763:(a component of the pigment found in the hair and skin), failure to convert normal levels of phenylalanine to tyrosine can lead to fair hair and skin. The frequency of this disease varies greatly. Specifically, in the United States, PKU is found at a rate of nearly 1 in 10,000 births. Due to newborn screening, doctors are able to detect PKU in a baby sooner. This allows them to start treatment early, preventing the baby from suffering from the severe effects of PKU. PKU is caused by a mutation in the PAH gene, whose role is to instruct the body on how to make phenylalanine hydroxylase. Phenylalanine hydroxylase is what converts the phenylalanine, taken in through diet, into other things that the body can use. The mutation often decreases the effectiveness or rate at which the hydroxylase breaks down the phenylalanine. This is what causes the phenylalanine to build up in the body.
335:
604:
1005:
672:. Schizophrenia and autism are linked to the same gene deletion but manifest very differently from each other. The resulting phenotype depends on the stage of life at which the individual develops the disorder. Childhood manifestation of the gene deletion is typically associated with autism, while adolescent and later expression of the gene deletion often manifests in schizophrenia or other psychotic disorders. Though the disorders are linked by genetics, there is no increased risk found for adult schizophrenia in patients who experienced autism in childhood.
759:. Depending on the mutation involved, this conversion is reduced or ceases entirely. Unconverted phenylalanine builds up in the bloodstream and can lead to levels that are toxic to the developing nervous system of newborn and infant children. The most dangerous form of this is called classic PKU, which is common in infants. The baby seems normal at first but actually incurs permanent intellectual disability. This can cause symptoms such as mental retardation, abnormal gait and posture, and delayed growth. Because tyrosine is used by the body to make
782:
38:
630:, thereby affecting melanin-related and other dependent traits throughout the organism. Melanin is a substance made by the body that is used to absorb light and provides coloration to the skin. Indications of albinism are the absence of color in an organism's eyes, hair, and skin, due to the lack of melanin. Some forms of albinism are also known to have symptoms that manifest themselves through rapid-eye movement, light sensitivity, and
901:, termed "mini-muscle", causes, when mutated, a 50% reduction in hindlimb muscle mass as its primary effect (the phenotypic effect by which it was originally identified). In addition to smaller hindlimb muscle mass, the mutant mice exhibit lower heart rates during physical activity, and a higher endurance. Mini Muscle Mice also exhibit larger kidneys and livers. All of these morphological deviations influence the behavior and
718:
245:, through separate individual research, reinforced the faultiness of "genuine" pleiotropy. A few years later, Hadorn partitioned pleiotropy into a "mosaic" model (which states that one locus directly affects two phenotypic traits) and a "relational" model (which is analogous to "spurious" pleiotropy). These terms are no longer in use but have contributed to the current understanding of pleiotropy.
3321:
839:
869:. Over 1,000 different mutations in FBN1 have been found to result in abnormal function of fibrillin, which consequently relates to connective tissues elongating progressively and weakening. Because these fibers are found in tissues throughout the body, mutations in this gene can have a widespread effect on certain systems, including the
410:. Traditionally, models of pleiotropy have predicted that evolutionary rate of genes is related negatively with pleiotropy – as the number of traits of an organism increases, the evolutionary rates of genes in the organism's population decrease. This relationship has not been clearly found in
360:
One measure of pleiotropy is the fraction of genetic variance that is common between two distinct complex human traits: e.g., height vs bone density, breast cancer vs heart attack risk, or diabetes vs hypothyroidism risk. This has been calculated for hundreds of pairs of traits, with results shown in
385:
The "pleiotropy-barrier" model proposes a logistic growth pattern for the increase of pleiotropy over time. This model differentiates between the levels of pleiotropy in evolutionarily younger and older genes subjected to natural selection. It suggests a higher potential for phenotypic innovation in
1039:
and BMP2, affecting medullary bone (the part of the bone that transfers calcium into developing eggshells) are located at the same locus as the gene affecting comb mass. HAO1 and BMP2 also display pleiotropic effects with commonly desired domestic chicken behavior; those chickens who express higher
568:
by roughly half. However, antagonistic pleiotropy also lends greater evolutionary "staying power" to genes controlling beneficial traits, since an organism with a mutation to those genes would have a decreased chance of successfully reproducing, as multiple traits would be affected, potentially for
811:
Sickle cell anemia is a pleiotropic disease because the expression of a single mutated HBB gene produces numerous consequences throughout the body. The mutated hemoglobin forms polymers and clumps together causing the deoxygenated sickle red blood cells to assume the disfigured sickle shape. As a
381:
for both traits during the same time period would increase the positive correlation between the traits, while selection on only one trait would decrease the positive correlation between the two traits. Eventually, traits that underwent directional selection simultaneously were linked by a single
498:
are instantly facilitated, and in turn, pleiotropically causes adaptive speciation. The studies on fungal evolutionary genomics will further elucidate the earliest stages of divergence as a result of gene flow, and provide insight into pleiotropically induced adaptive divergence in other
936:
pathways that repair damage to cellular DNA use many different proteins. These proteins often have other functions in addition to DNA repair. In humans, defects in some of these multifunctional proteins can cause widely differing clinical phenotypes. As an example, mutations in the
342:
Most genetic traits are polygenic in nature: controlled by many genetic variants, each of small effect. These genetic variants can reside in protein coding or non-coding regions of the genome. In this context pleiotropy refers to the influence that a specific genetic variant, e.g., a
272:
depends on the independence of phenotypic variation from random changes (that is, mutations). It theorizes that an increasing phenotypic independence corresponds to a decrease in the likelihood that a given mutation will result in an increase in fitness. Expanding on Fisher's work,
417:
In mating, for many animals the signals and receptors of sexual communication may have evolved simultaneously as the expression of a single gene, instead of the result of selection on two independent genes, one that affects the signaling trait and one that affects the
1016:, where their feathers all curl outward and upward rather than lying flat against the body. Frizzle feather was found to stem from a deletion in the genomic region coding for α-Keratin. This gene seems to pleiotropically lead to other abnormalities like increased
183:, which was published in 1910. He originally defined pleiotropy as occurring when "several characteristics are dependent upon ... ; these characteristics will then always appear together and may thus appear correlated". This definition is still used today.
325:
Pleiotropy describes the genetic effect of a single gene on multiple phenotypic traits. The underlying mechanism is genes that code for a product that is either used by various cells or has a cascade-like signaling function that affects various targets.
389:
Other more complex models compensate for some of the basic model's oversights, such as multiple traits or assumptions about how the loci affect the traits. They also propose the idea that pleiotropy increases the
2629:
Forrest, Iain S.; Chaudhary, Kumardeep; Vy, Ha My T.; Bafna, Shantanu; Kim, Soyeon; Won, Hong-Hee; Loos, Ruth J.F.; Cho, Judy; Pasquale, Louis R.; Nadkarni, Girish N.; Rocheleau, Ghislain; Do, Ron (August 2021).
376:
to the expression of a certain trait. The locus affects the expressed trait only through changing the expression of other loci. Over time, that locus would affect two traits by interacting with a second locus.
194:
of pleiotropy. In 1938 Gruneberg published an article dividing pleiotropy into two distinct types: "genuine" and "spurious" pleiotropy. "Genuine" pleiotropy is when two distinct primary products arise from one
127:
that can be obtained from food, in the human body. Phenylketonuria causes this amino acid to increase in amount in the body, which can be very dangerous. The disease is caused by a defect in a single gene on
426:
arises when selection for certain alleles of a gene that are beneficial for one sex causes expression of potentially harmful traits by the same gene in the other sex, especially if the gene is located on an
884:
Without medical intervention, prognosis of Marfan syndrome can range from moderate to life-threatening, with 90% of known causes of death in diagnosed patients relating to cardiovascular complications and
804:, which is the protein red blood cells use to carry oxygen throughout the body. Sickle cell anemia occurs when the HBB gene mutation causes both beta-globin subunits of hemoglobin to change into hemoglobin
540:
in 1957. Williams suggested that some genes responsible for increased fitness in the younger, fertile organism contribute to decreased fitness later in life, which may give an evolutionary explanation for
281:
by using molecular genetics to support the idea of "universal pleiotropy". The concepts of these various studies on evolution have seeded numerous other research projects relating to individual fitness.
2510:"A novel intronic single nucleotide polymorphism in the myosin heavy polypeptide 4 gene is responsible for the mini-muscle phenotype characterized by major reduction in hind-limb muscle mass in mice"
2121:
Vorstman, Jacob A.S.; Breetvelt, Elemi J.; Thode, Kirstin I.; Chow, Eva W.C.; Bassett, Anne S. (January 2013). "Expression of autism spectrum and schizophrenia in patients with a 22q11.2 deletion".
2053:
Vorstman, Jacob A.S.; Breetvelt, Elemi J.; Thode, Kirstin I.; Chow, Eva W.C.; Bassett, Anne S. (January 2013). "Expression of autism spectrum and schizophrenia in patients with a 22q11.2 deletion".
1023:
Domesticated chickens underwent a rapid selection process that led to unrelated phenotypes having high correlations, suggesting pleiotropic, or at least close linkage, effects between comb mass and
85:
in a pleiotropic gene may have an effect on several traits simultaneously, due to the gene coding for a product used by a myriad of cells or different targets that have the same signaling function.
792:
Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disease that causes deformed red blood cells with a rigid, crescent shape instead of the normal flexible, round shape. It is caused by a change in one nucleotide, a
1820:
Gladieux, Pierre; Ropars, Jeanne; Badouin, HĂ©lĂšne; Branca, Antoine; Aguileta, Gabriela; Vienne, Damien M.; RodrĂguez de la Vega, Ricardo C.; Branco, Sara; Giraud, Tatiana (February 2014).
446:
species, they noticed that the fertilization of eggs was prevented in all eight of their separate studies, a likely effect of pleiotropic genes on speciation. Likewise, pleiotropic gene's
2508:
Kelly, Scott A.; Bell, Timothy A.; Selitsky, Sara R.; Buus, Ryan J.; Hua, Kunjie; Weinstock, George M.; Garland, Theodore; Pardo-Manuel de
Villena, Fernando; Pomp, Daniel (2013-12-01).
199:. "Spurious" pleiotropy, on the other hand, is either when one primary product is utilized in different ways or when one primary product initiates a cascade of events with different
703:
of schizophrenia is 70% to 90%, therefore the pleiotropy of genes is crucial since it causes an increased risk for certain psychotic disorders and can aid psychiatric diagnosis.
595:". Since both of these states are linked to the same mutated gene, large populations today are susceptible to sickle cell despite it being a fitness-impairing genetic disorder.
171:'s 1866 pea plant experiment. Mendel recognized that certain pea plant traits (seed coat color, flower color, and axial spots) seemed to be inherited together; however, their
2730:
Johnsson, Martin; Gustafson, Ida; Rubin, Carl-Johan; Sahlqvist, Anna-Stina; Jonsson, Kenneth B.; Kerje, Susanne; Ekwall, Olov; KĂ€mpe, Olle; Andersson, Leif (2012-08-30).
357:
for human traits such as height, bone density, and many disease risks. Similar predictors exist for plant and animal species and are used in agricultural breeding.
1690:
Berger, David; Berg, Elena C.; Widegren, William; Arnqvist, Göran; Maklakov, Alexei A. (December 2014). "Multivariate intralocus sexual conflict in seed beetles".
41:
Simple genotypeâphenotype map that only shows additive pleiotropy effects. G1, G2, and G3 are different genes that contribute to phenotypic traits P1, P2, and P3.
2632:"Genetic pleiotropy of ERCC6 loss-of-function and deleterious missense variants links retinal dystrophy, arrhythmia, and immunodeficiency in diverse ancestries"
2213:
334:
309:
was present, then beneficial traits will occur both before and after reproduction due to natural selection. This, however, is not observed in nature, and thus
2237:
Sullivan, Patrick F.; Kendler, Kenneth S.; Neale, Michael C. (2003-12-01). "Schizophrenia as a complex trait: evidence from a meta-analysis of twin studies".
338:
Pleiotropy seems limited for many traits in humans since the SNP overlap, as measured by variance accounted for, between many polygenic predictors is small.
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trait. In such a case, pleiotropy would facilitate mating and survival. However, pleiotropy can act negatively as well. A study on seed beetles found that
2405:
1887:
Lemaßtre, Jean-François; Berger, Vérane; Bonenfant, Christophe; Douhard, Mathieu; Gamelon, MarlÚne; Plard, Floriane; Gaillard, Jean-Michel (2015-05-07).
207:. He recognized that "spurious" pleiotropy was present in the mutation, while "genuine" pleiotropy was not, thus partially invalidating his own original
905:
of the mouse. For example, mice with the Mini Muscle mutation were observed to have a higher per-gram aerobic capacity. The mini-muscle allele shows a
2299:
1279:
Gruneberg, H., 1938 An analysis of the "pleiotropic" effects of a new lethal mutation in the rat (Mus norvegicus). Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B 125: 123â144.
1036:
260:. This view of pleiotropy, "universal pleiotropy", defined as locus mutations being capable of affecting essentially all traits, was first implied by
575:
is a classic example of the mixed benefit given by the staying power of pleiotropic genes, as the mutation to Hb-S provides the fitness benefit of
414:
for a long time. However, a study based on human disease genes revealed the evidence of lower evolutionary rate in genes with higher pleiotropy.
2679:
Ng, Chen Siang; Wu, Ping; Foley, John; Foley, Anne; McDonald, Merry-Lynn; Juan, Wen-Tau; Huang, Chih-Jen; Lai, Yu-Ting; Lo, Wen-Sui (2012-07-19).
603:
3300:
2459:
Garland, Theodore; Morgan, Martin T.; Swallow, John G.; Rhodes, Justin S.; Girard, Isabelle; Belter, Jason G.; Carter, Patrick A. (June 2002).
2320:
2164:
Roussos, Panos; McClure, Margaret M.; Hazlett, Erin A.; New, Antonia S.; Siever, Larry J.; Bitsios, Panos; Giakoumaki, Stella G. (2013-03-30).
155:
on one trait favors one allele, while selection on other traits favors a different allele. Some gene evolution is harmful to an organism.
521:. This may occur when the trait is beneficial for the organism's early life, but not its late life. Such "trade-offs" are possible since
3265:
2838:
442:
isolation in their studies is a product of pleiotropy's balancing role in indirect selection. By imitating the traits of all-infertile
3110:
2575:
529:
512:
310:
2810:
490:
fungi each adapts to a host, and are only able to mate within a shared host after obtaining resources. Since a single toxin gene or
2853:
2848:
816:
and possibly depriving vital organs of oxygen. Some complications associated with sickle cell anemia include pain, damaged organs,
248:
By accepting the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis, scientists instead focused on how uncoupled phenotypic traits can be affected by
3067:
1031:
abilities. Both males and females with larger combs have higher bone density and strength, which allows females to deposit more
234:
in 1903. This hypothesis shifted future research regarding pleiotropy towards how a single gene can produce various phenotypes.
2379:
350:
215:, it has been established that Gruneberg's definition of "spurious" pleiotropy is what we now identify simply as "pleiotropy".
1004:
910:
676:
533:
361:
the Table. In most cases examined the genomic regions controlling each trait are largely disjoint, with only modest overlap.
344:
286:
227:
3244:
2096:
3095:
525:
affects traits expressed earlier in life, when most organisms are most fertile, more than traits expressed later in life.
3311:
1733:
Kirkpatrick, Mark; Ravigné, Virginie (March 2002). "Speciation by
Natural and Sexual Selection: Models and Experiments".
626:, also termed tyrosinase. This mutation causes the most common form of albinism. The mutation alters the production of
3325:
3062:
265:
167:
Pleiotropic traits had been previously recognized in the scientific community but had not been experimented on until
675:
A 2013 study also genetically linked five psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia and autism. The link was a
3346:
3254:
3120:
2952:
2562:
Lehmann, AR (February 1998). "Dual functions of DNA repair genes: molecular, cellular, and clinical implications".
946:
699:. These particular studies show clustering of these diseases within patients themselves or families. The estimated
423:
172:
2732:"A Sexual Ornament in Chickens Is Affected by Pleiotropic Alleles at HAO1 and BMP2, Selected during Domestication"
2947:
2783:
1013:
942:
745:
741:, and can be caused by any of a large number of mutations in the single gene on chromosome 12 that codes for the
133:
96:
pleiotropy, and selectional pleiotropy. Gene pleiotropy occurs when a gene product interacts with multiple other
560:
Unfortunately, the process of antagonistic pleiotropy may result in an altered evolutionary path with delayed
3188:
3125:
3100:
2983:
2903:
975:
950:
781:
443:
419:
3173:
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3057:
3026:
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1054:
592:
495:
465:
439:
517:
Sometimes, a pleiotropic gene may be both harmful and beneficial to an organism, which is referred to as
353:(GWAS) and machine learning analysis of large genomic datasets have led to the construction of SNP based
3284:
3178:
3105:
3004:
2942:
2937:
2868:
2803:
1822:"Fungal evolutionary genomics provides insight into the mechanisms of adaptive divergence in eukaryotes"
961:
906:
661:
447:
378:
290:
249:
93:
889:. Other characteristics of MFS include an increased arm span and decreased upper to lower body ratio.
1987:"Antagonistic pleiotropy as a widespread mechanism for the maintenance of polymorphic disease alleles"
812:
result, the cells are inflexible and cannot easily flow through blood vessels, increasing the risk of
3193:
3036:
3031:
2913:
2908:
2895:
2325:
2166:"CACNA1C as a risk factor for schizotypal personality disorder and schizotypy in healthy individuals"
1833:
1644:
1302:
850:
391:
302:
152:
137:
2681:"The Chicken Frizzle Feather Is Due to an α-Keratin (KRT75) Mutation That Causes a Defective Rachis"
3289:
2461:"Evolution of a small-muscle polymorphism in lines of house mice selected for high activity levels"
2330:
1079:
1069:
1059:
965:
786:
772:
572:
238:
191:
156:
2347:
2978:
2587:
2490:
2146:
2078:
1869:
1799:
1758:
1715:
1458:
1414:
874:
824:, and loss of vision. Sickle red blood cells also have a shortened lifespan and die prematurely.
730:
411:
253:
31:
226:
further invalidated
Gruneberg's definition of "genuine" pleiotropy, advocating instead for the
3239:
3223:
3019:
3014:
2923:
2763:
2712:
2661:
2579:
2539:
2482:
2272:
2254:
2195:
2138:
2070:
2018:
1967:
1918:
1861:
1750:
1707:
1672:
1610:
1561:
1512:
1379:
1330:
1262:
1221:
1138:
1074:
866:
776:
738:
584:
522:
478:
294:
269:
187:
144:
109:
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consequences. Gruneberg came to these distinctions after experimenting on rats with skeletal
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3218:
3213:
3168:
2796:
2753:
2743:
2702:
2692:
2651:
2643:
2571:
2529:
2521:
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2185:
2177:
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2008:
1998:
1957:
1949:
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1851:
1841:
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1203:
1128:
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993:
696:
407:
373:
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231:
196:
148:
37:
88:
Pleiotropy can arise from several distinct but potentially overlapping mechanisms, such as
3259:
3163:
2973:
1794:
1777:
1453:
1436:
1397:
Williams, G. C. (1957). "Pleiotropy, natural selection, and the evolution of senescence".
985:
833:
726:
712:
680:
653:
364:
Thus, at least for complex human traits so far examined, pleiotropy is limited in extent.
306:
116:
2433:
81:. Such a gene that exhibits multiple phenotypic expression is called a pleiotropic gene.
1837:
1648:
1306:
717:
695:. It has been associated with autism, as well as linked in studies to schizophrenia and
2758:
2731:
2707:
2680:
2656:
2631:
2534:
2509:
2477:
2460:
2294:
2190:
2165:
2013:
1986:
1962:
1937:
1913:
1888:
1778:"Constraints Evolve: Context Dependency of Gene Effects Allows Evolution of Pleiotropy"
1667:
1632:
1605:
1580:
1556:
1531:
1507:
1480:
1437:"Constraints Evolve: Context Dependency of Gene Effects Allows Evolution of Pleiotropy"
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1325:
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878:
793:
49:
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Photomicrograph of normal-shaped and sickle-shape red blood cells from a patient with
3335:
3227:
3141:
3009:
2843:
2820:
1035:
into eggshells. This linkage is further evidenced by the fact that two of the genes,
1012:
Chickens exhibit various traits affected by pleiotropic genes. Some chickens exhibit
886:
752:
665:
647:
274:
261:
219:
168:
120:
2591:
2494:
2374:
2150:
2082:
1803:
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1719:
1462:
1154:
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3052:
2873:
2863:
2181:
1028:
858:
821:
700:
298:
242:
223:
176:
175:
to a single gene has never been proven. The term "pleiotropie" was first coined by
2041:
1873:
1365:
2748:
2697:
2400:
2134:
2066:
1547:
108:. Selectional pleiotropy occurs when the resulting phenotype has many effects on
2988:
2968:
2525:
2352:
2250:
2036:
1207:
1020:, higher food consumption, accelerated heart rate, and delayed sexual maturity.
862:
180:
2788:
2605:
1938:"Two steps forward, one step back: the pleiotropic effects of favoured alleles"
1159:
472:. A particularly telling case of this effect is host specificity in pathogenic
3232:
2885:
1596:
1124:
1024:
1017:
989:
945:
have several pleiotropic effects. XPB mutations are known to be deficient in
933:
902:
898:
838:
801:
749:
631:
623:
561:
542:
487:
483:
473:
469:
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of both traits since a single mutation on a gene would have twice the effect.
314:
129:
124:
2003:
3183:
3151:
2918:
2824:
1657:
1497:
1064:
1040:
levels of these two genes in bone tissue produce more eggs and display less
692:
554:
500:
491:
279:
Evolution and the
Genetics of Populations: Genetic and Biometric Foundations
257:
200:
105:
78:
2767:
2716:
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2486:
2258:
2199:
2142:
2074:
2022:
1971:
1953:
1922:
1904:
1865:
1754:
1711:
1676:
1614:
1565:
1516:
1383:
1334:
1315:
1225:
1142:
289:
theorized that antagonistic effects will be exhibited during an organism's
17:
3320:
2583:
1266:
143:
Pleiotropic gene action can limit the rate of multivariate evolution when
3146:
3115:
2576:
10.1002/(SICI)1521-1878(199802)20:2<146::AID-BIES7>3.0.CO;2-R
1579:
Camps, Manel; Herman, Asael; Loh, Ern; Loeb, Lawrence A. (January 2007).
1084:
957:
870:
847:
813:
756:
617:
588:
580:
457:
438:. William R. Rice and Ellen E. Hostert (1993) conclude that the observed
428:
212:
204:
101:
82:
2878:
2647:
1856:
1418:
1032:
760:
657:
627:
576:
97:
1846:
1821:
1703:
853:
which affects 1 in 5â10,000 people. MFS arises from a mutation in the
800:. The HBB gene encodes information to make the beta-globin subunit of
100:
or catalyzes multiple reactions. Developmental pleiotropy occurs when
2858:
918:
914:
817:
742:
688:
684:
669:
643:
565:
550:
454:
208:
1889:"Early-late life trade-offs and the evolution of ageing in the wild"
1410:
721:
The blood of a two-week-old infant is collected for a PKU screening.
386:
evolutionarily newer genes due to their lower levels of pleiotropy.
2097:"Same DNA deletion paves paths to autism, schizophrenia | Spectrum"
1746:
30:
This article is about genetic pleiotropy. For drug pleiotropy, see
1003:
980:
970:
837:
780:
716:
602:
494:
allele can grant the ability to colonize the host, adaptation and
333:
36:
1942:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London B: Biological Sciences
978:, and other cellular processes throughout the body. Mutations in
3156:
1481:"Genomic patterns of pleiotropy and the evolution of complexity"
854:
734:
564:, in addition to effectively cutting the overall benefit of any
403:
89:
74:
2792:
372:
One basic model of pleiotropy's origin describes a single gene
938:
797:
546:
268:
in 1930. This mathematical model illustrates how evolutionary
2275:. MedlinePlus, US National Library of Medicine. 25 April 2023
591:
have significantly lowered life expectancyâwhat is known as "
68:
63:
57:
52:
909:
behavior. The mutation is a single nucleotide polymorphism (
159:
and responses to selection most often exemplify pleiotropy.
1530:
PĂĄl, Csaba; Papp, BalĂĄzs; Hurst, Laurence D (1 June 2001).
402:
Pleiotropy can have an effect on the evolutionary rate of
1776:
PavliÄev, Mihaela; Cheverud, James M. (4 December 2015).
460:
have shown pleiotropic traits that simultaneously affect
136:, that affects multiple systems, such as the nervous and
1479:
Wang, Zhi; Liao, Ben-Yang; Zhang, Jianzhi (2010-10-19).
1291:"Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora"
974:
gene, which encodes a protein that mediates DNA repair,
27:
Influence of a single gene on multiple phenotypic traits
2214:"Pleiotropy of psychiatric disorders will reinvent DSM"
1585:
Critical
Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology
1166:. National Center for Biotechnology Information. 1998.
1107:
Paaby, Annalise B.; Rockman, Matthew V. (2016-11-15).
3309:
1782:
Annual Review of
Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
1441:
Annual Review of
Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics
725:
A common example of pleiotropy is the human disease
652:
Pleiotropy in genes has been linked between certain
305:). Knowing this, Williams argued that if only close
3277:
3206:
3134:
3088:
3081:
3045:
2997:
2961:
2894:
2831:
1985:Carter, Ashley JR; Nguyen, Andrew Q. (2011-01-01).
1815:
1813:
941:gene that encodes the largest subunit of the basal
230:that was originally introduced by French biologist
1631:Singh, Nadia D.; Shaw, Kerry L. (3 January 2012).
1192:"One Hundred Years of Pleiotropy: A Retrospective"
861:fibrillin-1, a major constituent of extracellular
119:, an inherited disorder that affects the level of
949:of DNA and in the quite separate process of gene
434:Pleiotropic genes act as an arbitrating force in
1289:Beadle, G. W.; Tatum, E. L. (15 November 1941).
313:contributes to the slow deterioration with age (
1637:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1532:"Highly Expressed Genes in Yeast Evolve Slowly"
1485:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1295:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
450:allows for the allele frequency to be altered.
297:favors genes that are more beneficial prior to
112:(depending on factors such as age and gender).
2557:
2555:
2553:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
2804:
1102:
1100:
8:
2342:
2340:
1008:Chicken exhibiting the frizzle feather trait
964:or the noncancer-prone multisystem disorder
347:or SNP, has on two or more distinct traits.
2428:
2426:
2424:
2422:
1435:Pavlicev, Mihaela; Cheverud, James (2015).
1350:"The genetical theory of natural selection"
960:can give rise to the cancer-prone disorder
77:influences two or more seemingly unrelated
3085:
2811:
2797:
2789:
1581:"Genetic Constraints on Protein Evolution"
1430:
1428:
984:are associated with disorders of the eye (
2757:
2747:
2706:
2696:
2655:
2533:
2476:
2189:
2012:
2002:
1961:
1912:
1855:
1845:
1793:
1666:
1656:
1604:
1555:
1506:
1496:
1452:
1373:
1324:
1314:
1256:
1215:
1132:
897:A gene recently discovered in laboratory
293:if it is closely linked and pleiotropic.
2438:National Organization for Rare Disorders
1626:
1624:
277:provided more evidence in his 1968 book
3316:
1474:
1472:
1096:
104:have multiple effects on the resulting
3301:Index of evolutionary biology articles
2401:"Complications of Sickle Cell Disease"
301:than after (leading to an increase in
2375:"How Does Sickle Cell Cause Disease?"
1795:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091721
1454:10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-120213-091721
468:, converting adaptations directly to
7:
968:. Another example in humans is the
557:, which replenish worn-out tissue.
3342:Evolutionary developmental biology
3111:Evolutionary developmental biology
2606:"ERCC6 gene: MedlinePlus Genetics"
2478:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01437.x
1245:American Journal of Human Genetics
530:antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis
513:Antagonistic pleiotropy hypothesis
25:
1936:Society, The Royal (2004-04-07).
992:), and immune system (lymphocyte
881:, as well as the eyes and lungs.
3319:
3068:Evolution of sexual reproduction
1190:Stearns, Frank W. (2016-11-15).
622:Albinism is the mutation of the
382:gene, resulting in pleiotropy.
228:"one gene-one enzyme" hypothesis
532:, which was first developed by
351:Genome-wide association studies
285:In 1957 evolutionary biologist
2839:Genotypeâphenotype distinction
2295:"What Is Sickle Cell Disease?"
2239:Archives of General Psychiatry
2182:10.1016/j.psychres.2012.08.039
1109:"The many faces of pleiotropy"
691:, has been found to influence
677:single nucleotide polymorphism
345:single nucleotide polymorphism
252:and mutations, applying it to
1:
3096:Regulation of gene expression
482:, the fungus responsible for
218:In 1941 American geneticists
3266:Endless Forms Most Beautiful
3046:Evolution of genetic systems
2854:Geneâenvironment correlation
2849:Geneâenvironment interaction
2749:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002914
2698:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002748
2380:Brigham and Women's Hospital
2135:10.1016/j.schres.2012.10.010
2067:10.1016/j.schres.2012.10.010
1633:"On the scent of pleiotropy"
1239:McKusick, V A (1976-05-01).
857:gene, which encodes for the
846:Marfan syndrome (MFS) is an
842:Patient with Marfan Syndrome
528:This idea is central to the
115:An example of pleiotropy is
69:
58:
3245:Christiane NĂŒsslein-Volhard
2784:Pleiotropy is 100 years old
2526:10.1534/genetics.113.154476
2251:10.1001/archpsyc.60.12.1187
1366:10.1093/genetics/154.4.1419
1348:Edwards, A W (2016-11-15).
1208:10.1534/genetics.110.122549
729:(PKU). This disease causes
190:was the first to study the
3363:
3121:Hedgehog signaling pathway
2998:Developmental architecture
1548:10.1093/genetics/158.2.927
947:nucleotide excision repair
887:congestive cardiac failure
831:
770:
710:
641:
615:
510:
424:intralocus sexual conflict
186:After Plate's definition,
64:
53:
29:
3298:
2948:Transgressive segregation
1597:10.1080/10409230701597642
1125:10.1016/j.tig.2012.10.010
943:Transcription factor II H
746:phenylalanine hydroxylase
681:calcium channel signaling
679:of two genes involved in
664:has been associated with
656:as well. Deletion in the
134:phenylalanine hydroxylase
132:12 that codes for enzyme
73:, 'way') occurs when one
2037:MedlinePlus Encyclopedia
2004:10.1186/1471-2350-12-160
638:Autism and schizophrenia
3126:Notch signaling pathway
3101:Gene regulatory network
2984:Dual inheritance theory
2321:"Mutations and Disease"
1735:The American Naturalist
1658:10.1073/pnas.1118531109
1498:10.1073/pnas.1004666107
549:gene, which suppresses
519:antagonistic pleiotropy
507:Antagonistic pleiotropy
311:antagonistic pleiotropy
3174:cis-regulatory element
3082:Control of development
2962:Non-genetic influences
2928:evolutionary landscape
2123:Schizophrenia Research
2055:Schizophrenia Research
1954:10.1098/rspb.2003.2635
1905:10.1098/rspb.2015.0209
1316:10.1073/pnas.27.11.499
1241:"Letter: Pleiotropism"
1055:cis-regulatory element
1027:structures related to
1009:
843:
789:
722:
687:. One of these genes,
608:
593:heterozygote advantage
496:reproductive isolation
466:reproductive isolation
339:
42:
3285:Nature versus nurture
3189:Cell surface receptor
3106:Evo-devo gene toolkit
3005:Developmental biology
2943:Polygenic inheritance
2869:Quantitative genetics
2348:"Sickle cell disease"
1014:frizzle feather trait
1007:
962:xeroderma pigmentosum
841:
784:
748:, which converts the
720:
707:Phenylketonuria (PKU)
654:psychiatric disorders
607:Peacock with albinism
606:
476:and specifically, in
458:evolutionary genomics
448:stabilizing selection
379:Directional selection
368:Models for the origin
337:
250:genetic recombination
211:. Through subsequent
40:
3326:Evolutionary biology
3194:Transcription factor
2909:Genetic assimilation
2896:Genetic architecture
2373:Bridges, Kenneth R.
2326:The Tech Interactive
1991:BMC Medical Genetics
893:"Mini-muscle" allele
553:but also suppresses
545:. An example is the
429:autosomal chromosome
392:phenotypic variation
355:polygenic predictors
303:reproductive success
157:Genetic correlations
153:artificial selection
138:integumentary system
3290:Morphogenetic field
3207:Influential figures
2170:Psychiatry Research
1838:2014MolEc..23..753G
1649:2012PNAS..109....5S
1491:(42): 18034â18039.
1307:1941PNAS...27..499B
1080:Metabolic supermice
1070:Genetic correlation
1060:Enhancer (genetics)
966:trichothiodystrophy
929:DNA repair proteins
907:mendelian recessive
822:high blood pressure
787:sickle cell disease
773:Sickle cell disease
239:Richard Goldschmidt
2979:Genomic imprinting
2648:10.1002/humu.24220
1899:(1806): 20150209.
1113:Trends in Genetics
1010:
988:), heart (cardiac
867:connective tissues
844:
790:
767:Sickle cell anemia
731:mental retardation
723:
609:
573:Sickle cell anemia
408:allele frequencies
340:
287:George C. Williams
43:
32:Pleiotropy (drugs)
3347:Genetics concepts
3307:
3306:
3240:Eric F. Wieschaus
3202:
3201:
3020:Pattern formation
2924:Fitness landscape
2434:"Marfan Syndrome"
2273:"Phenylketonuria"
2245:(12): 1187â1192.
1948:(1540): 705â714.
1847:10.1111/mec.12631
1826:Molecular Ecology
1704:10.1111/evo.12528
1698:(12): 3457â3469.
1164:Genes and Disease
1160:"Phenylketonuria"
1075:Metabolic network
986:retinal dystrophy
921:heavy polypeptide
851:dominant disorder
777:Sickle cell trait
739:skin pigmentation
585:sickle cell trait
523:natural selection
412:empirical studies
295:Natural selection
237:In the mid-1950s
145:natural selection
79:phenotypic traits
16:(Redirected from
3354:
3324:
3323:
3315:
3250:William McGinnis
3219:Richard Lewontin
3214:C. H. Waddington
3086:
3063:Neutral networks
2813:
2806:
2799:
2790:
2772:
2771:
2761:
2751:
2727:
2721:
2720:
2710:
2700:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2659:
2626:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2616:
2602:
2596:
2595:
2559:
2548:
2547:
2537:
2520:(4): 1385â1395.
2505:
2499:
2498:
2480:
2471:(6): 1267â1275.
2456:
2450:
2449:
2447:
2445:
2430:
2417:
2416:
2414:
2413:
2397:
2391:
2390:
2388:
2387:
2370:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2360:
2344:
2335:
2334:
2329:. Archived from
2317:
2311:
2310:
2308:
2307:
2291:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2269:
2263:
2262:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2224:
2210:
2204:
2203:
2193:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2050:
2044:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2016:
2006:
1982:
1976:
1975:
1965:
1933:
1927:
1926:
1916:
1884:
1878:
1877:
1859:
1849:
1817:
1808:
1807:
1797:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1730:
1724:
1723:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1670:
1660:
1628:
1619:
1618:
1608:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1559:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1510:
1500:
1476:
1467:
1466:
1456:
1432:
1423:
1422:
1394:
1388:
1387:
1377:
1360:(4): 1419â1426.
1345:
1339:
1338:
1328:
1318:
1286:
1280:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1260:
1236:
1230:
1229:
1219:
1187:
1168:
1167:
1156:
1147:
1146:
1136:
1104:
994:immunodeficiency
924:
807:
697:bipolar disorder
537:
330:Polygenic traits
149:sexual selection
72:
67:
66:
61:
56:
55:
21:
3362:
3361:
3357:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3351:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3318:
3310:
3308:
3303:
3294:
3273:
3260:Sean B. Carroll
3198:
3130:
3077:
3041:
2993:
2974:Maternal effect
2957:
2890:
2827:
2817:
2780:
2775:
2742:(8): e1002914.
2729:
2728:
2724:
2691:(7): e1002748.
2678:
2677:
2673:
2628:
2627:
2623:
2614:
2612:
2610:medlineplus.gov
2604:
2603:
2599:
2561:
2560:
2551:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2458:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2441:
2432:
2431:
2420:
2411:
2409:
2399:
2398:
2394:
2385:
2383:
2372:
2371:
2367:
2358:
2356:
2346:
2345:
2338:
2319:
2318:
2314:
2305:
2303:
2293:
2292:
2288:
2278:
2276:
2271:
2270:
2266:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2222:
2220:
2212:
2211:
2207:
2163:
2162:
2158:
2120:
2119:
2115:
2106:
2104:
2095:
2094:
2090:
2052:
2051:
2047:
2034:
2030:
1984:
1983:
1979:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1893:Proc. R. Soc. B
1886:
1885:
1881:
1819:
1818:
1811:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1741:(S3): S22âS35.
1732:
1731:
1727:
1689:
1688:
1684:
1630:
1629:
1622:
1578:
1577:
1573:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1478:
1477:
1470:
1434:
1433:
1426:
1411:10.2307/2406060
1396:
1395:
1391:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1301:(11): 499â506.
1288:
1287:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1238:
1237:
1233:
1189:
1188:
1171:
1158:
1157:
1150:
1106:
1105:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1050:
1002:
953:. In humans,
931:
922:
895:
836:
834:Marfan syndrome
830:
828:Marfan syndrome
805:
779:
771:Main articles:
769:
727:phenylketonuria
715:
713:Phenylketonuria
709:
650:
642:Main articles:
640:
620:
614:
601:
535:
515:
509:
400:
370:
332:
323:
266:Geometric Model
165:
117:phenylketonuria
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3360:
3358:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3334:
3333:
3329:
3328:
3305:
3304:
3299:
3296:
3295:
3293:
3292:
3287:
3281:
3279:
3275:
3274:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3269:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3224:François Jacob
3221:
3216:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3203:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3149:
3144:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3131:
3129:
3128:
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3092:
3090:
3083:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3049:
3047:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3023:
3022:
3017:
3007:
3001:
2999:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2965:
2963:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2955:
2953:Sequence space
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2906:
2900:
2898:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2835:
2833:
2829:
2828:
2818:
2816:
2815:
2808:
2801:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2779:
2778:External links
2776:
2774:
2773:
2722:
2671:
2642:(8): 969â977.
2636:Human Mutation
2621:
2597:
2549:
2500:
2451:
2418:
2392:
2365:
2336:
2333:on 2012-05-11.
2312:
2286:
2264:
2229:
2218:www.mdedge.com
2205:
2176:(1): 122â123.
2156:
2113:
2088:
2045:
2028:
1977:
1928:
1879:
1832:(4): 753â773.
1809:
1788:(1): 413â434.
1768:
1747:10.1086/338370
1725:
1682:
1620:
1591:(5): 313â326.
1571:
1542:(2): 927â931.
1522:
1468:
1424:
1405:(4): 398â411.
1389:
1340:
1281:
1272:
1251:(3): 301â302.
1231:
1202:(3): 767â773.
1169:
1148:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1051:
1049:
1046:
1042:egg incubation
1001:
998:
930:
927:
894:
891:
879:nervous system
875:cardiovascular
832:Main article:
829:
826:
794:point mutation
768:
765:
711:Main article:
708:
705:
639:
636:
616:Main article:
613:
610:
600:
597:
579:resistance to
511:Main article:
508:
505:
399:
396:
369:
366:
331:
328:
322:
319:
188:Hans Gruneberg
164:
161:
62:, 'more', and
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3359:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3337:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3313:
3302:
3297:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3276:
3268:
3267:
3263:
3262:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3228:Jacques Monod
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3205:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3158:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3143:
3142:Homeotic gene
3140:
3139:
3137:
3133:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3091:
3087:
3084:
3080:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3044:
3038:
3035:
3033:
3030:
3028:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3012:
3011:
3010:Morphogenesis
3008:
3006:
3003:
3002:
3000:
2996:
2990:
2987:
2985:
2982:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2901:
2899:
2897:
2893:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2844:Reaction norm
2842:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2814:
2809:
2807:
2802:
2800:
2795:
2794:
2791:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2777:
2769:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2736:PLOS Genetics
2733:
2726:
2723:
2718:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2685:PLOS Genetics
2682:
2675:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2658:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2633:
2625:
2622:
2611:
2607:
2601:
2598:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2570:(2): 146â55.
2569:
2565:
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47:
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3264:
3157:eyeless gene
3053:Evolvability
3027:Segmentation
2932:
2904:Canalisation
2874:Heterochrony
2864:Heritability
2832:Key concepts
2739:
2735:
2725:
2688:
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2442:. Retrieved
2437:
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2351:
2331:the original
2324:
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2232:
2221:. Retrieved
2217:
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2169:
2159:
2129:(1): 55â59.
2126:
2122:
2116:
2105:. Retrieved
2103:. 2016-10-18
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1163:
1119:(2): 66â73.
1116:
1112:
1029:reproductive
1022:
1011:
979:
969:
954:
932:
896:
883:
863:microfibrils
859:glycoprotein
845:
810:
791:
733:and reduced
724:
701:heritability
674:
651:
621:
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388:
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371:
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349:
341:
324:
299:reproduction
284:
278:
247:
243:Ernst Hadorn
236:
224:Edward Tatum
217:
185:
177:Ludwig Plate
166:
142:
114:
92:pleiotropy,
87:
45:
44:
3255:Mike Levine
3164:Distal-less
2989:Polyphenism
2969:Epigenetics
2821:development
2353:MedlinePlus
1857:10230/58707
1447:: 413â434.
990:arrhythmias
865:which form
814:blood clots
589:homozygotes
569:the worse.
538:C. Williams
474:ascomycetes
453:Studies on
254:populations
181:Festschrift
173:correlation
18:Pleiotropic
3336:Categories
3233:Lac operon
3058:Robustness
3037:Modularity
3032:Metamerism
2938:Plasticity
2933:Pleiotropy
2886:Heterotopy
2615:2021-06-02
2444:5 November
2412:2024-08-05
2386:2024-08-05
2359:2024-08-05
2306:2024-08-05
2223:2016-11-13
2107:2016-11-13
1643:(1): 5â6.
1092:References
1044:behavior.
1018:metabolism
934:DNA repair
903:metabolism
899:house mice
802:hemoglobin
750:amino acid
660:region of
632:strabismus
562:adaptation
555:stem cells
543:senescence
501:eukaryotes
484:apple scab
470:speciation
462:adaptation
444:hybridized
440:prezygotic
436:speciation
315:senescence
291:life cycle
201:phenotypic
192:mechanisms
130:chromosome
125:amino acid
46:Pleiotropy
3184:Morphogen
3169:Engrailed
3152:Pax genes
3073:Tinkering
2919:Epistasis
2914:Dominance
2825:phenotype
2564:BioEssays
2465:Evolution
2279:17 August
1692:Evolution
1399:Evolution
1065:Epistasis
958:mutations
848:autosomal
808:S (HbS).
693:cognition
492:virulence
488:parasitic
398:Evolution
321:Mechanism
258:evolution
205:mutations
106:phenotype
102:mutations
3147:Hox gene
3135:Elements
3116:Homeobox
2768:22956912
2717:22829773
2666:34005834
2592:25183408
2544:24056412
2514:Genetics
2495:14217517
2487:12144025
2259:14662550
2200:22985546
2151:20964079
2143:23153825
2101:Spectrum
2083:20964079
2075:23153825
2042:Albinism
2023:22151998
1972:15209104
1923:25833848
1866:24341913
1804:85813898
1763:16516804
1755:18707367
1720:12606026
1712:25213393
1677:22198765
1615:17917869
1566:11430355
1536:Genetics
1517:20876104
1463:85813898
1384:10747041
1354:Genetics
1335:16588492
1226:21062962
1196:Genetics
1143:23140989
1085:Polygene
1048:See also
1000:Chickens
925:4 gene.
913:) in an
871:skeletal
798:HBB gene
757:tyrosine
624:TYR gene
618:Albinism
612:Albinism
599:Examples
587:, while
486:. These
479:venturia
420:receptor
213:research
98:proteins
83:Mutation
3278:Debates
3089:Systems
3015:Eyespot
2879:Neoteny
2759:3431302
2708:3400578
2657:8295228
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2014:3254080
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1963:1691650
1914:4426628
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1375:1461012
1326:1078370
1303:Bibcode
1267:1266859
1258:1685011
1217:2975297
1134:3558540
1033:calcium
917:of the
818:strokes
796:in the
761:melanin
689:CACNA1C
685:neurons
658:22q11.2
628:melanin
577:malaria
566:alleles
307:linkage
270:fitness
179:in his
163:History
110:fitness
3312:Portal
3179:Ligand
2859:Operon
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455:fungal
209:theory
70:tropos
65:ÏÏÏÏÎżÏ
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2588:S2CID
2491:S2CID
2300:NHLBI
2147:S2CID
2079:S2CID
1870:S2CID
1800:S2CID
1759:S2CID
1716:S2CID
1459:S2CID
1415:JSTOR
981:ERCC6
971:ERCC6
683:with
404:genes
374:locus
197:locus
123:, an
50:Greek
2819:The
2764:PMID
2713:PMID
2662:PMID
2580:PMID
2540:PMID
2483:PMID
2446:2016
2281:2023
2255:PMID
2196:PMID
2139:PMID
2071:PMID
2019:PMID
1968:PMID
1919:PMID
1862:PMID
1751:PMID
1708:PMID
1673:PMID
1611:PMID
1562:PMID
1513:PMID
1380:PMID
1331:PMID
1263:PMID
1222:PMID
1139:PMID
1037:HAO1
855:FBN1
775:and
737:and
735:hair
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464:and
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1958:PMC
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1946:271
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