytic acid may have potential use in the treatment of cancer.
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in plants, and this research was compounded by the use of tracer techniques which made deducing
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meaning the synthetic sites are not required throughout the organism. As atropine is not a
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213:
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810:
Annual Plant Reviews Volume 40: Biochemistry of Plant Secondary Metabolism, Second Edition
638:
which increases the availability of vitamins and nutrient, while reducing phytic acid and
558:
is used to produce 4-coumaryol-CoA, and this is then combined with malonyl-CoA to produce
551:
749:
of geranylgeranyl pyrophosphate or diphosphate (GGPP) and there is no NADPH requirement.
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are one class of secondary plant metabolites that are also known as Vitamin P or
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Plant Secondary Metabolites: Occurrence, Structure and Role in the Human Diet
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P. F. Heinstein; D. L. Herman; S. B. Tove; F. H. Smith (25 September 1970).
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728:. Carotenes are carotenoids with molecules that are unoxygenated, such as
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720:. Xanthophylls are carotenoids with molecules containing oxygen, such as
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contain nitrogens, frequently in a ring structure, and are derived from
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586:(NIS). Many plant pesticides are cyanogenic glycoside which liberate
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670:. Gossypol has also been linked to causing hypokalemic paralysis.
969:
Graf, E; Eaton, JW (1990). "Antioxidant functions of phytic acid".
912:
Venturi, Sebastiano (2011). "Evolutionary Significance of Iodine".
947:
http://naturalbias.com/a-hidden-danger-with-nuts-grains-and-seeds/
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444:
15:
89:
Nitrogen-containing alkaloids and sulphur-containing compounds.
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is a type of secondary metabolite called a tropane alkaloid.
1308:
http://envirocancer.cornell.edu/factsheet/diet/fs1.phyto.cfm
1295:
http://envirocancer.cornell.edu/factsheet/diet/fs1.phyto.cfm
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http://envirocancer.cornell.edu/factsheet/diet/fs1.phyto.cfm
80:
Flavonoids and allied phenolic and polyphenolic compounds,
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which is one of the preliminary pieces for cell walls.
491:
Some of the secondary metabolites are discussed below:
372:
These are terpenoids with a particular ring structure.
196:
NPAAs are produced by specific plant families such as
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http://www.phyticacid.org/nuts/phytic-acid-in-nuts/
599:species. Its structure allows the release of
8:
1196:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1164:Annual Review of Pharmacology and Toxicology
99:
1089:
1271:Plant Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
72:Types of secondary metabolites in plants
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554:metabolic pathway where the amino acid
1273:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 211.
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1006:Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry
59:Primary vs. secondary plant metabolism
7:
1269:Richard C. Leegood, Per Lea (1998).
857:https://www.jstor.org/stable/2473263
97:into following, more specific types
1176:10.1146/annurev.pa.24.040184.001553
1078:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
971:Free Radical Biology & Medicine
626:for plants, and can be a source of
704:are organic pigments found in the
562:which are backbones of Flavonoids
93:Other researchers have classified
14:
1049:"Secondary Metabolites in Plants"
187:Non-protein amino acids (NPAAs)
1332:"Tetraterpenes and Carotenoids"
1:
1091:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)62845-5
983:10.1016/0891-5849(90)90146-A
109:Number of known metabolites
1375:
1071:"Biosynthesis of Gossypol"
926:10.2174/187231311796765012
574:
1227:10.1207/s15327914nc5402_5
891:10.1089/10507250050137851
819:10.1002/9781444320503.ch1
914:Current Chemical Biology
1141:10.1126/science.6750791
843:"Kegg Enzyme: 3.1.1.10"
584:sodium-iodide symporter
21:
1336:www.life.illinois.edu
784:10.1002/9780470988558
244:Cyanogenic glycosides
95:secondary metabolites
48:secondary metabolites
19:
1214:Nutrition and Cancer
592:cytochrome c oxidase
577:Cyanogenic glycoside
571:Cyanogenic glycoside
351:Tetrahydrocannabinol
318:Nitrogen-containing
295:Nitrogen-containing
282:Nitrogen-containing
248:Nitrogen-containing
233:Nitrogen-containing
190:Nitrogen-containing
122:Nitrogen-containing
29:Secondary metabolism
25:Secondary metabolism
1133:1982Sci...218..288M
1051:. Biology Reference
640:protease inhibitors
1018:10.1007/bf03179796
645:Phytic acid is an
590:, which, blocking
525:primary metabolite
477:and organic acids
52:metabolic pathways
22:
1280:978-0-471-97683-7
1127:(4569): 288β289.
1084:(18): 4658β4665.
813:. pp. 1β19.
520:Atropa belladonna
489:
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480:Without nitrogen
464:Without nitrogen
449:Without nitrogen
423:Without nitrogen
389:Without nitrogen
366:Without nitrogen
336:Without nitrogen
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1359:Plant physiology
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1338:. Archived from
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1342:on 2012-03-20.
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1221:(2): 184β201.
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920:(3): 155β162.
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1012:(3): 283β94.
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556:phenylalanine
553:
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516:phenylalanine
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1053:. Retrieved
1042:
1009:
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974:
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942:
917:
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907:
885:(8): 727β9.
882:
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769:
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742:chlorophylls
714:xanthophylls
710:chromoplasts
706:chloroplasts
700:
682:
664:
657:
644:
632:
622:, a natural
610:
580:
534:
498:
490:
374:Cycloartenol
343:Azadirachtin
314:polypeptides
267:Lotaustralin
216:. Examples:
92:
75:
62:
39:
24:
23:
1170:: 329β360.
977:(1): 61β9.
702:Carotenoids
697:Carotenoids
672:Hypokalemic
647:antioxidant
636:germination
628:myoinositol
624:antioxidant
612:Phytic acid
607:Phytic acid
508:amino acids
460:Polyketides
441:fatty acids
430:Resveratrol
400:tannic acid
347:Artemisinin
339:>15,000
218:Azatyrosine
206:Sapindaceae
198:Leguminosae
161:Galantamine
153:Vincristine
43:metabolites
1320:Carotenoid
1123:. (4569).
1105:2011-03-31
1055:2011-03-27
753:References
734:Ξ²-carotene
730:Ξ±-carotene
726:zeaxanthin
544:quercitrin
536:Flavonoids
531:Flavonoids
518:. Within
381:Flavonoids
292:Alkamides
222:Canavanine
84:Terpenoids
934:1872-3136
718:carotenes
564:Chalcones
560:chalcones
504:Alkaloids
415:coumarins
263:Linamarin
255:Amygdalin
210:Aceraceae
177:Ephedrine
173:Quinidine
169:Vincamine
157:Reserpine
149:Berberine
118:Alkaloids
112:Examples
1353:Category
1235:16898863
1034:30361388
1026:11198165
899:11014322
738:lycopene
690:Estrogen
659:Gossypol
654:Gossypol
616:ruminant
500:Atropine
495:Atropine
396:Luteolin
362:saponins
358:Steroids
332:Terpenes
310:peptides
271:Prunasin
165:Atropine
145:Morphine
141:Nicotine
137:Caffeine
133:Psilocin
1184:6375548
1149:6750791
1129:Bibcode
1121:Science
1100:4318479
991:2182395
879:Thyroid
620:cations
601:cyanide
588:cyanide
512:tropine
419:lignans
411:lignins
385:Tannins
306:Lectins
259:Dhurrin
181:Quinine
129:Cocaine
36:History
1277:
1241:
1233:
1182:
1147:
1098:
1032:
1024:
989:
932:
897:
825:
790:
722:lutein
546:, and
540:citrin
229:Amines
125:21000
1310:>.
1297:>.
1259:>.
1243:60328
1239:S2CID
1074:(PDF)
1030:S2CID
548:rutin
452:1500
445:waxes
426:2000
392:5000
321:2000
103:Class
86:, and
1275:ISBN
1231:PMID
1198:link
1180:PMID
1145:PMID
1096:PMID
1022:PMID
987:PMID
930:ISSN
895:PMID
823:ISBN
788:ISBN
736:and
724:and
716:and
708:and
483:200
467:750
443:and
417:and
383:and
360:and
312:and
298:150
285:100
236:100
212:and
193:700
106:Type
1223:doi
1172:doi
1137:doi
1125:218
1086:doi
1082:245
1014:doi
979:doi
922:doi
887:doi
815:doi
780:doi
369:NA
251:60
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
