200:
apparatus (by incorporating a crank-rotated cam mechanism to standardize the dropping action) and the procedures to make the measurement more repeatable. Soil is placed into the metal cup (Casagrande cup) portion of the device and a groove is made down at its center with a standardized tool of 2 millimetres (0.079 in) width. The cup is repeatedly dropped 10 mm onto a hard rubber base at a rate of 120 blows per minute, during which the groove closes up gradually as a result of the impact. The number of blows for the groove to close is recorded. The moisture content at which it takes 25 drops of the cup to cause the groove to close over a distance of 12.7 millimetres (0.50 in) is defined as the liquid limit. The test is normally run at several moisture contents, and the moisture content which requires 25 blows to close the groove is interpolated from the test results. The liquid limit test is defined by ASTM standard test method D 4318. The test method also allows running the test at one moisture content where 20 to 30 blows are required to close the groove; then a correction factor is applied to obtain the liquid limit from the moisture content.
1293:
1146:
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1180:
1081:
172:
1228:
1281:
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1317:
1117:
57:, soil may appear in one of four states: solid, semi-solid, plastic and liquid. In each state, the consistency and behavior of soil are different, and consequently so are its engineering properties. Thus, the boundary between each state can be defined based on a change in the soil's behavior. The Atterberg limits can be used to distinguish between
250:. This is thought to be very useful because as limit determination is relatively simple, it is more difficult to determine these other properties. Thus the Atterberg limits are not only used to identify the soil's classification, but it allows for the use of empirical correlations for some other engineering properties.
297:, where W is the existing water content. Soil at the liquid limit will have a consistency index of 0, while soil at the plastic limit will have a consistency index of 1 and if W > LL, Ic is negative. That means soil is in the liquid state. More over, sum of Liquidity index and Consistency index equal to 1 (one)
154:
Standard D 4318. If the soil is at a moisture content where its behavior is plastic, this thread will retain its shape down to a very narrow diameter. The sample can then be remolded and the test repeated. As the moisture content falls due to evaporation, the thread will begin to break apart at
258:
The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index is the size of the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties. The PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL-PL). Soils with a high PI tend to be clay,
199:
Atterberg's original liquid limit test involved mixing a pat of clay in a round-bottomed porcelain bowl of 10–12 cm diameter. A groove was cut through the pat of clay with a spatula, and the bowl was then struck many times against the palm of one hand. Casagrande subsequently standardized the
284:
The liquidity index (LI) is used for scaling the natural water content of a soil sample to the limits. It can be calculated as a ratio of difference between natural water content, plastic limit, and liquid limit: LI=(W-PL)/(LL-PL) where W is the natural water content.
125:. Thus these tests are used widely in the preliminary stages of designing any structure to ensure that the soil will have the correct amount of shear strength and not too much change in volume as it expands and shrinks with different moisture contents.
212:, also called the cone penetrometer test. It is based on the measurement of penetration into the soil of a standardized stainless steel cone of specific apex angle, length and mass. Although the Casagrande test is widely used across North America, the
991:
Sowers, 1979. Introductory Soil
Mechanics and Foundations: Geotechnical Engineering, 4th Ed., Macmillan, New York. (as referenced in Coduto, 1999. Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices. Prentice Hall. New
121:). These tests are mainly used on clayey or silty soils since these are the soils which expand and shrink when the moisture content varies. Clays and silts interact with water and thus change sizes and have varying
162:
moisture content where the thread breaks apart at a diameter of 3.2 mm (about 1/8 inch). A soil is considered non-plastic if a thread cannot be rolled out down to 3.2 mm at any moisture possible.
327:
The shearing strength of clay at the plastic limit is a measure of its toughness. It is the ratio of plasticity index to the flow index. It gives us an idea of the shear strength of the soil.
339:. If activity is less than 0.75, the soil is inactive. If activity exceeds 1.4 then the soil is termed as active. If activity lies within the above values then the soil is moderately active.
65:
and to distinguish between different types of silts and clays. The water content at which soil changes from one state to the other is known as consistency limits, or
Atterberg's limit.
305:
The curve obtained from the graph of water content against the log of blows while determining the liquid limit lies almost on a straight line and is known as the flow curve.
1017:
138:
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will not result in more volume reduction. The test to determine the shrinkage limit is
1982:
2148:
735:
191:
of the soil is not actually zero at the liquid limit. The precise definition of the liquid limit is based on standard test procedures described below.
150:
The plastic limit (PL) is determined by rolling out a thread of the fine portion of a soil on a flat, non-porous surface. The procedure is defined in
105:
Distinctions in soils are used in assessing soil which is to have a structure built on them. Soils when wet retain water, and some expand in volume (
238:
The values of these limits are used in a number of ways. There is also a close relationship between the limits and properties of a soil such as
226:
The results from the cone penetrometer do not depend on the skills or the judgement of the operator. So, the results obtained are more reliable.
109:
clay). The amount of expansion is related to the ability of the soil to take in water and its structural make-up (the type of minerals present:
1010:
951:
743:
982:
Seed, H.B. (1967). "Fundamental
Aspects of the Atterberg Limits". Journal of Soil Mechanics and Foundations Div., 92(SM4), Retrieved from
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710:
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is much more prevalent in Europe and elsewhere due to being less dependent on the operator in determining the liquid limit.
179:
The liquid limit (LL) is conceptually defined as the water content at which the behavior of a clayey soil changes from the
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1566:
1108:
1998:
259:
those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those with a PI of 0 (non-plastic) tend to have little or no silt or clay.
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state. However, the transition from plastic to liquid behavior is gradual over a range of water contents, and the
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799:"ASTM D4318 - 10 Standard Test Methods for Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, and Plasticity Index of Soils"
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988:
Das, B. M. (2006). Principles of geotechnical engineering. Stamford, CT: Thomson
Learning College.
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888:
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139:
860:
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The consistency index (Ic) indicates the consistency (firmness) of a soil. It is calculated as
1944:
1690:
1581:
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84:
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1772:
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1712:
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69:
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1852:
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1272:
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142:
D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used than the liquid and plastic limits.
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17:
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920:"Atterberg Limits Soil Classification - Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit, Shrinkage"
1939:
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861:"The effect of surface roughness and shear rate during fall-cone calibration"
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798:
229:
The results can be used to estimate the undrained shear strength of soils.
2125:
2012:
1742:
1717:
1644:
1561:
1551:
983:
950:. International Society For Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.
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1954:
1752:
1727:
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73:
34:
are a basic measure of the critical water contents of a fine-grained
335:
The activity of a soil is the ratio of plasticity index to the clay
27:
Geotechnical characteristics of a soil related to its water content
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35:
999:
859:
Llano-Serna, Marcelo A.; Contreras, Luis F. (2019-03-15).
319:
is the slope of flow curve and is termed as "Flow Index"
825:
Journal of the Soil
Mechanics and Foundations Division
208:
Another method for measuring the liquid limit is the
2056:
2011:
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821:"Fundamental Aspects of the Atterberg Limits"
557:Atterberg Limit Values for the Clay Minerals
8:
984:FUNDAMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE ATTERBERG LIMITS
1871:
1604:
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1052:
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1004:
996:
819:Seed HB, WOODWARD RJ, Lundgren R (1967).
711:"Brief history of Swedish Soil Mechanics"
555:
341:
702:
308:The equation for flow curve is: W = - I
913:
911:
223:It is easier to perform in laboratory.
83:, in 1911. They were later refined by
744:United States Army Corps of Engineers
7:
158:The plastic limit is defined as the
978:Soil Physical Properties--Mechanics
945:"The Colloidal "Activity" of Clays"
2149:Tests in geotechnical laboratories
219:Advantages over Casagrande Method
25:
1036:Offshore geotechnical engineering
343:Soil texture and Plasticity data
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957:from the original on 2021-10-02
262:Soil descriptions based on PI:
1:
1686:Mechanically stabilized earth
68:These limits were created by
1438:Hydraulic conductivity tests
94:and a close collaborator of
1999:Stress distribution in soil
2165:
1149:Pore pressure measurement
269:(<7) – Slightly plastic
1902:Preconsolidation pressure
1297:Standard penetration test
1033:
275:(>17) – Highly plastic
1398:California bearing ratio
1196:Rotary-pressure sounding
1027:Geotechnical engineering
175:Casagrande cup in action
1818:Geosynthetic clay liner
1793:Expanded clay aggregate
1413:Proctor compaction test
1354:Crosshole sonic logging
1340:Nuclear densometer test
1097:Geo-electrical sounding
943:Skempton, A.W. (1953).
397:Well graded sandy loam
374:Well graded loamy sand
272:(7-17) – Medium plastic
2081:Earthquake engineering
1892:Lateral earth pressure
1517:Hydraulic conductivity
1368:Wave equation analysis
1347:Exploration geophysics
1239:Deformation monitoring
1208:Rotary weight sounding
877:10.1680/jgeot.18.P.222
837:10.1061/JSFEAQ.0000685
736:"Shrinkage Limit Test"
644:Dehydrated halloysite
443:Lean sandy silty clay
420:Med graded sandy loam
194:
176:
1259:Settlement recordings
1184:Rock control drilling
1085:Cone penetration test
683:Allopphane (undried)
174:
92:geotechnical engineer
2121:Agricultural science
1823:Cellular confinement
774:"Atterberg's Limits"
631:Hydrated halloysite
2013:Numerical analysis
1897:Overburden pressure
1887:Pore water pressure
1667:Shoring structures
1542:Reynolds' dilatancy
1443:Water content tests
1428:Triaxial shear test
1388:Soil classification
1361:Pile integrity test
849:BS 1377 part 2
558:
535:Poorly graded sand
344:
295:CI = (LL-W)/(LL-PL)
195:Casagrande's method
1988:Slab stabilisation
1968:Stability analysis
924:www.aboutcivil.org
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342:
177:
155:larger diameters.
140:ASTM International
98:(both pioneers of
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2007:
2006:
1983:Sliding criterion
1945:Response spectrum
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1691:Pressure grouting
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1403:Direct shear test
1109:Permeability test
695:
694:
554:
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289:Consistency index
266:(0) – Non-plastic
85:Arthur Casagrande
53:Depending on its
16:(Redirected from
2156:
1995:Bearing capacity
1882:Effective stress
1872:
1773:Land reclamation
1713:Land development
1608:Natural features
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1572:Specific storage
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1393:Atterberg limits
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747:. Archived from
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713:. Archived from
707:
576:Montmorillonite
559:
466:Lean silty clay
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296:
254:Plasticity index
129:Laboratory tests
70:Albert Atterberg
32:Atterberg limits
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18:Plasticity index
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1681:Ground freezing
1671:Retaining walls
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1273:Shear vane test
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1930:Consolidation
1928:
1926:
1925:Frost heaving
1923:
1921:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1909:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
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1888:
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1880:
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1828:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1814:
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1809:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1803:Geosynthetics
1801:
1799:
1798:Crushed stone
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
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1759:
1756:
1754:
1753:Cut-and-cover
1751:
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1744:
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1739:
1736:
1734:
1731:
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1525:
1523:
1522:Water content
1520:
1518:
1515:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1502:
1499:
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1242:
1241:
1240:
1237:
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1233:
1229:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1220:Sample series
1217:
1213:
1212:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1200:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1188:
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1181:
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1082:
1078:
1077:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1054:
1051:
1045:
1044:Investigation
1041:
1037:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1016:
1014:
1009:
1007:
1002:
1001:
998:
990:
987:
985:
981:
979:
976:
975:
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953:
946:
939:
936:
925:
921:
914:
912:
908:
902:
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890:
886:
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878:
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866:
862:
855:
852:
846:
843:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
815:
812:
800:
794:
791:
779:
775:
768:
765:
754:on 2007-01-02
750:
746:
745:
737:
731:
728:
717:on 2007-03-25
716:
712:
706:
703:
697:
691:
688:
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675:
672:
669:
668:
665:
662:
659:
656:
655:
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649:
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639:
636:
633:
630:
629:
625:
622:
619:
616:
615:
611:
608:
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602:
601:
598:
595:
592:
589:
588:
584:
581:
578:
575:
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567:
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561:
560:
549:
546:
543:
540:
537:
534:
531:
530:
526:
523:
520:
517:
514:
511:
508:
507:
503:
500:
497:
494:
491:
488:
485:
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471:
468:
465:
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461:
457:
454:
451:
448:
445:
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431:
428:
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419:
416:
415:
411:
408:
405:
402:
399:
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388:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
370:
369:
365:
362:
359:
356:
353:
350:
347:
346:
340:
338:
337:size fraction
330:
328:
322:
320:
313:
306:
300:
298:
288:
286:
279:
274:
271:
268:
265:
264:
263:
260:
253:
251:
249:
245:
241:
233:
228:
225:
222:
221:
220:
217:
215:
211:
203:
201:
192:
190:
186:
183:state to the
182:
173:
166:
164:
161:
156:
153:
146:Plastic limit
145:
143:
141:
133:
128:
126:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
103:
101:
97:
96:Karl Terzaghi
93:
90:
86:
82:
78:
75:
71:
66:
64:
60:
56:
55:water content
51:
49:
45:
44:plastic limit
41:
37:
33:
19:
2106:Biogeography
2101:Hydrogeology
2091:Soil science
2071:Geochemistry
1830:Infiltration
1758:Cut and fill
1701:Soil nailing
1567:Permeability
1532:Bulk density
1392:
1249:Inclinometer
1172:Ram sounding
1057:
959:. Retrieved
938:
927:. Retrieved
923:
905:Sowers, 1979
901:
868:
865:Géotechnique
864:
854:
845:
828:
824:
814:
803:. Retrieved
801:. ASTM. 2010
793:
783:22 September
781:. Retrieved
777:
767:
756:. Retrieved
749:the original
742:
730:
719:. Retrieved
715:the original
705:
657:Attapulgite
351:Description
334:
326:
314:
307:
304:
292:
283:
261:
257:
244:permeability
237:
218:
207:
198:
178:
167:Liquid limit
157:
149:
137:
104:
67:
52:
48:liquid limit
47:
43:
39:
31:
29:
2116:Archaeology
1840:Foundations
1813:Geomembrane
1696:Slurry wall
1635:Water table
1599:Interaction
1595:Structures
1582:Sensitivity
1379:Laboratory
590:Nontronite
571:SL, %
568:PL, %
565:LL, %
512:Heavy clay
160:gravimetric
1973:Mitigation
1955:Shear wave
1940:Earthquake
1935:Compaction
1920:Permafrost
1911:Phenomena/
1808:Geotextile
1733:Embankment
1723:Excavation
1660:Earthworks
1620:Vegetation
1615:Topography
1537:Thixotropy
1527:Void ratio
1510:Properties
1408:Hydrometer
1153:Piezometer
1073:Core drill
972:References
961:2022-06-18
929:2020-07-01
805:2011-02-18
758:2006-12-21
721:2007-01-15
617:Kaolinite
312:Log N + C
301:Flow index
81:agronomist
2096:Hydrology
2076:Petrology
1964:analysis
1962:Landslide
1867:Mechanics
1778:Track bed
1763:Fill dirt
1748:Terracing
1321:Trial pit
1136:Statnamic
1121:Load test
893:134061032
885:0016-8505
670:Chlorite
2143:Category
2126:Agrology
2015:software
1913:problems
1743:Causeway
1718:Landfill
1645:Subgrade
1562:Porosity
1557:Cohesion
992:Jersey.)
952:Archived
689:130-140
686:200-250
663:100-120
660:160-230
579:100-900
562:Mineral
331:Activity
315:Where 'I
248:strength
107:smectite
89:Austrian
2066:Geology
2038:SVSlope
1848:Shallow
1768:Grading
1706:Tieback
1650:Subsoil
1640:Bedrock
1630:Topsoil
1625:Terrain
1418:R-value
1381:testing
1131:Dynamic
1058:in situ
1056:Field (
620:30-110
606:60-120
603:Illite
585:8.5-15
582:50-100
181:plastic
77:chemist
74:Swedish
2048:Plaxis
2043:UTEXAS
2033:SVFlux
2023:SEEP2D
1875:Forces
1728:Trench
1676:Gabion
1486:Gravel
1126:Static
891:
883:
676:36-40
673:44-47
650:30-45
647:35-55
637:47-60
634:50-70
626:25-29
623:25-40
612:15-17
609:35-60
596:19-27
593:37-72
246:, and
185:liquid
46:, and
38:: its
2028:STABL
1501:Loess
1464:Types
955:(PDF)
948:(PDF)
889:S2CID
752:(PDF)
739:(PDF)
698:Notes
360:Clay
357:Silt
354:Sand
117:, or
87:, an
1853:Deep
1496:Loam
1491:Peat
1481:Sand
1476:Silt
1471:Clay
1456:Soil
1158:Well
881:ISSN
785:2019
152:ASTM
119:sand
115:silt
111:clay
79:and
72:, a
63:clay
61:and
59:silt
36:soil
30:The
1738:Cut
1047:and
873:doi
833:doi
550:NP
547:NP
538:94
527:40
524:67
521:72
518:22
501:26
498:10
495:85
481:15
478:36
475:31
472:64
455:28
452:35
449:33
446:32
432:22
429:18
423:73
412:NP
409:16
406:13
403:15
400:72
389:NP
386:16
380:10
377:88
366:PI
363:LL
348:NO
102:).
2145::
1997:*
922:.
910:^
887:.
879:.
869:70
867:.
863:.
829:92
827:.
823:.
776:.
741:.
544:6
541:6
532:8
515:6
509:7
504:2
492:5
486:6
469:5
463:5
458:9
440:4
435:4
426:9
417:3
394:2
383:2
371:1
242:,
113:,
50:.
42:,
1601:)
1597:(
1060:)
1019:e
1012:t
1005:v
964:.
932:.
895:.
875::
839:.
835::
808:.
787:.
761:.
724:.
317:f
310:f
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
