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3405:
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38:
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329:. The remaining glaciers, now occupying about 10% of the world's land surface, cover Greenland, Antarctica and some mountainous regions. During the glacial periods, the present (i.e., interglacial) hydrologic system was completely interrupted throughout large areas of the world and was considerably modified in others. The volume of ice on land resulted in a sea level about 120 metres (394 ft) lower than present.
5569:
248:
449:, have a periodicity of 26,000 years. According to the Milankovitch theory, these factors cause a periodic cooling of Earth, with the coldest part in the cycle occurring about every 40,000 years. The main effect of the Milankovitch cycles is to change the contrast between the seasons, not the annual amount of solar heat Earth receives. The result is less ice melting than accumulating, and
418:
1125:; current levels are at 417 ppm) have estimated the persistence of the current interglacial period for another 50,000 years. However, more recent studies concluded that the amount of heat trapping gases emitted into Earth's oceans and atmosphere will prevent the next glacial (ice age), which otherwise would begin in around 50,000 years, and likely more glacial cycles.
756:
5545:
1078:, the cooling trend initiated about 6,000 years ago will continue for another 23,000 years. Slight changes in the Earth's orbital parameters may, however, indicate that, even without any human contribution, there will not be another glacial period for the next 50,000 years. It is possible that the current cooling trend might be interrupted by an
5533:
1089:. However, slight changes in the eccentricity of Earth's orbit around the Sun suggest a lengthy interglacial period lasting about another 50,000 years. Other models, based on periodic variations in solar output, give a different projection of the start of the next glacial period at around 10,000 years from now. Additionally,
634:(NAC) around 3.65 to 3.5 million years ago resulted in cooling and freshening of the Arctic Ocean, nurturing the development of Arctic sea ice and preconditioning the formation of continental glaciers later in the Pliocene. A dinoflagellate cyst turnover in the eastern North Atlantic approximately ~2.60 Ma, during
511:
decrease as the primary cause of
Antarctic glaciation. Decreasing carbon dioxide levels during the late Pliocene may have contributed substantially to global cooling and the onset of Northern Hemisphere glaciation. This decrease in atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations may have come about by way
679:
of the planet. Propagation of the El Niño effect through planetary waves may have warmed the polar region and delayed the onset of glaciation in the northern hemisphere. Therefore, the appearance of cold surface water in the east equatorial
Pacific around 3 million years ago may have contributed to
700:
in addition to increased mountain formation in the Late
Cenozoic meant more land at high altitude and high latitude, favouring the formation of glaciers. For example, the Greenland ice sheet formed in connection to the uplift of the west Greenland and east Greenland uplands in two phases, 10 and 5
456:
Milankovitch worked out the ideas of climatic cycles in the 1920s and 1930s, but it was not until the 1970s that a sufficiently long and detailed chronology of the
Quaternary temperature changes was worked out to test the theory adequately. Studies of deep-sea cores and their fossils indicate that
808:
The climatic conditions that cause glaciation had an indirect effect on arid and semiarid regions far removed from the large ice sheets. The increased precipitation that fed the glaciers also increased the runoff of major rivers and intermittent streams, resulting in the growth and development of
763:
Very large lakes were formed along the glacial margins. The ice on both North
America and Europe was about 3,000 m (10,000 ft) thick near the centers of maximum accumulation, but it tapered toward the glacier margins. Ice weight caused crustal subsidence, which was greatest beneath the
869:
The presence of ice over so much of the continents greatly modified patterns of atmospheric circulation. Winds near the glacial margins were strong and persistent because of the abundance of dense, cold air coming off the glacier fields. These winds picked up and transported large quantities of
733:
The presence of so much ice upon the continents had a profound effect upon almost every aspect of Earth's hydrologic system. Most obvious are the spectacular mountain scenery and other continental landscapes fashioned both by glacial erosion and deposition instead of running water. Entirely new
734:
landscapes covering millions of square kilometers were formed in a relatively short period of geologic time. In addition, the vast bodies of glacial ice affected Earth well beyond the glacier margins. Directly or indirectly, the effects of glaciation were felt in every part of the world.
901:
Thick glaciers were heavy enough to reach the sea bottom in several important areas, which blocked the passage of ocean water and affected ocean currents. In addition to these direct effects, it also caused feedback effects, as ocean currents contribute to global heat transfer.
705:. Uplift of the Rocky Mountains and Greenland’s west coast has been speculated to have cooled the climate due to jet stream deflection and increased snowfall due to higher surface elevation. Computer models show that such uplift would have enabled glaciation through increased
232:
channels. They also allowed scientists to decipher a history of multiple advances and retreats of the ice. Even before the theory of worldwide glaciation was generally accepted, many observers recognized that more than a single advance and retreat of the ice had occurred.
990:. Exposures of ancient glacial deposits are numerous in these areas. Deposits of even older glacial sediment exist on every continent except South America. These indicate that two other periods of widespread glaciation occurred during the late Precambrian, producing the
860:
data obtained by the BIFROST GPS network. Studies suggest that rebound will continue for at least another 10,000 years. The total uplift from the end of deglaciation depends on the local ice load and could be several hundred meters near the center of rebound.
855:
after that. Today, typical uplift rates are of the order of 1 cm per year or less, except in areas of North
America, especially Alaska, where the rate of uplift is 2.54 cm per year (1 inch or more). In northern Europe, this is clearly shown by the
974:
record. There are, however, widespread glacial deposits, recording several major periods of ancient glaciation in various parts of the geologic record. Such evidence suggests major periods of glaciation prior to the current
Quaternary glaciation.
573:
An important component in the development of long-term ice ages is the positions of the continents. These can control the circulation of the oceans and the atmosphere, affecting how ocean currents carry heat to high latitudes. Throughout most of
582:
appears to have been in a broad, open ocean that allowed major ocean currents to move unabated. Equatorial waters flowed into the polar regions, warming them. This produced mild, uniform climates that persisted throughout most of geologic time.
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290:
or glacials) large ice sheets at least 4 km (2.5 mi) thick at their maximum covered parts of Europe, North
America, and Siberia. The shorter warm intervals between glacials, when continental glaciers retreated, are referred to as
2890:
638:
104, has been cited as evidence that the NAC shifted significantly to the south at this time, causing an abrupt cooling of the North Sea and northwestern Europe by reducing heat transport to high latitude waters of the North
Atlantic. The
809:
large pluvial lakes. Most pluvial lakes developed in relatively arid regions where there typically was insufficient rain to establish a drainage system leading to the sea. Instead, stream runoff flowed into closed basins and formed
655:, which supplied enough moisture to arctic latitudes to initiate the northern glaciation. However, model simulations suggest reduced ice volume due to increased ablation at the edge of the ice sheet under warmer conditions.
2758:"Berger and Loutre argue in their Perspective that with or without human perturbations, the current warm climate may last another 50,000 years. The reason is a minimum in the eccentricity of Earth's orbit around the Sun."
813:. With increased rainfall, the playa lakes enlarged and overflowed. Pluvial lakes were most extensive during glacial periods. During interglacial stages, with less rain, the pluvial lakes shrank to form small salt flats.
1538:
Pagani, Mark; Huber, Matthew; Liu, Zhonghui; Bohaty, Steven M.; Henderiks, Jorijntje; Sijp, Willem; Krishnan, Srinath; DeConto, Robert M. (2011). "The Role of Carbon
Dioxide During the Onset of Antarctic Glaciation".
839:
was depressed below (modern) sea level, as was the area in Europe around the Baltic Sea. The land has been rebounding from these depressions since the ice melted. Some of these isostatic movements triggered large
2407:
Johansson, J.M.; Davis, J.L.; Scherneck, H.-G.; Milne, G.A.; Vermeer, M.; Mitrovica, J.X.; Bennett, R.A.; Jonsson, B.; Elgered, G.; Elósegui, P.; Koivula, H.; Poutanen, M.; Rönnäng, B.O.; Shapiro, I.I. (2002).
4528:
1501:
Fletcher, Benjamin J.; Brentnall, Stuart J.; Anderson, Clive W.; Berner, Robert A.; Beerling, David J. (2008). "Atmospheric carbon dioxide linked with Mesozoic and early Cenozoic climate change".
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Era, 800 to 600 Ma). Before the current ice age, which began 2 to 3 Ma, Earth's climate was typically mild and uniform for long periods of time. This climatic history is implied by the types of
4450:
893:
which covers an area of about 60,000 km (23,166 sq mi). This region was a large, active dune field during the Pleistocene epoch but today is largely stabilized by grass cover.
752:. The surface over which the glacier moved was scoured and eroded by the ice, leaving many closed, undrained depressions in the bedrock. These depressions filled with water and became lakes.
286:
Within the Quaternary ice age, there were also periodic fluctuations of the total volume of land ice, the sea level, and global temperatures. During the colder episodes (referred to as
768:
lagged behind, producing a regional slope toward the ice. This slope formed basins that have lasted for thousands of years. These basins became lakes or were invaded by the ocean. The
100:
During the Quaternary glaciation, ice sheets appeared, expanding during glacial periods and contracting during interglacial periods. Since the end of the last glacial period, only the
2344:; Olsson, S.; Roaldset, E. (1999). "Relief features and palaeoweathering remnants in formerly glaciated Scandinavian basement areas". In Thiry, Médard; Simon-Coinçon, Régine (eds.).
2314:
2409:
166:
Long before the Quaternary glaciation, land-based ice appeared and then disappeared during at least four other ice ages. The Quaternary glaciation can be considered a part of a
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4440:
267:
is defined by the presence of large amounts of land-based ice. Prior to the Quaternary glaciation, land-based ice formed during at least four earlier geologic periods: the
1063:) has been stable and warm compared to the preceding ones, which were interrupted by numerous cold spells lasting hundreds of years. This stability might have allowed the
2833:
4568:
2142:
748:
The Quaternary glaciation produced more lakes than all other geologic processes combined. The reason is that a continental glacier completely disrupts the preglacial
2955:
2140:
Solgaard, Anne M.; Bonow, Johan M.; Langen, Peter L.; Japsen, Peter; Hvidberg, Christine (2013). "Mountain building and the initiation of the Greenland Ice Sheet".
1093:
is now seen as possibly extending what would already be an unusually long warm period. Projection of the timeline for the next glacial maximum depend crucially on
1864:"Palynological evidence for a southward shift of the North Atlantic Current at ~2.6 Ma during the intensification of late Cenozoic Northern Hemisphere glaciation"
45:
during the Pleistocene. The formation of 3 to 4 km (1.9 to 2.5 mi) thick ice sheets equate to a global sea level drop of about 120 m (390 ft)
4583:
4470:
1446:
4328:
4265:
3072:
Clark, Peter U.; Bartlein, Patrick J. (1995). "Correlation of late Pleistocene glaciation in the western United States with North Atlantic Heinrich events".
2487:
30:
This article is about the series of glacial periods during the last 2.58 million years. For the glacial period lasting from 110,000 to 11,700 years ago, see
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was rapid (called "elastic"), and took place as the ice was being unloaded. After this "elastic" phase, uplift proceed by "slow viscous flow" so the rate
295:. These are evidenced by buried soil profiles, peat beds, and lake and stream deposits separating the unsorted, unstratified deposits of glacial debris.
4490:
3062:
4662:
3139:
2239:"Geomorphologic and Glacial Evolution of the Cachapoal and southern Maipo catchments in the Andean Principal Cordillera, Central Chile (34°-35º S)"
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4198:
1094:
484:
4321:
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for the past 800,000 years and marine sediment cores for the earlier period. Over the past 740,000 years there have been eight glacial cycles.
2774:
A. Ganopolski; R. Winkelmann; H. J. Schellnhuber (2016). "Critical insolation–CO2 relation for diagnosing past and future glacial inception".
2177:
Lunt, D. J.; Foster, G. L.; Haywood, A. M.; Stone, E. J. (2008). "Late Pliocene Greenland glaciation controlled by a decline in atmospheric CO
2019:
Lunt, D. J.; Foster, G. L.; Haywood, A. M.; Stone, E. J. (2008). "Late Pliocene Greenland glaciation controlled by a decline in atmospheric CO
1635:
Lunt, D. J.; Foster, G. L.; Haywood, A. M.; Stone, E. J. (2008). "Late Pliocene Greenland glaciation controlled by a decline in atmospheric CO
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1312:
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by about 121 metres (397 ft). This warming trend subsided about 6,000 years ago, and sea level has been comparatively stable since the
630:
could then flow through it, isolating Antarctica from warm waters and triggering the formation of its huge ice sheets. The weakening of the
204:. Maps of glacial features were compiled after many years of fieldwork by hundreds of geologists who mapped the location and orientation of
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3778:
1698:
1417:
696:, is thought to have contributed to cause the Quaternary glaciation. The gradual movement of the bulk of Earth's landmasses away from the
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4655:
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978:
One of the best documented records of pre-Quaternary glaciation, called the Karoo Ice Age, is found in the late Paleozoic rocks in
433:
or tilt of Earth's axis varies between 22° and 24.5° in a cycle 41,000 years long. The tilt of Earth's axis is responsible for the
1974:
Haug, G. H.; Tiedemann, R. (1998). "Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation".
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elaborated on the theory and calculated that these irregularities in Earth's orbit could cause the climatic cycles now known as
309:
The entire Quaternary period, starting 2.58 Ma, is referred to as an ice age because at least one permanent large ice sheet—the
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1090:
1019:
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124:
192:. Over the last century, extensive field observations have provided evidence that continental glaciers covered large parts of
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the fluctuation of climate during the last few hundred thousand years is remarkably close to that predicted by Milankovitch.
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3539:
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in Scandinavia about 9,000 years ago. These earthquakes are unique in that they are not associated with plate tectonics.
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4435:
2348:. Special publication of the International Association of Sedimentologists. Vol. 27. Blackwell. pp. 275–301.
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1807:
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developed at a convergent plate margin about 2.6 million years ago and further separated oceanic circulation, closing
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3054:
1785:
954:
Glaciation has been a rare event in Earth's history, but there is evidence of widespread glaciation during the late
483:, started the long-term cooling trend that eventually led to the formation of continental ice sheets in the Arctic.
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4717:
4311:
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Based on past estimates for interglacial durations of about 10,000 years, in the 1970s there was some concern that
414:. They are the result of the additive behavior of several types of cyclical changes in Earth's orbital properties.
299:
4225:
2612:"Was agriculture impossible during the Pleistocene but mandatory during the Holocene? A climate change hypothesis"
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phase (a warmer period) in about 60,000 years, with the next glacial maximum reached only in about 100,000 years.
5517:
5501:
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272:
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2448:
1904:
1803:"Did North Atlantic cooling and freshening from 3.65–3.5 Ma precondition Northern Hemisphere ice sheet growth?"
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652:
326:
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were much more widespread and active in many areas during the early Quaternary period. A good example is the
73:(million years ago) and is ongoing. Although geologists describe this entire period up to the present as an "
5129:
4578:
4523:
4220:
3936:
3427:
1923:
Bartoli, G.; Sarnthein, M.; Weinelt, M.; Erlenkeuser, H.; Garbe-Schönberg, D.; Lea, D. W. (30 August 2005).
1801:
Kalas, Cyrus; Khélifi, Nabil; Bahr, André; Naafs, B. D. A.; Nürnberg, Dirk; Herrle, Jens O. (January 2020).
644:
268:
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97:, geologists consider the Quaternary glaciation to be ongoing, though currently in an interglacial period.
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3581:
3452:
3336:
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during the Quaternary glaciation were caused by the weight of the ice, which depressed the continents. In
631:
2818:
M. F. Loutre, A. Berger, "Future Climatic Changes: Are We Entering an Exceptionally Long Interglacial?",
847:
Studies have shown that the uplift has taken place in two distinct stages. The initial uplift following
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242:
189:
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and Atlantic Oceans. This increased poleward salt and heat transport, strengthening the North Atlantic
407:
2886:"Geophysical, archaeological, and historical evidence support a solar-output model for climate change"
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1985:
1938:
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437:; the greater the tilt, the greater the contrast between summer and winter temperatures. Thirdly,
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2001:
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910:
Moraines and till deposited by Quaternary glaciers have contributed to the formation of valuable
722:
693:
519:
levels also play an important role in the transitions between interglacials and glacials. High CO
4981:
4647:
3260:
1594:"Atmospheric CO2 decline during the Pliocene intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciations"
1460:"Atmospheric CO2 decline during the Pliocene intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciations"
1414:
507:
in the atmosphere declined before and during Antarctic glaciation, and supports a substantial CO
5594:
5451:
5199:
4696:
4573:
4513:
4282:
3987:
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3650:
3328:
3320:
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2907:
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2841:
2801:
2741:
2724:
2696:
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2234:
2208:
2078:"Role of tropics in changing the response to Milankovich forcing some three million years ago"
2050:
1956:
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1862:
Hennissen, Jan A. I.; Head, Martin J.; De Schepper, Stijn; Groeneveld, Jeroen (15 May 2014).
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2518:
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2200:
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2099:
2042:
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1993:
1976:
1946:
1942:
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1824:
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1615:
1558:
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1334:
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942:
937:
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539:
may not be the primary cause of the interglacial-glacial transitions, but instead acts as a
2598:
2410:"Continuous GPS measurements of postglacial adjustment in Fennoscandia 1. Geodetic results"
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1911:
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Initially the glacial/interglacial cycle length was about 41,000 years, but following the
144:
78:
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1989:
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1554:
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1347:
1212:
1203:
Berger, A.; Loutre, M.F. (2000). "CO2 And Astronomical Forcing of the Late Quaternary".
606:, running north–south, with the North Pole in the small, nearly landlocked basin of the
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37:
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2281:"Late Weichselian and Holocene shore displacement history of the Baltic Sea in Finland"
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671:. Warmer temperature in the eastern equatorial Pacific caused an increased water vapor
603:
599:
480:
467:
352:
348:
287:
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221:
152:
58:
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and reduced the area covered by highly reflective stratus clouds, thus decreasing the
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2920:
2870:
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J Imbrie; J Z Imbrie (1980). "Modeling the Climatic Response to Orbital Variations".
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loose, fine-grained sediment brought down by the glaciers. This dust accumulated as
321:
epoch beginning 15,000 to 10,000 years ago; this has caused the ice sheets from the
163:. These effects have shaped land and ocean environments and biological communities.
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2708:
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2005:
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1266:(November 1979). "The Antarctic Ice-Sheet: Regulator of Global Climates?: Review".
1205:
Proceedings of the 1st Solar and Space Weather Euroconference, 25-29 September 2000
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are thought to have originated at least partly from glaciers' selective erosion of
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607:
372:
356:
292:
132:
62:
17:
2722:
Berger A, Loutre MF (2002). "Climate: An exceptionally long interglacial ahead?".
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399:
The role of Earth's orbital changes in controlling climate was first advanced by
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3509:
3249:
959:
828:
773:
400:
247:
86:
3756:
2891:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1951:
1924:
5496:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5322:
5312:
5242:
5228:
5061:
5027:
4791:
4533:
4144:
4025:
3888:
3807:
3671:
3622:
3463:
3226:
3218:
3060:
Pleistocene Glaciation and Diversion of the Missouri River in Northern Montana
995:
841:
836:
810:
788:
769:
710:
664:
579:
446:
438:
404:
276:
188:
glaciation was first understood in the 18th and 19th centuries as part of the
185:
66:
2911:
2523:
2257:
1960:
317:
during each interglacial. Currently, Earth is in an interglacial period, the
108:
have survived, while other sheets formed during glacial periods, such as the
5431:
4951:
4888:
4807:
4481:
Great Lakes–Saint Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Agreement
4208:
4066:
4030:
3802:
3701:
3686:
3438:
3413:
3381:
2951:
2854:
2769:"NOAA Paleoclimatology Program – Orbital Variations and Milankovitch Theory"
2737:
1562:
1056:
987:
970:
plants and animals and by the characteristics of sediments preserved in the
955:
619:
368:
229:
225:
136:
94:
2929:
2903:
2862:
2805:
2745:
2700:
2212:
2054:
1752:
The Global Carbon Cycle: Integrating Humans, Climate, and the Natural World
1670:
1570:
1365:
755:
302:
about 1 Ma, it slowed to about 100,000 years, as evidenced most clearly by
4743:
3640:
3373:
2434:
2104:
2077:
1925:"Final closure of Panama and the onset of northern hemisphere glaciation"
1890:
1863:
1782:
1720:
1693:
1620:
1593:
1524:
1486:
1459:
1141:
Lorens, L.; Hilgen, F.; Shackelton, N.J.; Laskar, J.; Wilson, D. (2004).
890:
668:
587:
540:
500:
492:
318:
303:
156:
140:
115:
The major effects of the Quaternary glaciation have been the continental
2797:
2587:
2503:
GarcĂa, Marcelo; Correa, Jorge; Maksaev, VĂctor; Townley, Brian (2020).
2204:
2046:
1662:
1592:
Bartoli, Gretta; Hönisch, Bärbel; Zeebe, Richard E. (16 November 2011).
1356:
1329:
918:
where reworking of Quaternary moraines have concentrated gold offshore.
3569:
3377:
3196:
2640:
1458:
Bartoli, Greta; Hönisch, Bärbel; Zeebe, Richard E. (16 November 2011).
1240:
1079:
971:
933:
791:
697:
450:
442:
338:
264:
213:
205:
201:
179:
160:
116:
74:
2237:; Iturrizaga, Lafasam; Charretier, Sebastién; Regard, Vincent (2019).
1287:
5423:
1694:"Late Neogene history of deepwater ventilation in the Southern Ocean"
967:
832:
676:
615:
434:
193:
148:
3591:
2632:
1279:
512:
of the decreasing ventilation of deep water in the Southern Ocean.
5486:
2505:"Potential mineral resources of the Chilean offshore: an overview"
1997:
1023:
983:
941:
871:
754:
714:
416:
246:
209:
90:
36:
3027:. Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research in Germany. 2016.
2346:
Palaeoweathering, Palaeosurfaces and Related Continental Deposits
1170:
Ehlers, JĂĽrgen; Gibbard, Philip (2011). "Quaternary Glaciation".
313:—has existed continuously. There is uncertainty over how much of
5481:
3104:
After the Ice Age: The Return of Life to Glaciated North America
1905:
EO Newsroom: New Images – Panama: Isthmus that Changed the World
1145:. In Gradstein, Felix M.; Ogg, James G.; Smith, Alan G. (eds.).
882:
429:
of Earth occur on a cycle of about 100,000 years. Secondly, the
128:
70:
4651:
3760:
3595:
3169:
1745:"A Paleo-Perspective on Changes in Atmospheric CO2 and Climate"
874:(wind-blown silt), forming irregular blankets over much of the
147:; flooding; and abnormal winds. The ice sheets, by raising the
2610:
Richerson, Peter J.; Robert Boyd; Robert L. Bettinger (2001).
1692:
Hodell, David A.; Venz-Curtis, Kathryn A. (6 September 2006).
857:
680:
global cooling and modified the global climate’s response to
155:
reflected from Earth back into space), generated significant
523:
contents correspond to warm interglacial periods, and low CO
4451:
Great Lakes Basin Soil Erosion and Sediment Control Program
3165:
3094:
10.1130/0091-7613(1995)023<0483:COLPGI>2.3.CO;2
1237:"Glossary of Technical Terms Related to the Ice Age Floods"
1174:. Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series. pp. 873–882.
3133: (archived 7 February 2012) (the last 2 million years)
1207:. Vol. 463. ESA Publications Division. p. 155.
721:
had risen to heights that allowed for the development of
3025:"Human-made climate change suppresses the next ice age"
487:
indicates a decrease of more than 90% in atmospheric CO
2884:
Perry, Charles A.; Hsu, Kenneth J. (24 October 2000).
421:
Relationship of Earth's orbit to periods of glaciation
27:
Series of alternating glacial and interglacial periods
3722:
555:
variation "remains a difficult attribution problem".
1143:"Part III Geological Periods: 21 The Neogene Period"
776:
of North America were formed primarily in this way.
647:, outside the polar regions, that had connected the
5510:
5444:
5422:
5389:
5321:
5280:
5256:
5227:
5197:
5143:
5099:
5075:
5041:
4911:
4887:
4853:
4846:
4816:
4800:
4764:
4757:
4726:
4710:
4689:
4506:
4441:
Great Lakes and St. Lawrence Governors and Premiers
4428:
4342:
4246:
4132:
4112:
4049:
4013:
3965:
3907:
3881:
3872:
3831:
3795:
3527:
3508:
3489:
3462:
3437:
3412:
3372:
3217:
3203:
2135:
2133:
527:to glacial periods. However, studies indicate that
2952:"Trends in Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide – Mauna Loa"
1051:, since about 20,000 years ago, has resulted in a
343:Earth's history of glaciation is a product of the
228:, the direction of their flow, and the systems of
2143:Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology
1330:"Eight glacial cycles from an Antarctic ice core"
1304:Evaporites: sediments, resources and hydrocarbons
764:thickest accumulation of ice. As the ice melted,
2981:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 441.
1758:: Island Press. pp. 165–186. Archived from
2956:National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
692:The elevation of continental surface, often as
602:. This interlocked with the development of the
465:One theory holds that decreases in atmospheric
363:by phenomena outside the climate system (e.g.,
41:Extent of maximum glaciation (in black) in the
2449:EO Newsroom: New Images – Sand Hills, Nebraska
4663:
4471:Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory
3772:
3607:
3181:
759:A diagram of the formation of the Great Lakes
701:Ma, respectively. These mountains constitute
598:continental plates drifted westward from the
403:in the late 19th century. Later, the Serbian
251:Graph of reconstructed temperature (blue), CO
8:
3161:Milutin Milankovitch and Milankovitch cycles
3003:"Global Warming Good News: No More Ice Ages"
878:valley, central Europe, and northern China.
2834:"An Exceptionally Long Interglacial Ahead?"
1743:Joos, Fortunat; Prentice, I. Colin (2004).
1149:. Cambridge University Press. p. 412.
4850:
4761:
4670:
4656:
4648:
3878:
3779:
3765:
3757:
3631:
3614:
3600:
3592:
3214:
3188:
3174:
3166:
1239:. Ice Age Floods Institute. Archived from
2919:
2522:
2433:
2256:
2103:
2076:Philander, S. G.; Fedorov, A. V. (2003).
1950:
1889:
1840:1983/f1d7878d-a7cb-49b5-8e33-7bfc6fb3cb1c
1838:
1828:
1719:
1619:
1485:
1355:
1087:the next glacial period would be imminent
2330:CVO Website – Glaciations and Ice Sheets
1431:
1429:
3729:
2832:Berger, A.; Loutre, M.F. (2002-08-23).
2397:Actual observations from Haines, Alaska
2279:Tikkanen, Matti; Oksanen, Juha (2002).
1447:EO Library: Milutin Milankovitch Page 3
1328:Augustin, Laurent; et al. (2004).
1133:
1059:. The present interglacial period (the
180:Ice age § Origin of ice age theory
2599:Geotimes – April 2003 – Snowball Earth
1172:Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers
3156:Astronomical Theory of Climate Change
1869:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
1599:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
1465:Paleoceanography and Paleoclimatology
224:channels to reveal the extent of the
135:far from the ice margins; changes in
7:
1699:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
543:. The explanation for this observed
4519:Chicago Yacht Club Race to Mackinac
1930:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
827:Major isostatic adjustments of the
614:opened 33.9 million years ago (the
259:ice core for the past 420,000 years
170:that began 33.9 Ma and is ongoing.
2414:Geodesy and Gravity/Tectonophysics
2126:. John Wiley and Sons. p. 22.
559:Plate tectonics and ocean currents
25:
4266:Isle Royale National Park Islands
2539:"Ice Ages- Illinois State Museum"
2369:Lindberg, Johan (April 4, 2016).
1121:levels at 750 parts per million (
986:, South America, Antarctica, and
958:Era (300 to 200 Ma) and the late
255:(green), and dust (red) from the
123:of material; the modification of
5567:
5555:
5543:
5531:
4632:
3744:
3732:
3403:
3039:
1415:EO Library: Milutin Milankovitch
1047:The warming trend following the
81:this term usually refers to the
3107:. University of Chicago Press.
1830:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2019.103085
1020:Human impact on the environment
711:cooling of surface temperatures
667:state existed in the early-mid-
131:, including the development of
127:; the formation of millions of
4486:International Joint Commission
4476:Great Lakes Fishery Commission
3122:Alaska's Glacier and Icefields
2564:"When have Ice Ages occurred?"
2124:Glacial and Quaternary Geology
57:, is an alternating series of
1:
4879:Proglacial lakes of Minnesota
3540:Greenhouse and icehouse Earth
3044:The dictionary definition of
1180:10.1007/978-90-481-2642-2_423
914:of gold. This is the case of
659:Collapse of permanent El Niño
628:Antarctic Circumpolar Current
4446:Great Lakes Areas of Concern
4436:Alliance for the Great Lakes
2693:10.1126/science.207.4434.943
2164:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.09.019
1109:. Models assuming increased
315:Greenland was covered by ice
4312:Province of Ontario Islands
2975:Christiansen, Eric (2014).
2312:Polish Geological Institute
1808:Global and Planetary Change
1307:. Birkhäuser. p. 289.
922:Records of prior glaciation
703:passive continental margins
112:, have completely melted.
5626:
4749:West Siberian Glacial Lake
3237:Penultimate Glacial Period
1952:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.06.020
1420:December 10, 2003, at the
1380:"Why were there Ice Ages?"
1264:van Zinderen-Bakker, E. M.
1147:A Geologic Time Scale 2004
1005:
931:
925:
820:
801:
779:The numerous lakes of the
741:
562:
392:
382:
336:
300:Mid-Pleistocene Transition
240:
177:
83:most recent glacial period
29:
5526:
5518:List of prehistoric lakes
5502:Great Tehuelche Paleolake
4629:
4584:Museum and historic ships
4317:State of Michigan Islands
3629:
3578:
3401:
3137:IPCC's Palaeoclimate(pdf)
2472:December 1, 2008, at the
1436:Why do glaciations occur?
1061:Holocene climatic optimum
4400:Midcontinent Rift System
2524:10.5027/andgeov47n1-3260
2371:"berggrund och ytformer"
2258:10.5027/andgeoV46n2-3108
1404:Discovery of the Ice Age
1301:Warren, John K. (2006).
1268:The Geographical Journal
1028:Increase in atmospheric
707:orographic precipitation
653:thermohaline circulation
626:from South America. The
491:since the middle of the
425:Firstly, changes in the
365:changes in Earth's orbit
89:epoch in general. Since
4972:Lake Houghton (glacial)
4221:Sturgeon Bay Ship Canal
3428:Late Paleozoic icehouse
3127:Pleistocene glaciations
3055:Glaciers and Glaciation
2855:10.1126/science.1076120
2738:10.1126/science.1076120
2454:August 2, 2007, at the
2317:March 15, 2008, at the
1943:2005E&PSL.237...33B
1910:August 2, 2007, at the
1788:August 5, 2007, at the
1783:Glaciers and Glaciation
1754:. Scope. Vol. 62.
1563:10.1126/science.1203909
1067:and by extension human
853:decreased exponentially
461:Atmospheric composition
69:period that began 2.58
5214:Kankakee Outwash Plain
5130:Glacial Lake Sammamish
4569:Marine protected areas
4559:Lake Michigan Triangle
4461:Great Lakes Commission
4204:Sault Ste. Marie Canal
3582:Timeline of glaciation
3449:(579.88 to 579.63 Mya)
2904:10.1073/pnas.230423297
2588:Our Changing Continent
2376:Uppslagsverket Finland
1044:
951:
928:Timeline of glaciation
835:, a large area around
760:
632:North Atlantic Current
622:transition), severing
422:
260:
55:Pleistocene glaciation
46:
5179:Lake Jordan (Montana)
5067:Glacial Lake Missoula
5057:Glacial Lake Columbia
4997:Nipissing Great Lakes
4977:Glacial Lake Iroquois
4410:Nipissing Great Lakes
4355:Glacial Lake Iroquois
4261:Detroit River Islands
4226:Trent–Severn Waterway
3545:Great Oxidation Event
3101:Pielou, E.C. (2008).
2120:Flint, Richard Foster
1042:Industrial Revolution
1027:
1006:Further information:
946:500 million years of
945:
758:
742:Further information:
717:it is known that the
563:Further information:
503:records shows that CO
499:reconstructions from
447:Earth's rotation axis
420:
337:Further information:
250:
243:Marine isotope stages
241:Further information:
190:scientific revolution
168:Late Cenozoic Ice Age
51:Quaternary glaciation
40:
5538:Geography portal
5308:Lake Nantucket Sound
5125:Glacial Lake Russell
4420:Wisconsin glaciation
4395:Last Glacial Maximum
4155:Great Lakes Waterway
3430:(360 Mya to 260 Mya)
3424:(460 Mya to 430 Mya)
3246:Last Glacial Maximum
2435:10.1029/2001JB000400
2342:Lidmar-Bergström, K.
2105:10.1029/2002PA000837
1891:10.1002/2013PA002543
1721:10.1029/2005GC001211
1621:10.1029/2010PA002055
1525:10.1038/ngeo.2007.29
1487:10.1029/2010PA002055
1065:Neolithic Revolution
1049:Last Glacial Maximum
823:Post-glacial rebound
817:Isostatic adjustment
766:rebound of the crust
719:Principal Cordillera
445:, or wobbles in the
427:orbital eccentricity
395:100,000-year problem
359:), interacting with
345:internal variability
159:to further cool the
151:(the ratio of solar
141:isostatic adjustment
110:Laurentide Ice Sheet
106:Greenland ice sheets
63:interglacial periods
53:, also known as the
4554:Lake Michigan–Huron
4466:Great Lakes Compact
4456:Great Lakes Charter
4415:Scotch Bonnet Ridge
4216:Straits of Mackinac
4192:St. Lawrence Seaway
3565:Milankovitch cycles
3242:Last Glacial Period
3086:1995Geo....23..483C
3005:. LiveScience. 2007
2898:(23): 12433–12438.
2798:10.1038/nature16494
2790:2016Natur.529..200G
2685:1980Sci...207..943I
2485:Nebraska Sand Hills
2426:2002JGRB..107.2157J
2205:10.1038/nature07223
2197:2008Natur.454.1102L
2191:(7208): 1102–1105.
2156:2013PPP...392..161S
2096:2003PalOc..18.1045P
2047:10.1038/nature07223
2039:2008Natur.454.1102L
2033:(7208): 1102–1105.
1990:1998Natur.393..673H
1882:2014PalOc..29..564H
1821:2020GPC...18503085K
1712:2006GGG.....7.9001H
1663:10.1038/nature07223
1655:2008Natur.454.1102L
1649:(7208): 1102–1105.
1612:2011PalOc..26.4213B
1555:2011Sci...334.1261P
1517:2008NatGe...1...43F
1478:2011PalOc..26.4213B
1357:10.1038/nature02599
1348:2004Natur.429..623A
1243:on 18 February 2019
1213:2000ESASP.463..155B
1008:Milankovitch cycles
1002:Next glacial period
682:Milankovitch cycles
495:. An analysis of CO
485:Geological evidence
412:Milankovitch cycles
385:Milankovitch cycles
379:Astronomical cycles
323:Last Glacial Period
311:Antarctic ice sheet
43:Northern Hemisphere
32:Last Glacial Period
18:Pleistocene Ice Age
5605:Pleistocene events
5550:History portal
5003:Early Lake Ontario
4405:Niagara Escarpment
4334:Potawatomi Islands
4322:Lake Huron Islands
4187:St. Lawrence River
3973:Grand Traverse Bay
3952:St. Joseph Channel
3942:Potagannissing Bay
3478:(717 to 660 Mya);
3455:(547 to 541.5 Mya)
3142:2013-03-19 at the
3065:2012-04-15 at the
2620:American Antiquity
2490:2007-12-21 at the
2235:Charrier, Reynaldo
1045:
952:
916:southernmost Chile
761:
694:mountain formation
423:
408:Milutin Milanković
283:(2,400–2,100 Ma).
263:To geologists, an
261:
47:
5610:Quaternary events
5582:
5581:
5574:Oceans portal
5440:
5439:
5110:Glacial Lake Hood
4999:(Multiple basins)
4933:(Multiple basins)
4842:
4841:
4697:Lake Makgadikgadi
4645:
4644:
4574:Marysburgh vortex
4283:Manitoulin Island
4278:Lake Erie Islands
4128:
4127:
3988:Little Bay de Noc
3720:
3719:
3715:
3714:
3636:Pleistocene Epoch
3623:Quaternary Period
3589:
3588:
3520:(2.9 to 2.78 Gya)
3399:
3398:
3114:978-0-226-66809-3
2822:46 (2000), 61-90.
2784:(7585): 200–203.
2679:(4434): 943–953.
1984:(6686): 673–676.
1504:Nature Geoscience
1314:978-3-540-26011-0
1189:978-90-481-2641-5
1156:978-0-521-78673-7
1107:in the atmosphere
688:Rise of mountains
673:greenhouse effect
641:Isthmus of Panama
371:, and changes in
279:(720–635 Ma) and
184:Evidence for the
16:(Redirected from
5617:
5572:
5571:
5562:Lakes portal
5560:
5559:
5558:
5548:
5547:
5546:
5536:
5535:
5534:
5414:Lake San AgustĂn
5293:Lake Connecticut
5238:Lake Monongahela
5189:Lake Musselshell
5174:Lake Great Falls
4851:
4762:
4684:and related seas
4682:proglacial lakes
4672:
4665:
4658:
4649:
4639:Lakes portal
4637:
4636:
4635:
4544:Lake-effect snow
4343:Historic geology
4021:Hamilton Harbour
3894:Presque Isle Bay
3879:
3790:of North America
3781:
3774:
3767:
3758:
3749:
3748:
3747:
3737:
3736:
3728:
3632:
3616:
3609:
3602:
3593:
3501:(2.4 to 2.1 Gya)
3491:Paleoproterozoic
3482:(650 to 635 Mya)
3407:
3215:
3190:
3183:
3176:
3167:
3118:
3097:
3043:
3029:
3028:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3012:
3010:
2999:
2993:
2992:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2963:
2962:
2947:
2941:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2923:
2881:
2875:
2874:
2849:(5585): 1287–8.
2838:
2829:
2823:
2817:
2772:
2765:
2759:
2757:
2732:(5585): 1287–8.
2719:
2713:
2712:
2666:
2660:
2659:
2657:
2655:
2616:
2607:
2601:
2596:
2590:
2585:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2575:
2566:. Archived from
2560:
2554:
2553:
2551:
2550:
2541:. Archived from
2535:
2529:
2528:
2526:
2500:
2494:
2482:
2476:
2464:
2458:
2446:
2440:
2439:
2437:
2404:
2398:
2395:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2366:
2360:
2359:
2338:
2332:
2327:
2321:
2309:
2303:
2302:
2300:
2298:
2276:
2270:
2269:
2267:
2265:
2260:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2137:
2128:
2127:
2116:
2110:
2109:
2107:
2083:Paleoceanography
2073:
2067:
2066:
2016:
2010:
2009:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1954:
1920:
1914:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1893:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1842:
1832:
1798:
1792:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1764:
1749:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1723:
1689:
1683:
1682:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1589:
1583:
1582:
1549:(6060): 1261–4.
1535:
1529:
1528:
1498:
1492:
1491:
1489:
1455:
1449:
1444:
1438:
1433:
1424:
1412:
1406:
1401:
1395:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1382:. Archived from
1376:
1370:
1369:
1359:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1298:
1292:
1291:
1262:Lockwood, J.G.;
1259:
1253:
1252:
1250:
1248:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1200:
1194:
1193:
1167:
1161:
1160:
1138:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1106:
1105:
1104:
1039:
1038:
1037:
938:paleoclimatology
554:
553:
552:
538:
537:
536:
478:
476:
475:
361:external forcing
119:of land and the
93:still has polar
21:
5625:
5624:
5620:
5619:
5618:
5616:
5615:
5614:
5585:
5584:
5583:
5578:
5566:
5556:
5554:
5544:
5542:
5532:
5530:
5522:
5506:
5436:
5418:
5391:Rio Grande rift
5385:
5317:
5276:
5252:
5223:
5193:
5139:
5095:
5086:Lake Bonneville
5071:
5037:
5033:Lake Whittlesey
4962:Early Lake Erie
4907:
4883:
4838:
4812:
4796:
4777:Baltic Ice Lake
4753:
4722:
4706:
4685:
4676:
4646:
4641:
4633:
4631:
4625:
4502:
4424:
4338:
4303:Treasure Island
4256:Apostle Islands
4242:
4199:St. Marys River
4182:St. Clair River
4124:
4108:
4062:Chequamegon Bay
4045:
4009:
4005:Manitou Passage
3993:Porte des Morts
3961:
3920:Nottawasaga Bay
3903:
3874:
3868:
3832:Secondary lakes
3827:
3791:
3785:
3755:
3745:
3743:
3731:
3723:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3665:
3625:
3620:
3590:
3585:
3574:
3523:
3504:
3485:
3458:
3433:
3408:
3395:
3392:(34 to 2.5 Mya)
3380:
3376:
3368:
3208:
3199:
3194:
3144:Wayback Machine
3131:Wayback Machine
3115:
3100:
3071:
3067:Wayback Machine
3037:
3032:
3023:
3022:
3018:
3008:
3006:
3001:
3000:
2996:
2989:
2974:
2973:
2969:
2960:
2958:
2949:
2948:
2944:
2934:
2932:
2883:
2882:
2878:
2836:
2831:
2830:
2826:
2820:Climatic Change
2773:
2767:
2766:
2762:
2721:
2720:
2716:
2668:
2667:
2663:
2653:
2651:
2633:10.2307/2694241
2614:
2609:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2593:
2586:
2582:
2573:
2571:
2562:
2561:
2557:
2548:
2546:
2537:
2536:
2532:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2492:Wayback Machine
2483:
2479:
2474:Wayback Machine
2467:LiveScience.com
2465:
2461:
2456:Wayback Machine
2447:
2443:
2406:
2405:
2401:
2396:
2392:
2382:
2380:
2368:
2367:
2363:
2356:
2340:
2339:
2335:
2328:
2324:
2319:Wayback Machine
2310:
2306:
2296:
2294:
2278:
2277:
2273:
2263:
2261:
2233:
2232:
2228:
2180:
2176:
2175:
2171:
2139:
2138:
2131:
2118:
2117:
2113:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2022:
2018:
2017:
2013:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1912:Wayback Machine
1903:
1899:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1790:Wayback Machine
1781:
1777:
1768:
1766:
1762:
1756:Washington D.C.
1747:
1742:
1741:
1737:
1691:
1690:
1686:
1638:
1634:
1633:
1629:
1591:
1590:
1586:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1500:
1499:
1495:
1457:
1456:
1452:
1445:
1441:
1434:
1427:
1422:Wayback Machine
1413:
1409:
1402:
1398:
1389:
1387:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1342:(6992): 623–8.
1327:
1326:
1322:
1315:
1300:
1299:
1295:
1261:
1260:
1256:
1246:
1244:
1235:
1234:
1230:
1223:
1202:
1201:
1197:
1190:
1169:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1140:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1117:
1114:
1113:
1112:
1110:
1103:
1100:
1099:
1098:
1096:
1036:
1033:
1032:
1031:
1029:
1022:
1004:
940:
930:
924:
912:placer deposits
908:
899:
867:
825:
819:
806:
800:
781:Canadian Shield
750:drainage system
746:
740:
731:
723:valley glaciers
690:
661:
645:the last strait
586:But during the
571:
565:Plate tectonics
561:
551:
548:
547:
546:
544:
535:
532:
531:
530:
528:
526:
522:
518:
510:
506:
498:
490:
479:, an important
474:
471:
470:
469:
466:
463:
397:
391:
389:orbital forcing
383:Main articles:
381:
341:
335:
288:glacial periods
254:
245:
239:
182:
176:
143:of the Earth's
79:popular culture
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5623:
5621:
5613:
5612:
5607:
5602:
5597:
5587:
5586:
5580:
5579:
5577:
5576:
5564:
5552:
5540:
5527:
5524:
5523:
5521:
5520:
5514:
5512:
5508:
5507:
5505:
5504:
5499:
5494:
5489:
5484:
5479:
5474:
5469:
5464:
5459:
5454:
5452:Lake Ballivián
5448:
5446:
5442:
5441:
5438:
5437:
5435:
5434:
5428:
5426:
5420:
5419:
5417:
5416:
5411:
5406:
5401:
5395:
5393:
5387:
5386:
5384:
5383:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5363:
5358:
5353:
5348:
5343:
5338:
5333:
5327:
5325:
5319:
5318:
5316:
5315:
5310:
5305:
5303:Lake Merrimack
5300:
5298:Lake Hitchcock
5295:
5290:
5284:
5282:
5278:
5277:
5275:
5274:
5269:
5263:
5261:
5254:
5253:
5251:
5250:
5245:
5240:
5234:
5232:
5225:
5224:
5222:
5221:
5219:Lake Wisconsin
5216:
5211:
5205:
5203:
5195:
5194:
5192:
5191:
5186:
5181:
5176:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5150:
5148:
5146:Missouri River
5141:
5140:
5138:
5137:
5135:Lake Skokomish
5132:
5127:
5122:
5117:
5115:Lake Nisqually
5112:
5106:
5104:
5097:
5096:
5094:
5093:
5088:
5082:
5080:
5073:
5072:
5070:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5048:
5046:
5043:Columbia River
5039:
5038:
5036:
5035:
5030:
5025:
5020:
5018:Lake Tonawanda
5015:
5010:
5005:
5000:
4994:
4989:
4984:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4967:Lake Frontenac
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4931:Lake Algonquin
4928:
4926:Lake Admiralty
4923:
4917:
4915:
4909:
4908:
4906:
4905:
4900:
4894:
4892:
4885:
4884:
4882:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4866:
4860:
4858:
4848:
4844:
4843:
4840:
4839:
4837:
4836:
4834:Lake Pickering
4831:
4826:
4820:
4818:
4814:
4813:
4811:
4810:
4804:
4802:
4798:
4797:
4795:
4794:
4789:
4787:Mastogloia Sea
4784:
4779:
4774:
4768:
4766:
4759:
4755:
4754:
4752:
4751:
4746:
4741:
4736:
4730:
4728:
4724:
4723:
4721:
4720:
4714:
4712:
4708:
4707:
4705:
4704:
4699:
4693:
4691:
4687:
4686:
4677:
4675:
4674:
4667:
4660:
4652:
4643:
4642:
4630:
4627:
4626:
4624:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4608:
4603:
4602:
4601:
4591:
4586:
4581:
4576:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4556:
4551:
4549:Lake freighter
4546:
4541:
4536:
4531:
4526:
4521:
4516:
4510:
4508:
4507:Related topics
4504:
4503:
4501:
4500:
4499:
4498:
4491:Municipalities
4488:
4483:
4478:
4473:
4468:
4463:
4458:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4432:
4430:
4426:
4425:
4423:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4380:Lake Frontenac
4377:
4372:
4370:Lake Algonquin
4367:
4362:
4360:Lake Admiralty
4357:
4352:
4346:
4344:
4340:
4339:
4337:
4336:
4331:
4326:
4325:
4324:
4314:
4309:
4308:
4307:
4306:
4305:
4298:Lake Mindemoya
4295:
4290:
4280:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4263:
4258:
4252:
4250:
4244:
4243:
4241:
4240:
4239:
4238:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4212:
4211:
4206:
4196:
4195:
4194:
4184:
4179:
4174:
4173:
4172:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4136:
4134:
4130:
4129:
4126:
4125:
4123:
4122:
4116:
4114:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4099:
4097:Batchawana Bay
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4053:
4051:
4047:
4046:
4044:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4017:
4015:
4011:
4010:
4008:
4007:
4002:
4001:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3983:Big Bay de Noc
3975:
3969:
3967:
3963:
3962:
3960:
3959:
3954:
3949:
3944:
3939:
3934:
3932:Munuscong Lake
3929:
3924:
3923:
3922:
3911:
3909:
3905:
3904:
3902:
3901:
3896:
3891:
3885:
3883:
3876:
3870:
3869:
3867:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3846:
3841:
3835:
3833:
3829:
3828:
3826:
3825:
3820:
3815:
3810:
3805:
3799:
3797:
3793:
3792:
3786:
3784:
3783:
3776:
3769:
3761:
3754:
3753:
3741:
3718:
3717:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3679:
3674:
3668:
3666:
3664:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3647:
3644:
3643:
3641:Holocene Epoch
3638:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3621:
3619:
3618:
3611:
3604:
3596:
3587:
3586:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3555:Snowball Earth
3552:
3550:Little Ice Age
3547:
3542:
3537:
3535:Glacial period
3531:
3529:
3528:Related topics
3525:
3524:
3522:
3521:
3514:
3512:
3506:
3505:
3503:
3502:
3495:
3493:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3472:
3470:
3468:Snowball Earth
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3450:
3443:
3441:
3435:
3434:
3432:
3431:
3425:
3422:Andean-Saharan
3418:
3416:
3410:
3409:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3394:
3393:
3386:
3384:
3370:
3369:
3367:
3366:
3365:(2.5 to 0 Mya)
3339:
3317:
3295:
3257:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3223:
3221:
3212:
3201:
3200:
3195:
3193:
3192:
3185:
3178:
3170:
3164:
3163:
3158:
3152:
3151:
3147:
3146:
3134:
3124:
3119:
3113:
3098:
3069:
3057:
3050:at Wiktionary
3036:
3035:External links
3033:
3031:
3030:
3016:
2994:
2987:
2967:
2950:Tans, Pieter.
2942:
2876:
2824:
2760:
2714:
2661:
2627:(3): 387–411.
2602:
2591:
2580:
2555:
2530:
2510:Andean Geology
2495:
2477:
2459:
2441:
2399:
2390:
2361:
2354:
2333:
2322:
2304:
2271:
2251:(2): 240–278.
2244:Andean Geology
2226:
2178:
2169:
2129:
2111:
2068:
2020:
2011:
1966:
1915:
1897:
1876:(6): 564–580.
1854:
1793:
1775:
1735:
1684:
1636:
1627:
1584:
1530:
1493:
1450:
1439:
1425:
1407:
1396:
1371:
1320:
1313:
1293:
1280:10.2307/633219
1274:(3): 469–471.
1254:
1228:
1221:
1195:
1188:
1162:
1155:
1132:
1130:
1127:
1115:
1101:
1095:the amount of
1076:orbital models
1053:sea level rise
1034:
1016:Climate change
1012:Past sea level
1003:
1000:
992:Snowball Earth
964:Neoproterozoic
948:climate change
926:Main article:
923:
920:
907:
904:
898:
897:Ocean currents
895:
876:Missouri River
866:
863:
821:Main article:
818:
815:
802:Main article:
799:
796:
783:, Sweden, and
739:
736:
730:
727:
689:
686:
660:
657:
604:Atlantic Ocean
600:Eurasian Plate
596:South American
592:North American
560:
557:
549:
533:
524:
520:
516:
508:
504:
496:
488:
481:greenhouse gas
472:
462:
459:
380:
377:
353:ocean currents
349:climate system
334:
331:
275:(450–420 Ma),
273:Andean-Saharan
271:(360–260 Ma),
269:late Paleozoic
257:Vostok Station
252:
238:
235:
222:glacial stream
178:Main article:
175:
172:
153:radiant energy
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5622:
5611:
5608:
5606:
5603:
5601:
5598:
5596:
5593:
5592:
5590:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5563:
5553:
5551:
5541:
5539:
5529:
5528:
5525:
5519:
5516:
5515:
5513:
5509:
5503:
5500:
5498:
5495:
5493:
5490:
5488:
5485:
5483:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5449:
5447:
5445:South America
5443:
5433:
5430:
5429:
5427:
5425:
5421:
5415:
5412:
5410:
5407:
5405:
5404:Lake Estancia
5402:
5400:
5397:
5396:
5394:
5392:
5388:
5382:
5381:Lake Thompson
5379:
5377:
5374:
5372:
5369:
5367:
5366:Lake Panamint
5364:
5362:
5359:
5357:
5354:
5352:
5349:
5347:
5344:
5342:
5339:
5337:
5336:Lake Corcoran
5334:
5332:
5331:Lake Cahuilla
5329:
5328:
5326:
5324:
5320:
5314:
5311:
5309:
5306:
5304:
5301:
5299:
5296:
5294:
5291:
5289:
5288:Lake Cape Cod
5286:
5285:
5283:
5279:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5264:
5262:
5259:
5255:
5249:
5246:
5244:
5241:
5239:
5236:
5235:
5233:
5230:
5226:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5209:Lake Kankakee
5207:
5206:
5204:
5201:
5196:
5190:
5187:
5185:
5184:Lake McKenzie
5182:
5180:
5177:
5175:
5172:
5170:
5169:Lake Glendive
5167:
5165:
5164:Lake Cut Bank
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5154:Lake Chouteau
5152:
5151:
5149:
5147:
5142:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5120:Lake Puyallup
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5107:
5105:
5102:
5098:
5092:
5091:Lake Lahontan
5089:
5087:
5084:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5074:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5049:
5047:
5044:
5040:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4998:
4995:
4993:
4990:
4988:
4985:
4983:
4980:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4947:Lake Chippewa
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4932:
4929:
4927:
4924:
4922:
4921:Champlain Sea
4919:
4918:
4916:
4914:
4910:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4895:
4893:
4890:
4886:
4880:
4877:
4875:
4872:
4870:
4867:
4865:
4862:
4861:
4859:
4856:
4852:
4849:
4847:North America
4845:
4835:
4832:
4830:
4829:Lake Lapworth
4827:
4825:
4824:Lake Harrison
4822:
4821:
4819:
4817:Great Britain
4815:
4809:
4806:
4805:
4803:
4799:
4793:
4790:
4788:
4785:
4783:
4782:Littorina Sea
4780:
4778:
4775:
4773:
4770:
4769:
4767:
4763:
4760:
4756:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4731:
4729:
4725:
4719:
4718:Lake Washburn
4716:
4715:
4713:
4709:
4703:
4700:
4698:
4695:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4683:
4680:
4673:
4668:
4666:
4661:
4659:
4654:
4653:
4650:
4640:
4628:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4607:
4604:
4600:
4597:
4596:
4595:
4592:
4590:
4587:
4585:
4582:
4580:
4577:
4575:
4572:
4570:
4567:
4565:
4562:
4560:
4557:
4555:
4552:
4550:
4547:
4545:
4542:
4540:
4537:
4535:
4532:
4530:
4527:
4525:
4522:
4520:
4517:
4515:
4512:
4511:
4509:
4505:
4497:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4462:
4459:
4457:
4454:
4452:
4449:
4447:
4444:
4442:
4439:
4437:
4434:
4433:
4431:
4429:Organizations
4427:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4350:Champlain Sea
4348:
4347:
4345:
4341:
4335:
4332:
4330:
4327:
4323:
4320:
4319:
4318:
4315:
4313:
4310:
4304:
4301:
4300:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4288:Lake Kagawong
4286:
4285:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4272:
4269:
4268:
4267:
4264:
4262:
4259:
4257:
4254:
4253:
4251:
4249:
4245:
4237:
4234:
4233:
4232:
4231:Welland Canal
4229:
4227:
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4201:
4200:
4197:
4193:
4190:
4189:
4188:
4185:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4177:Nipigon River
4175:
4171:
4168:
4167:
4166:
4165:Niagara River
4163:
4161:
4160:Chicago River
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4140:Detroit River
4138:
4137:
4135:
4131:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4111:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4094:
4093:
4092:Whitefish Bay
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4058:
4055:
4054:
4052:
4048:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4018:
4016:
4012:
4006:
4003:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3970:
3968:
3964:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3948:
3945:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3937:North Channel
3935:
3933:
3930:
3928:
3925:
3921:
3918:
3917:
3916:
3913:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3900:
3897:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3880:
3877:
3871:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3824:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3814:
3811:
3809:
3806:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3798:
3794:
3789:
3782:
3777:
3775:
3770:
3768:
3763:
3762:
3759:
3752:
3742:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3726:
3708:
3705:
3703:
3700:
3698:
3695:
3693:
3690:
3688:
3685:
3683:
3680:
3678:
3677:Northgrippian
3675:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3667:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3645:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3633:
3628:
3624:
3617:
3612:
3610:
3605:
3603:
3598:
3597:
3594:
3584:
3583:
3577:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3532:
3530:
3526:
3519:
3516:
3515:
3513:
3511:
3507:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3494:
3492:
3488:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3465:
3461:
3454:
3451:
3448:
3445:
3444:
3442:
3440:
3436:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3417:
3415:
3411:
3406:
3391:
3388:
3387:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3347:Pre-Illinoian
3344:
3340:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3326:
3325:Pre-Illinoian
3322:
3318:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3294:
3290:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3255:
3254:Younger Dryas
3251:
3247:
3243:
3240:
3238:
3235:
3233:
3230:
3228:
3225:
3224:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3210:Late Cenozoic
3206:
3202:
3198:
3191:
3186:
3184:
3179:
3177:
3172:
3171:
3168:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3153:
3149:
3148:
3145:
3141:
3138:
3135:
3132:
3128:
3125:
3123:
3120:
3116:
3110:
3106:
3105:
3099:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3070:
3068:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3052:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3042:
3034:
3026:
3020:
3017:
3004:
2998:
2995:
2990:
2988:9781449659028
2984:
2980:
2979:
2978:Dynamic Earth
2971:
2968:
2957:
2953:
2946:
2943:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2892:
2887:
2880:
2877:
2872:
2868:
2864:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2843:
2835:
2828:
2825:
2821:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2770:
2764:
2761:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2727:
2726:
2718:
2715:
2710:
2706:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2690:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2673:
2665:
2662:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2638:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2621:
2613:
2606:
2603:
2600:
2595:
2592:
2589:
2584:
2581:
2570:on 2019-12-11
2569:
2565:
2559:
2556:
2545:on 2022-02-15
2544:
2540:
2534:
2531:
2525:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2511:
2506:
2499:
2496:
2493:
2489:
2486:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2471:
2468:
2463:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2450:
2445:
2442:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2403:
2400:
2394:
2391:
2378:
2377:
2372:
2365:
2362:
2357:
2355:0-632-05311-9
2351:
2347:
2343:
2337:
2334:
2331:
2326:
2323:
2320:
2316:
2313:
2308:
2305:
2292:
2288:
2287:
2282:
2275:
2272:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2245:
2240:
2236:
2230:
2227:
2222:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2185:
2173:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2144:
2136:
2134:
2130:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2112:
2106:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2084:
2079:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2027:
2015:
2012:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1998:10.1038/31447
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1978:
1970:
1967:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1931:
1926:
1919:
1916:
1913:
1909:
1906:
1901:
1898:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1858:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1841:
1836:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1809:
1804:
1797:
1794:
1791:
1787:
1784:
1779:
1776:
1765:on 2008-12-17
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1739:
1736:
1731:
1727:
1722:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1688:
1685:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1644:
1643:
1631:
1628:
1622:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1600:
1595:
1588:
1585:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1543:
1534:
1531:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1505:
1497:
1494:
1488:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1400:
1397:
1386:on 2019-12-11
1385:
1381:
1375:
1372:
1367:
1363:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1336:
1331:
1324:
1321:
1316:
1310:
1306:
1305:
1297:
1294:
1289:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1258:
1255:
1242:
1238:
1232:
1229:
1224:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1199:
1196:
1191:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1166:
1163:
1158:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1137:
1134:
1128:
1126:
1124:
1108:
1092:
1088:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1043:
1026:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1001:
999:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
976:
973:
972:stratigraphic
969:
965:
961:
957:
949:
944:
939:
935:
929:
921:
919:
917:
913:
906:Gold deposits
905:
903:
896:
894:
892:
888:
884:
879:
877:
873:
864:
862:
859:
854:
850:
845:
843:
838:
834:
830:
824:
816:
814:
812:
805:
798:Pluvial lakes
797:
795:
793:
790:
786:
782:
777:
775:
771:
767:
757:
753:
751:
745:
737:
735:
728:
726:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
699:
695:
687:
685:
683:
678:
674:
670:
666:
658:
656:
654:
650:
646:
642:
637:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
612:Drake Passage
609:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
584:
581:
577:
576:geologic time
570:
569:ocean current
566:
558:
556:
542:
513:
502:
494:
486:
482:
477:
460:
458:
454:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
419:
415:
413:
409:
406:
402:
396:
390:
386:
378:
376:
374:
370:
366:
362:
358:
354:
350:
346:
340:
332:
330:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
307:
305:
301:
296:
294:
293:interglacials
289:
284:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
258:
249:
244:
236:
234:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
199:
198:North America
195:
191:
187:
181:
173:
171:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
138:
134:
133:pluvial lakes
130:
126:
125:river systems
122:
118:
113:
111:
107:
103:
98:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
44:
39:
33:
19:
5477:Lake Minchin
5409:Lake Palomas
5399:Lake Alamosa
5371:Lake Russell
5272:Lake Passaic
5052:Lake Allison
5013:Lake Stanley
5008:Lake Saginaw
4942:Lake Chicago
4898:Lake Ojibway
4869:Lake Bassano
4864:Lake Agassiz
4855:Nelson River
4772:Ancylus Lake
4739:Lake Tengger
4734:Lake Bandung
4702:Lake Ptolemy
4564:Lake surfing
4390:Lake Stanley
4375:Lake Chicago
4365:Lake Agassiz
4293:Lake Manitou
4150:French River
4082:Superior Bay
4077:Pokegama Bay
4072:Keweenaw Bay
4057:Au Train Bay
3998:Sturgeon Bay
3915:Georgian Bay
3899:Sandusky Bay
3751:Paleontology
3682:Greenlandian
3580:
3560:Interglacial
3204:
3103:
3080:(4): 483–6.
3077:
3073:
3046:
3038:
3019:
3007:. Retrieved
2997:
2977:
2970:
2959:. Retrieved
2945:
2933:. Retrieved
2895:
2889:
2879:
2846:
2840:
2827:
2819:
2781:
2775:
2763:
2729:
2723:
2717:
2676:
2670:
2664:
2652:. Retrieved
2624:
2618:
2605:
2594:
2583:
2572:. Retrieved
2568:the original
2558:
2547:. Retrieved
2543:the original
2533:
2514:
2508:
2498:
2480:
2462:
2444:
2420:(B8): 2157.
2417:
2413:
2402:
2393:
2383:November 30,
2381:. Retrieved
2379:(in Swedish)
2374:
2364:
2345:
2336:
2325:
2307:
2297:December 22,
2295:. Retrieved
2290:
2284:
2274:
2262:. Retrieved
2248:
2242:
2229:
2188:
2182:
2172:
2147:
2141:
2123:
2114:
2087:
2081:
2071:
2030:
2024:
2014:
1981:
1975:
1969:
1937:(1): 33–44.
1934:
1928:
1918:
1900:
1873:
1867:
1857:
1812:
1806:
1796:
1778:
1767:. Retrieved
1760:the original
1751:
1738:
1703:
1697:
1687:
1646:
1640:
1630:
1603:
1597:
1587:
1546:
1540:
1533:
1511:(1): 43–48.
1508:
1502:
1496:
1469:
1463:
1453:
1442:
1410:
1399:
1388:. Retrieved
1384:the original
1374:
1339:
1333:
1323:
1303:
1296:
1271:
1267:
1257:
1245:. Retrieved
1241:the original
1231:
1204:
1198:
1171:
1165:
1146:
1136:
1091:human impact
1084:
1080:interstadial
1073:
1069:civilization
1046:
980:South Africa
977:
953:
909:
900:
880:
868:
849:deglaciation
846:
826:
807:
804:Pluvial lake
778:
762:
747:
744:Glacial lake
732:
725:about 1 Ma.
691:
663:A permanent
662:
608:Arctic Ocean
590:, the large
588:Cenozoic Era
585:
572:
514:
493:Mesozoic Era
464:
455:
424:
405:geophysicist
398:
373:solar output
360:
357:carbon cycle
344:
342:
308:
297:
285:
262:
183:
165:
114:
99:
85:, or to the
54:
50:
48:
5600:Pleistocene
5462:Lake Escara
5376:Lake Tecopa
5361:Lake Mojave
5341:Lake Harper
5281:New England
5267:Lake Albany
5248:Teays River
5200:Mississippi
5159:Lake Circle
5101:Puget Sound
5077:Great Basin
5023:Lake Warren
4992:Lake Minong
4987:Lake Maumee
4957:Lake Duluth
4937:Lake Arkona
4913:Great Lakes
4903:Tyrrell Sea
4874:Lake Souris
4679:Pleistocene
4616:Third Coast
4579:Megalopolis
4539:Lake breeze
4524:Circle Tour
4385:Lake Maumee
4271:Isle Royale
4236:First canal
4102:Goulais Bay
4087:Thunder Bay
4041:Wellers Bay
4036:Toronto Bay
3957:Thunder Bay
3947:Saginaw Bay
3927:Lake George
3864:Couchiching
3788:Great Lakes
3707:Subatlantic
3510:Mesoarchean
3453:Baykonurian
3315:Santa MarĂa
3269:Weichselian
3009:11 November
2935:11 November
2654:29 December
2517:(1): 1–13.
2150:: 161–176.
2090:(2): 1045.
1706:(9): 1–16.
1606:(4): 1–14.
1472:(4): 1–14.
1247:17 February
994:during the
962:(i.e., the
960:Precambrian
842:earthquakes
829:lithosphere
811:playa lakes
774:Great Lakes
431:inclination
401:James Croll
347:of Earth's
327:slowly melt
237:Description
87:Pleistocene
65:during the
5589:Categories
5497:Lake Tauca
5467:Inca Huasi
5356:Lake Modoc
5351:Lake Manly
5346:Lake Manix
5323:California
5313:Lake Stowe
5243:Lake Tight
5062:Lake Lewis
5028:Lake Wayne
4982:Lake Lundy
4792:Yoldia Sea
4765:Baltic Sea
4711:Antarctica
4606:Shipwrecks
4534:Great Loop
4145:Erie Canal
4120:Anchor Bay
4026:Humber Bay
3889:Maumee Bay
3796:Main lakes
3672:Meghalayan
3464:Cryogenian
3359:Beestonian
3311:Wolstonian
3293:Llanquihue
3277:Midlandian
3227:Antarctica
3219:Quaternary
3205:Quaternary
3047:glaciation
2961:2016-05-06
2574:2019-12-11
2549:2019-12-11
1815:: 103085.
1769:2008-05-07
1390:2019-12-11
1222:9290926937
1129:References
1040:since the
996:Cryogenian
932:See also:
889:region in
887:Sand Hills
837:Hudson Bay
770:Baltic Sea
713:. For the
624:Antarctica
580:North Pole
453:build up.
439:precession
393:See also:
277:Cryogenian
226:ice sheets
218:striations
186:Quaternary
121:deposition
95:ice sheets
67:Quaternary
5432:Lake Atna
4952:Lake Dana
4889:James Bay
4808:Lake Komi
4599:Laurentia
4529:Crossings
4329:Populated
4209:Soo Locks
4133:Waterways
4113:St. Clair
4067:Huron Bay
4031:Sodus Bay
3978:Green Bay
3859:Winnebago
3854:St. Clair
3844:Nipissing
3702:Subboreal
3687:Preboreal
3439:Ediacaran
3414:Paleozoic
3390:Antarctic
3382:Oligocene
3341:7th–8th:
3337:Rio Llico
3319:3rd–6th:
3303:Illinoian
3273:Devensian
3265:Wisconsin
3232:Greenland
2912:0027-8424
2871:128923481
2754:128923481
2649:163474968
2181:levels".
2023:levels".
1961:0012-821X
1849:213769471
1730:129085686
1639:levels".
1579:206533232
1074:Based on
1057:Neolithic
988:Australia
956:Paleozoic
789:weathered
620:Oligocene
443:equinoxes
369:volcanism
304:ice cores
230:meltwater
174:Discovery
137:sea level
102:Antarctic
5595:Ice ages
5231:drainage
5202:drainage
4891:drainage
4857:drainage
4744:Mundafan
4621:Treaties
4050:Superior
3966:Michigan
3875:channels
3873:Bays and
3823:Superior
3813:Michigan
3697:Atlantic
3499:Huronian
3480:Marinoan
3476:Sturtian
3447:Gaskiers
3374:Pliocene
3355:Menapian
3281:Pinedale
3197:Ice ages
3140:Archived
3063:Archived
2930:11050181
2863:12193773
2806:26762457
2746:12193773
2701:17830447
2488:Archived
2470:Archived
2452:Archived
2315:Archived
2213:18756254
2122:(1971).
2055:18756254
1908:Archived
1786:Archived
1671:18756254
1571:22144622
1418:Archived
1366:15190344
998:period.
891:Nebraska
772:and the
669:Pliocene
541:feedback
501:alkenone
451:glaciers
319:Holocene
281:Huronian
214:moraines
206:drumlins
157:feedback
5511:Summary
5492:Salinas
4248:Islands
4014:Ontario
3839:Nipigon
3818:Ontario
3739:Geology
3725:Portals
3570:Stadial
3518:Pongola
3378:Miocene
3363:Caracol
3333:Anglian
3129:at the
3082:Bibcode
3074:Geology
2842:Science
2814:4466220
2786:Bibcode
2725:Science
2709:7317540
2681:Bibcode
2672:Science
2641:2694241
2422:Bibcode
2264:June 9,
2221:4364843
2193:Bibcode
2152:Bibcode
2092:Bibcode
2063:4364843
2035:Bibcode
2006:4421505
1986:Bibcode
1939:Bibcode
1878:Bibcode
1817:Bibcode
1708:Bibcode
1679:4364843
1651:Bibcode
1608:Bibcode
1551:Bibcode
1542:Science
1513:Bibcode
1474:Bibcode
1344:Bibcode
1209:Bibcode
934:Ice age
792:bedrock
785:Finland
729:Effects
698:tropics
665:El Niño
649:Pacific
441:of the
435:seasons
351:(e.g.,
339:Ice age
265:ice age
202:Siberia
161:climate
117:erosion
75:ice age
59:glacial
5472:Mataro
5457:Cabana
5424:Alaska
5260:valley
5258:Hudson
5198:Upper
5144:Upper
5103:system
5079:system
5045:system
4801:Russia
4758:Europe
4690:Africa
4611:Storms
4594:Region
4496:Cities
3849:Simcoe
3692:Boreal
3656:Middle
3329:Elster
3321:Mindel
3289:Merida
3285:Fraser
3150:Causes
3111:
2985:
2928:
2918:
2910:
2869:
2861:
2812:
2804:
2777:Nature
2752:
2744:
2707:
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2647:
2639:
2352:
2286:Fennia
2219:
2211:
2184:Nature
2061:
2053:
2026:Nature
2004:
1977:Nature
1959:
1847:
1728:
1677:
1669:
1642:Nature
1577:
1569:
1364:
1335:Nature
1311:
1288:633219
1286:
1219:
1186:
1153:
1018:, and
968:fossil
833:Canada
677:albedo
616:Eocene
610:. The
578:, the
333:Causes
220:, and
210:eskers
200:, and
194:Europe
149:albedo
139:; the
77:", in
5487:Sajsi
4589:Ports
4514:Basin
4170:Falls
3908:Huron
3808:Huron
3651:Early
3307:Saale
3297:2nd:
3259:1st:
3250:Older
2921:18780
2867:S2CID
2837:(PDF)
2810:S2CID
2750:S2CID
2705:S2CID
2645:S2CID
2637:JSTOR
2615:(PDF)
2293:(1–2)
2217:S2CID
2059:S2CID
2002:S2CID
1845:S2CID
1763:(PDF)
1748:(PDF)
1726:S2CID
1675:S2CID
1575:S2CID
1284:JSTOR
984:India
883:dunes
881:Sand
872:loess
865:Winds
738:Lakes
715:Andes
145:crust
129:lakes
91:Earth
5482:Ouki
5229:Ohio
4727:Asia
3882:Erie
3803:Erie
3661:Late
3351:Elbe
3343:GĂĽnz
3299:Riss
3261:WĂĽrm
3252:and
3109:ISBN
3011:2023
2983:ISBN
2937:2023
2926:PMID
2908:ISSN
2859:PMID
2802:PMID
2742:PMID
2697:PMID
2656:2015
2385:2017
2350:ISBN
2299:2017
2266:2019
2209:PMID
2051:PMID
1957:ISSN
1667:PMID
1567:PMID
1362:PMID
1309:ISBN
1249:2019
1217:ISBN
1184:ISBN
1151:ISBN
936:and
709:and
594:and
567:and
387:and
104:and
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3353:or
3090:doi
2916:PMC
2900:doi
2851:doi
2847:297
2794:doi
2782:529
2734:doi
2730:297
2689:doi
2677:207
2629:doi
2519:doi
2430:doi
2418:107
2291:180
2253:doi
2201:doi
2189:454
2160:doi
2148:392
2100:doi
2043:doi
2031:454
1994:doi
1982:393
1947:doi
1935:237
1886:doi
1835:hdl
1825:doi
1813:185
1716:doi
1659:doi
1647:454
1616:doi
1559:doi
1547:334
1521:doi
1482:doi
1352:doi
1340:429
1276:doi
1272:145
1176:doi
1123:ppm
858:GPS
636:MIS
375:).
325:to
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