Plutarco Elías Calles - Knowledge (XXG)

963:, railroads had been important to economic development and exerting political control over more remote areas. Fighting during the Revolution damaged railways, so rebuilding had been ongoing since the end of the military phase. Calles privatized the railways and a line was built to connect Sonora, Calles's home state, and Mexico City. Even more important, during his presidency, Calles began what became a major infrastructure project to build a road network in Mexico that linked major cities and small villages to the network. He established the National Road Commission as a government agency, envisioning it as a way to increase economic activity by getting crops to market more efficiently, but also as a means to increase the presence of the state in remote communities. Unlike the nineteenth-century railway network, funded by foreign capital and foreign firms, Mexican road construction depended on federal government support and had limited dependence on foreign technology. Mexicans formed road-building companies, most prominently in northern Mexico with revolutionary general 1543:("Aco"), (1901–1976), governor of Nuevo León 1929; Berndardina (died in infancy); Natalia (1904–1998); Hortensia ("Tencha") (1905–1996); Ernestina ("Tinina") (1906–1984); Elodia (1908), died in infancy; María Josefina (1910), died in infancy; Alicia (1911–1988); Alfredo (1913–1988); Artemisa (1915–1998); and Gustavo (1918–1990). After his first wife's death in 1927, he married a young woman from Yucatan, Leonor Llorente, who died of a brain tumor in 1932 at age 29. Calles's own health was not good over his lifetime, and in his later years deteriorated. His problems date from the winter of 1915 when he came down with a rheumatic ailment, likely from extended periods outdoors in sub-freezing temperatures. He also experienced stomach problems and insomnia. The death of his wife Natalia in 1927 was a severe blow personally. Although he remarried in 1930, his second wife Leonor died soon afterwards. 713:, the leader of the Constitutionalist faction that had won the Mexican Revolution. Calles's position put him in charge of the Mexican economy, which had been devastated by the fighting during the civil war. The two main sources of production, mining, and agriculture, had been severely affected by the fighting. The key infrastructure of Mexican railways, which had linked many cities and production sites in Mexico to the national market and to the United States, had been damaged. The national currency in Mexico had been replaced by paper money issued by revolutionary factions without backing by specie. In response to this, many people used the more stable U.S. paper dollars. The lack of currency meant that in agriculture there was no incentive to produce for the market, which led to food shortages. In addition, malnourished populations are more vulnerable to disease, and Mexico suffered from the 991:. Calles was able to devote more government funding to rural education and added two thousand schools to the thousand that his predecessor had established. A key aim of rural education was to integrate Mexico's indigenous population into the nation-state, so Spanish-language instruction was an integral aspect of public education. Along with turning rural indigenous into Spanish speakers, education aimed to create a loyal and patriotic citizenry. Secretary of Education José Manuel Puig Cassauranc developed education materials lauding the accomplishments of Sonorans Obregón and Calles as heirs to the Revolution. The Secretariat of Public Education, based in the capital and controlled by urban intellectuals, could not command rural residents and public school teachers to adhere to the program, so on-site, there was a kind of negotiation about how education was shaped. 1528: 1591:, joining other major figures, Madero, along with Carranza, Villa, and Cárdenas who in life were his political opponents. For many years, the presidency of Cárdenas was touted as the revival of the ideals of the Revolution, but increasingly the importance of Calles as the founder of the party that brought political stability to Mexico has been recognized. When the son of Lázaro Cárdenas broke with the PRI in 1988, the party leadership began to acknowledge Calles' contributions and leadership as the party's founder. In 1990, a monument to Calles was erected that commemorated his September 1928 speech declaring the end of the age of 1135:

progress that they encompass." He was, however, an enemy of "the political priest, the scheming priest, the priest as exploiter." This position of lauding religion while inveighing against earthly ecclesiastic machinations was central...to the justification of the anticlerical campaign in general. As president, Calles expressed determination to enforce the laws of the 1917 constitution that mandated secular education, banned foreign priests as well as confessional political parties and newspapers, nationalized all church properties, and granted local governments the authority to limit the number of priests.

4621: 1564: 345: 1302: 952: 1290: 1070:

language of Article 27 threatened the oil possession of U.S. and European oil companies, especially if the article was applied retroactively. A Mexican Supreme Court decision had ruled that foreign-owned fields could not be seized as long as they were already in operation before the constitution went into effect. The Bucareli Agreements stated that Mexico would agree to respect the Mexican Supreme Court decision in exchange for official recognition from Washington of the presidency of Álvaro Obregón.

3692: 593:

family of school teachers but was himself a small-scale dealer in groceries and alcoholic beverages. Plutarco's uncle was an atheist, and he instilled in his nephew a strong commitment to secular education and an attitude of disdain toward the Roman Catholic Church, which was separated from the state during this time. This was later reflected in his social agenda, which included the expansion of public education and the removal of church influence from education, politics, and unions.

1008:

prominence by creating a cabinet-level position of public health. The ministry was in charge of promoting vaccination against communicable diseases, improving potable water access, sewage and drainage systems, and inspecting restaurants, markets, and other food providers. A new 1926 sanitary code ordered mandatory vaccination and empowered the government to implement other measures for sanitation and hygiene. Also part of the program was the mandatory registration of prostitutes.

1552: 70: 363: 856: 653: 1398: 786: 1000: 864:

who would return power to the caudillo upon the conclusion of his term." Calles sought to build his own power base. He launched a reform program that was modeled on the one in Sonora. Its intent was to promote economic development, professionalize the army, and promote social and educational welfare. He relied on worker and peasant organizations to support his consolidation of power, particularly

573: 1640: 837: 877: 1054: 926: 967:, in 1920s charge of the military in Nuevo León, forming the Anáhuac Construction Company, making him a wealthy man. This extensive infrastructure project "connected the country, increasingly linking people from different regions and towns to national political, economic, and cultural life." Work began on the Mexican section of the 1381:. Calles mentored Treviño and supported him to be the party's nominee at the time, teaching his experiences and policies, but soon yielded to pressure from party officials and agreed to support Cárdenas—a former revolutionary general, governor of Michoacán, and popular land reformer—as the PNR's presidential candidate in the 1229:

Obregón ran unopposed in the 1928 presidential election. He was able to stand as a candidate despite having served as president before. Under Calles's administration in 1926, a constitutional change was passed that allowed for a non-consecutive re-election, and in 1928 Obregón was elected as Calles's

1212:. Where there had been 4,500 priests in Mexico before the rebellion, in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion, execution, and assassination. By 1935, seventeen states had no priests at all. 1201:

Almost 100,000 people on both sides died in the war. A truce was negotiated with the assistance of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Morrow in which the Cristeros agreed to lay down their arms. Particularly offensive to Catholics after the truce was Calles's insistence on a complete state monopoly on education,

827:

and the labor movement, and he drew comparisons to Mexico. His international travel gave him a perspective beyond the Mexican context. He particularly admired the infrastructure and industry in Germany, as well as the strides that a strong organized labor movement had made. He also observed the power

1170:

actions included outlawing religious orders, preventing corruption from the Church. However, Catholic antipathy towards Calles was enhanced because of his vociferous anti-Catholicism. In response to the government's enforcement of anticlerical laws, the Catholic Church called for a clerical strike,

1139:

Calles had implemented a number of reforms in the first two years of his presidency (1924–26) benefiting workers and peasants. In this he followed in the pattern of his predecessor, Obregón. However, in the second two years of his presidency and into his post-presidency, Calles precipitated a major

1044:

Another important legal innovation in Calles's presidency was the Law of Electrical Communications (1926), which asserted the radio airwaves as being under government regulation. Radio stations had to comply with government regulations, which included constraints on religious or political messages,

933:

The military continued to be very top-heavy with revolutionary generals and the army allocated a third of the national budget. Generals had participated in the De la Huerta rebellion in 1923, which cleared the way for Calles's candidacy. Obregón awarded loyalists following that revolt. The military

863:

Although Calles was president, he remained in the shadow of Obregón, who had powerful allies in the military and among state governors and the Congress. The contrast between Calles and Obregón was in personality and level of power. "To many, Calles appeared Obregón's creation, a caretaker president

886:

Morones was appointed to a cabinet position as Secretary of Industry, Commerce, and Labor at the same time that he retained leadership in the CROM. In that position, Morones was able to advance his organization at the expense of rivals. Some independent unions and more radical were forced into the

700:

Calles became governor of his home state of Sonora in 1915, building a pragmatic reformist political record, which was to promote the rapid growth of the Mexican national economy, the infrastructure of which he helped to establish. In particular, he attempted to make Sonora a dry state (a state in

3183:

Wedding of Fernando Torreblanca y Hortensia Elías Calles, daughter of Plutarco Elías Calles. on August 7, 1922, the civil ceremony took place in the Hacienda de La Hormiga and the religious ceremony took place in Church and former convent of Santa Brígida located in Mexico City in the footage

1413:

Cárdenas had been associated with Calles for over two decades; he had joined Calles's army in Sonora in 1915. For that reason, Calles and his allies trusted Cárdenas, and Calles believed he could work with Cárdenas as he had with his predecessors. Cárdenas soon asserted himself as an independent.

1090:

The debate on the new oil law occurred in 1925, with U.S. interests opposing all initiatives. By 1926, the new law was enacted. In January 1927 the Mexican government canceled the permits of oil companies that would not comply with the law. Talks of war circulated by the U.S. president and in the

1134:

Against claims that revolutionaries sought to destroy the church, officials insisted that they pursued the rule of law. During his presidential campaign, Calles clarified that he was not an "enemy of religion"; he approved of "all religious beliefs because consider them beneficial for the moral

1007:

After the Revolution, public health in Mexico was not in a good state, but it had not been particularly good even during the Porfiriato. The Calles administration sought to improve health and hygiene since the health of citizens was considered important to economic development. He gave the issue

635:

Scholars review that his hardships in his upbringing; like his social status as a natural or "illegitimate" child, being an orphan, and financial and familial troubles; have all influenced his path, and made him hardworking and determined to overcome such challenges as the eldest to care for his

1069:

was president, and began drafting a new oil law that would strictly enforce article 27 of the Mexican constitution. The oil problem stemmed from Article 27 of the Mexican Constitution of 1917, which re-stated a law of Spanish origin that made everything under the soil property of the state. The

938:

in charge of implementing major changes. Many generals had achieved their status as battlefield promotions. The Calles administration called for a change in the law regulating the military, mandating that officers must have professional training to rise in rank. The administration also aimed at

592:

of his bureaucrat father, Plutarco Elías Lucero, and his mother, María Jesús Campuzano Noriega. He adopted the Calles surname from his mother's sister's husband, Juan Bautista Calles, as he and his wife, María Josefa Campuzano, raised Plutarco after the death of his mother. His uncle was from a

1255:. Stimson replied that the government would take any steps necessary to guarantee Calles's diplomatic protections, including armed force; Calles was escorted across the border back into Mexico by US marines without incident, though Valls promised that "the day of reckoning was only postponed." 1461:

and one-time Minister of Agriculture, were charged with conspiring to blow up a railroad and placed under arrest under the order of President Cárdenas. These were false accusations, framing Calles to exile him. Calles was deported to the United States on 9 April 1936 along with the three last

559:

Elías Calles is a controversial figure in Mexican history. Supporters have praised his reforms in areas such as health, infrastructure, and public education, as well as his attempts to separate church and state, and for preventing political instability in the wake of Obregón's assassination.

1369:

in Nicaragua, strikes were no longer tolerated, and the government ceased re-distributing lands to poorer peasants. Calles was the candidate of the workers and all for helping those in need of work, campaigning against competing labor organizers, but still opposed and suppressed Communism.

1045:

and had to broadcast government announcements without cost. Although in the 1920s, there were relatively few people owning radios, the regulations were an important assertion of state power. During the Lázaro Cárdenas presidency (1934–40), state control over broadcasts expanded further.

939:

decreasing corruption by severely penalizing it. Further control was a mandatory retirement age for officers. The most powerful generals were not reined in by such provisions, but Amaro managed to get some cooperation with their enforcement of regulations on subordinates. The

903:, a loyalist of Obregón and served in his cabinet. Pani's classical liberal policies of a balanced budget and stable currency helped restore foreign investors' confidence in Mexico. Pani advised the founding of several banks in support of campesinos, but more importantly, the 1077:

issued a threat against Mexico on 12 June 1925. Calles never considered himself a communist; he considered revolution a way of governing rather than an ideological position. Public opinion in the United States turned particularly anti-Mexican when the first embassy of the

1202:

taking away focus from the Catholic education and introducing secular education in its place, saying: "We must enter and take possession of the consciences of the children, of the consciences of the young, because they do belong, and should belong to the revolution."

781:

sent naval ships to blockade the Gulf Coast to both prevent the rebels from obtaining arms and deliver arms to Obregón's government. Obregón went to war once again and won a decisive victory against his former comrades-in-arms, 14 of whom were summarily executed.

636:

family. "To society at large, Plutarco Elías Calles was illegitimate because his parents never married, but he was even more so in the eyes of religion. Denying the authority of religion would at least in part be an attempt to negate his own illegitimacy."

813:, a moderate craft union organization. In 1916 Gompers and Morones put pressure on the Mexican and U.S. governments, which were heading toward war. In Mexico, Morones was credited with aiding the withdrawal of U.S. troops in Mexico sent by U.S. President 500:, and democratic governance. He won the election, and expanded education, implemented infrastructure projects, and improved public health. After this populist phase (1924–1926) he was committed to separating church from state (1926–1928), passing several 560:

Detractors have criticized the escalation of the Cristero War, his crackdowns on labor unions, and for continuing to hold onto power after his presidency. The party he founded, including its two subsequent incarnations, established what Peruvian writer

1155:, which was characterized by reprisals and counter-reprisals. The Mexican government violently persecuted the clergy, massacring suspected Cristeros and their supporters. The conflict ended in 1929 with the mediation of the U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, 1082:

in any country was opened in Mexico. On that occasion, the Soviet ambassador remarked that "no other two countries show more similarities than the Soviet Union and Mexico." After this, some in the United States government, considering Calles's regime

1020:

to give natural (illegitimate) children the same rights as those born of married parents, partly as a reaction against the problems he himself often had encountered being a child of unmarried parents. According to false rumors, his parents had been

934:

continued to be a potential interventionist force in Mexican politics, with generals presuming that they could rise to the presidency. Calles sought to professionalize the army and decrease its share of the national budget, putting

4040: 852:. Workers from the CROM, headed by Luis Morones and the Laborist Party of Mexico displayed banners. The release of balloons and doves figured in the spectacle. The De la Huerta rebellion had thinned the ranks of the military. 741:, the Mexican ambassador to the U.S. as his successor. Carranza was forced out of power and died escaping, leaving De la Huerta as interim president. De la Huerta then named Calles to the important post of Minister of War. 1414:

Conflicts between Calles and Cárdenas arose not long after Cárdenas was sworn in. Calles opposed Cárdenas's support for labor unions, especially his tolerance and support for strikes, while Cárdenas opposed Calles's view.

3212:(US) co-presented by Latino Public Broadcasting; 20 July 2010. Filmmaker Natalia Almada works from audio recordings made by her grandmother about Calles, Almada's great-grandfather, relating history to present in Mexico. 772:

The serious military conflict was resolved in favor of Obregón when the U.S. threw its support to him. Obregón's government had acceded to concessions to U.S. business interests, particularly oil, in the August 1923

4205: 1258:

In protest of this treatment, the Mexican consulate in Laredo was closed, restricting the flow of tourists and merchandise during the holiday season. The consulate was reopened in January after pressure from

551:

for president, but Cárdenas exiled him and many of his allies to implement more socialist reforms. Elías Calles was allowed to return to Mexico in 1941, where he died in 1945. His remains are buried in the

1116:, as the United States supported the conservatives. This conflict ended when both countries signed a treaty in which they allowed each other to support the side they considered to be the most democratic. 1354:

as puppets of Calles. Officially, after 1929, Calles served as minister of war as he continued to suppress corruption. Still, a few months later, after the intervention of the United States ambassador

4872: 564:

would describe as "the perfect dictatorship" and ruled Mexico without democratic opposition much of the twentieth century through a combination of corruption, repression, and electoral fraud.

1597:. His speech was made in the aftermath of Obregón's assassination and as the political solution to violence at presidential successions was being resolved by the party he brought into being. 891:, embedding labor rights. The number of labor strikes decreased precipitously during the Calles administration. When railway workers struck in 1926, Morones sent scabs to break the strike. 3802: 844:

Calles's inauguration was a great state occasion, with some 50,000 spectators. His predecessor, Obregón, was present for the first peaceful transfer of presidential power since 1884 when

1230:

successor; this amendment was later repealed in 1934. In addition, Mexico passed an amendment to the constitution in 1927 that expanded a presidential term from four years to six years.

797:

Calles's candidacy was supported by labor and peasant unions. The Laborist Party which supported his government in reality functioned as the political-electoral branch of the powerful

4882: 4198: 717:. Calles gained political experience in his months serving in Carranza's government, and his attempt to settle a labor dispute in Orizaba gained him the support of workers there. 1587:

Calles's legacy remains controversial today, but within the PRI it has undergone a re-appraisal. His remains were moved from their original resting place to be interred in the

1073:

The reaction of the U.S. government to Calles's intention to enforce Article 27 was swift. The American ambassador to Mexico branded Calles a communist, and Secretary of State

4035: 3281: 3124:

José Valenzuela, Georgette E. "El viaje de Plutarco Elías Calles como president electo por Europa y Estados Unidos." Revista Mexicana de Sociología 57, no. 3 (1995): 191–210.

1401:

Upon his death, on 19 October 1945, the mortal remains of Calles were deposited in the crypt of his godmother with his wife's Natalia Chacón. In 1969, by order of President

628:, leaving his widow with eight children, of which Plutarco was the oldest. The family's fortunes declined precipitously; it lost or sold much of its land, some of it to the 3165:

Ed. FCE, Miguel Ángel Porrúa, Instituto Sonorense de Cultura, Fideicomiso Archivos Plutarco Elías Calles y Fernando Torreblanca, LXI Legislatura Cámara de Diputados, 2010.

701:

which alcohol is heavily regulated), promoted education, legislation giving social security and collective bargaining to workers; organized an economic ground for Mexico.

4191: 817:. CROM's support for Calles was important for his election. Although the labor movement in Mexico was factionalized, CROM was a staunch supporter of Obregón and Calles. 624:. Plutarco Elías Calles's father, Plutarco Elías Lucero, lost his own father, José Juan Elías Pérez, in 1865 to battle wounds sustained during the resistance to the 1297:, founded by Plutarco Elías Calles in 1929. The logo has the colors and arrangement of the Mexican flag, with the party's acronym replacing the symbol of the eagle. 3321: 1336:

The period that Obregón had been elected to serve, between 1928 and 1934, was when Calles was requested to come in as an advisor but was instead considered the

1171:

which entailed ceasing to celebrate Mass, baptize children, sanctify marriage, and perform rituals for the dead. The clerical strike went on for three years.

4932: 4887: 4140: 3753: 1097:. Mexico managed to avoid war through a series of diplomatic maneuvers. Soon afterward, a direct telephone link was established between Calles and President 4093: 4907: 4867: 4620: 4130: 2552: 1205:

The effects of Calles's policy on the Church were between 1926 and 1934. At least 4,000 priests were killed or expelled; one of the most famous was the

2903: 1313:, a Catholic militant, before he could assume power. Calles was ineligible to return to the presidency, but he took steps to avoid a political vacuum. 4952: 4922: 4862: 4114: 1527: 1109:. Morrow won the Calles government over to the United States position and helped negotiate an agreement between the government and the oil companies. 798: 754: 509: 4214: 887:

umbrella of the moderate CROM. Wage increases and betterment of working conditions were evidence that Calles sought to implement Article 123 of the

1493:(1940–1946) allowed Calles to return to Mexico under the reconciliation policy of Cárdenas's successor in 1941. He spent his last years quietly in 4927: 4917: 4912: 2737: 1215:

The conflict weakened Calles politically, and that weakness paved the way for Alvaro Obregón to return to the presidency in the 1928 election.

639:

As a young man, Calles worked in many different jobs, from bartender to schoolteacher, and always had an affinity for political opportunities.

1385:. By this time, the PNR had become so entrenched that Cárdenas' victory was a foregone conclusion; he won with almost 98 percent of the vote. 1162:

On 14 June 1926, President Calles enacted anticlerical legislation known formally as The Law Reforming the Penal Code and unofficially as the

4109: 4088: 3416: 3012: 1910: 1605: 790: 33: 1358:, the Mexican government and the Cristeros signed a peace treaty. During the Maximato, Calles served as Minister of Industry and Commerce. 3817: 3226: 709:

In 1919, Calles travelled to Mexico City to take up the post of Secretary of Industry, Commerce, and Labor in the government of President

2386:

Young, Julia G. (July 2013). "The Calles Government and Catholic Dissidents: Mexico's Transnational Projects of Repression, 1926–1929".

543:

of Mexican politics, with only Rodríguez able to assert much true influence. During this period, Elías Calles became more ideologically

3314: 2122: 750: 4811: 4801: 523:

Obregón won the 1928 election, but was assassinated as president-elect. Elías Calles prevented political instability by founding the

4103: 3709: 3049: 2486: 2456: 2370: 2329: 2277: 1926: 1581: 1512:, attending weekly sessions at the Mexican Circle of Metapsychic Investigations, and coming to profess belief "in a Supreme Being". 1466:

in Mexico—Morones, Luis León (leader of the Radical Civic Union in Mexico), and General Rafael Melchor Ortega (one-time Governor of

1326: 1318: 1003:

Elías Calles on the cover of Time magazine in 1924. He was the first Mexican president to be featured on the cover of Time magazine.

524: 414: 240: 4816: 3675: 2022:

Keith A. Haynes, "Order and Progress: The Revolutionary Ideology of Alberto J. Pani." PhD. Diss. Northern Illinois University 1981.

1041:. In order not to draw too much attention to his unhappy childhood, Calles chose to ignore those rumors rather than to fight them. 1340:, the "maximum chief," and the power behind the presidency; and was a title he never used for himself. The period is known as the 4957: 4892: 4821: 4172: 3746: 3719: 3330: 2319: 1668: 1653: 1442: 465: 2476: 2446: 1284: 1141: 442: 3853: 4937: 1658: 1504:

Back in Mexico, Calles's political position became more moderate; in 1942, he supported Mexico's declaration of war upon the

4379: 4283: 4273: 3431: 3401: 3381: 3376: 3070:

Young, Julia G. "The Calles Government and Catholic Dissidents: Mexico's Transnational Projects of Repression, 1926-1929."

1540: 3928: 3923: 3527: 3411: 3307: 1382: 1224: 2761: 4942: 4740: 4135: 4098: 4015: 3502: 2267: 1588: 1556: 1406: 810: 689: 553: 230: 3456: 2579:"STIMSON TO PREVENT ARREST OF CALLES. Armed Force Will Be Supplied if Necessary to Guard Him From Texas Murder Warrant" 4947: 4368: 4343: 4320: 3739: 3222: 3209: 1563: 1174:

Due to Calles's strict enforcement of anti-clerical laws, people in strongly Catholic areas, especially the states of

438: 4826: 4760: 4246: 1687:

Khan, M. A. & Lara-Garcia, A., (2021) “A “Perfect Dictatorship”: The PRI, Corruption, and Autocracy in Mexico”,

496:

presidential campaign in Mexico's history, as he called for land redistribution and promised equal justice, further

4831: 4312: 4278: 4259: 4000: 3964: 3781: 3615: 3567: 3446: 3351: 1628:) as being "unjust", for a "hateful" attitude and for the "ferocity" of the war which he waged against the Church. 1374: 920: 446: 4781: 4765: 664:, under whom he became a police commissioner, and his ability to align himself with the Constitutionalists led by 4902: 4897: 4650: 3650: 3522: 849: 218: 4720: 4557: 4507: 3640: 3507: 3474: 3017:

Buchenau, Jürgen, and Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas. “Plutarco Elías Calles and Revolutionary-Era Populism in Mexico.” in

1567:

Calles monument inaugurated in 1990, commemorating his speech of September 1928 declaring the end of the age of

1489:

With the Institutional Revolutionary Party now firmly in control and in the spirit of national unity, President

4083: 2362: 4700: 4645: 3597: 3489: 2556: 1422: 1310: 951: 601: 4695: 1795: 777:. Obregón pushed through ratification in the Mexican congress, and the U.S. then moved decisively. President 4730: 4705: 4025: 3883: 3610: 3562: 3426: 3371: 2631:"PROSECUTOR DECIDES NOT TO ARREST CALLES. Laredo Official, Warned by Stimson, Says He Will Respect Immunity" 2082:

Waters, Wendy. "Remapping Identities: Road Construction and Nation Building in Postrevolutionary Mexico" in

1509: 1490: 1362: 1112:

Another source of conflict with the United States was Mexico's support for the liberals in the civil war in

762: 589: 489: 434: 244: 3063:

Weis, Robert. "The Revolution on Trial: Assassination, Christianity, and the Rule of Law in 1920s Mexico."

681: 672:) allowed him to move up the ranks quickly, allowing him to attain the rank of general by 1915. He led the 4796: 4635: 4610: 4522: 4499: 4407: 4357: 4063: 4058: 3913: 3625: 3441: 2302:

Robert Weis, "The Revolution on Trial: Assassination, Christianity, and the Rule of Law in 1920s Mexico."

2126: 1584:(PRI)—which governed Mexico until 2000 and returned to power for one term in the elections of 2012. 1289: 964: 2147:

Soto Laveaga, Gabriela and Claudia Agostoni, "Science and Public Health in the Century of Revolution" in

753:. During the Obregón presidency (1920–24), Calles aligned himself with organized labor, particularly the 4877: 4675: 4073: 3547: 3479: 1961:

Buford, Nick. "A Biography of Luis N. Morones", PhD dissertation, Louisiana State University 1971, p. 20

1251:

notifying the federal government of Valls's intent to arrest Calles on a warrant for the 1922 murder of

1022: 4786: 4735: 4725: 4540: 4530: 4145: 3908: 3670: 3630: 3605: 3421: 3000:. W. Dirk Raat and William H. Beezley, ed. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1986, pp. 146–58. 2472: 1402: 1378: 1351: 1301: 940: 632:

Copper Company, whose labor practices resulted in a major strike at the turn of the twentieth century.

548: 536: 1604:, Hermosillo, and his hometown of Guaymas. The official name of the municipality of Sonoyta is called 1536: 1373:

By the summer of 1933, two of Calles's former wartime subordinates had risen to the top of the party:

1267:

and Laredo city officials to offer assurances that Mexican citizens would not be unlawfully molested.

4857: 4852: 4412: 4390: 3878: 3620: 3577: 3557: 3406: 3361: 3242: 2527: 1620: 1148: 1066: 968: 888: 730: 485: 410: 108: 4685: 2745: 2162:

Compromised Positions: Prostitution, Public Health, and Gender Politics in Revolutionary Mexico City

1551: 4806: 4791: 4665: 4655: 4020: 3979: 3868: 3848: 3704: 3645: 3592: 3572: 3552: 3532: 3391: 3249: 1478: 1446: 1347: 1144:

as an institution, and Mexican Catholics. Calles did not recognize the freedom to join the church.

988: 734: 726: 710: 673: 665: 661: 625: 597: 532: 481: 473: 469: 426: 406: 161: 85: 899:

During the Calles presidency, he relied on the financial acumen of his Secretary of the Treasury,

4750: 4745: 4710: 3762: 3341: 3145:. Boletín 45. Mexico City: Archivo Fideicomiso Plutarco Elias Calles y Fernando Torreblanca 2004. 2403: 1920: 1663: 1577: 1102: 911:

of part of Mexico's foreign debt. After coming into conflict with Calles, Pani resigned in 1927.

669: 561: 477: 450: 430: 386: 128: 4715: 3665: 3635: 3537: 3386: 3366: 2342: 904: 4755: 4660: 4254: 3984: 3974: 3898: 3858: 3776: 3715: 3680: 3587: 3542: 3512: 3484: 3466: 3451: 3274: 3259: 3045: 3019:

Populism in Twentieth Century Mexico: The Presidencies of Lázaro Cárdenas and Luis Echeverría,

3008: 2482: 2452: 2366: 2325: 2273: 2252: 2216:. Mary Kay Vaughan and Stephen E. Lewis, eds. Durham: Duke University Press 2006, pp. 243–258 1906: 1720: 1559:

in Mexico City where the remains of Madero, Carranza, Villa, Cárdenas, and Calles are entombed

1438: 1434: 1430: 1314: 1194:, began to oppose him, and on 1 January 1927, a war cry went up from the faithful Catholics, " 613: 528: 516:

to consolidate unions under the Laborist Party, and launched a failed attempted to cancel the

262: 120: 69: 2356: 616:, where, as commander of the presidio of Terrenate, he played a role in the wars against the 520:. Obregón still held significant political sway and was Elías Calles's main base of support. 4605: 4576: 4562: 4535: 4517: 4489: 4463: 3948: 3893: 3843: 3822: 3517: 3497: 3396: 3346: 3058:

The Rightward Drift of Mexico's Former Revolutionaries: The Case of Antonio Díaz Soto y Gama

2395: 1710: 1366: 1260: 1074: 935: 855: 845: 824: 738: 680:

from this point on. In 1915 his forces repelled the Conventionalist faction in Sonora under

605: 501: 4183: 3091:. Boletín 9. Mexico: Fideicomiso Archivos Plutarco ElíasCalles y Fernando Torreblanca 1992. 1580:

through the creation of the Partido Nacional Revolucionario (PNR)—known today as the

999: 979:

on the Mexico-Guatemala border. Road building was financed internally with a gasoline tax.

572: 4690: 4670: 4078: 4010: 4005: 3873: 3655: 3291: 2765: 2110:

Cultural Politics and the Revolution: Teachers, Peasants, and Schools in Mexico, 1930–1940

2086:. Mary Kay Vaughan and Stephen E. Lewis, eds. Durham: Duke University Press 2006, p. 224. 1454: 1098: 1062: 900: 880: 865: 802: 778: 774: 758: 517: 513: 405:; 25 September 1877 – 19 October 1945) was a Mexican soldier and politician who served as 3918: 3461: 3114:, Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Estudios Históricos de la Revolución Mexicana, 1998. 3021:

edited by Amelia M. Kiddle and María L. O. Muñoz, (U of Arizona Press, 2010), pp. 38–57.

1061:

One of the major points of contention with the U.S. was oil. Calles quickly rejected the

3175: 600:, most often recorded as Elías González. The first of this line to settle in Mexico was 4640: 4435: 3943: 3938: 3933: 3888: 3436: 3356: 3037: 2989:

Aguilar Camín, Héctor. "The Relevant Tradition: Sonoran Leaders in the Revolution." in

1093: 1026: 814: 806: 876: 805:. Morones had a national reputation as a labor leader and had forged an alliance with 652: 480:, which allowed him to rise in politics, joining the cabinets of Presidents Carranza, 4846: 3969: 3827: 2407: 1645: 1355: 1248: 1244: 1167: 1156: 1151:, which led to a violent and lengthy conflict known as the Cristero Rebellion or the 1106: 987:

Education had been an important part of Obregón's administration, particularly under

2824: 2212:

Joy Elizabeth Hays, "National Imaginings on the Air: Radio in Mexico, 1920–1940" in

1515:

He died in Mexico City at 14:20 CST (20:20 GMT) on 19 October 1945, at age 68, of a

1397: 823:

Shortly before his inauguration, Calles had traveled to Germany and France to study

4512: 4494: 4443: 4150: 4068: 3863: 2854: 2427: 1612: 1576:

Calles's main legacy was the pacification of Mexico, ending the violent era of the

1426: 1317:

was appointed temporary president, while Calles created a new political party, the

1252: 1152: 1147:

During his term as president, he moved to enforce the anticlerical articles of the

1125: 1079: 785: 685: 544: 505: 497: 458: 368: 40: 1191: 3218: 1900: 1764: 1535:

Calles married Natalia Chacón (1879–1927) and the marriage produced 12 children.

972: 3660: 2787:"Jahrbuch für Geschichte Lateinamerikas / Anuario de Historia de América Latina" 1505: 1494: 908: 836: 714: 214: 17: 4167: 4155: 3812: 3807: 3786: 3213: 3193: 2858:. No. 3577. Victoria, Australia. 18 April 1936. p. 9 (FIRST EDITION) 2849: 2758: 2709:"REOPEN LAREDO CONSULATE. Mexicans and Local Business People Join in Ceremony" 1635: 1616: 1516: 1498: 1467: 1209: 1183: 1163: 1034: 1017: 960: 943:

was reformed under Amaro and remained a hope for the improvement of officers.

454: 2214:

The Eagle and the Virgin: Nation and Cultural Revolution in Mexico, 1920–1940

2084:

The Eagle and the Virgin: Nation and Cultural Revolution in Mexico, 1920–1940

1724: 921:

Military history of Mexico § Calles presidency and the military, 1924-28

1593: 1474: 1264: 1179: 1113: 1084: 976: 609: 540: 3197: 3150:

Plutarco Elías Calles; Pensamiento Político y Social. Antología (1913-1936)

3119:

El relevo del caudillo: De cómo y por qué Calles fue candidato presidencial

1943:, Leslie Bethell, ed. New York: Cambridge University Press 1991, p. 195-96. 1611:

For his actions that portray him as anti-clerical, Calles was denounced by

1053: 925: 2399: 4160: 4030: 3791: 3022: 1569: 1342: 1280: 1038: 493: 422: 418: 3075: 1702: 596:

Plutarco's father's family was descended from a prominent family in the

3299: 3189: 2254:

Mexico: biography of power : a history of modern Mexico, 1810–1996

1715: 1601: 1175: 725:

In 1920, he aligned himself with fellow Sonoran revolutionary generals

629: 577: 193: 44: 1873:. Marshall Cavendish Corporation. Tarrytown, New York, 2002. Page 124. 1449:

and finally Calles himself. Calles and head of the labor organization

612:, Mexico in 1729. Eventually, Francisco Elías González moved north to 3731: 3204: 2759:

Calles, Plutarco Elias, Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. 2001–05

1481:, the Mexican philosopher who had previously been a political enemy. 1206: 1187: 677: 621: 350: 197: 2605:"CALLES CROSSES BORDER. Marines Guard General's Train Through Texas" 1033:(The Turk). His detractors drew comparisons between Calles and the " 3103:

Horn, James. "El embajador Sheffield contra el presidente Calles."

1473:

In exile in the United States, Calles was with family and lived in

3796: 2321:

Resisting Rebellion: The History and Politics of Counterinsurgency

1562: 1550: 1300: 1052: 998: 950: 924: 875: 854: 835: 784: 651: 617: 571: 2394:. The Academy of American Franciscan History: 69 in pages 63–91. 2291:

Mexico: Biography of Power. A History of Modern Mexico, 1810–1996

2240:

Mexico: Biography of Power. A History of Modern Mexico, 1810–1996

2175:

Mexico: Biography of Power. A History of Modern Mexico, 1810–1996

1902:

The Sonoran Dynasty in Mexico: Revolution, Reform, and Repression

2993:. D. A. Brading, ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1980. 1450: 4187: 3735: 3303: 1421:

from political posts and exiling many of his political allies:

2293:. HarperCollins Publishers Inc. New York, 1997. Pages 417–419. 1857:. University of New Mexico Press. Albuquerque, 2002. Page 203. 492:'s candidate in the 1924 election. His campaign was the first 3032:

Yesterday in Mexico: A Chronicle of the Revolution, 1919–1936

2201:

Plutarco Elías Campuzano, mal conocido como presidente Calles

1417:

Cárdenas started to isolate Calles politically, removing the

749:

Obregón was elected president in 1920 and he named Calles as

745:

Obregón administration, De la Huerta revolt, election of 1924

2314: 2312: 1865: 1863: 2515:

Mexico: an encyclopedia of contemporary culture and history

2203:. HarperCollins Publishers Inc. New York, 1997. Pages 9–11. 955:

1933 map of the Mexican portion of the Pan-American Highway

3163:

Plutarco Elías Calles: Correspondencia Personal 1919-1945.

3096:

De la Buerta y Calles: Los límites politicos de la Amistad

2708: 2682: 2656: 2630: 2604: 2578: 2242:. HarperCollins Publishers Inc. New York, 1997. Page 417. 2177:. HarperCollins Publishers Inc. New York, 1997. Page 412. 2013:, vol. 4, p. 286. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons 1996. 1365:

was banned, Mexico stopped its support for the rebels of

2448:

Latin America's Wars: The Age of the Caudillo, 1791–1899

2421: 2419: 2417: 1819: 1817: 737:. Carranza had attempted to choose an unknown civilian, 1785:. Lanham: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers Inc.2007, 1470:). His son Alfredo and his secretary were also exiled. 929:

General Joaquín Amaro, who implemented military reforms

907:, Mexico's national bank. Pani also managed to achieve 2044:, vol. 2, pp. 1046–48. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997. 1842:

Vida y temperamento de Plutarco Elías Calles 1877–1920

3157:

Vida y Temperamento: Plutarco Elías Calles, 1877-1920

2478:

Triumphs and Tragedy: A History of the Mexican People

2112:. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 1998, pp. 3–30. 1243:

In December of 1929, District Attorney John Valls of

4873:

Candidates in the 1924 Mexican presidential election

2996:

Brown, Lyle C. "The Calles-Cárdenas Connection." in

1508:. Upon his return to Mexico he became interested in 1346:(1928–1934), with many regarding Emilio Portes Gil, 4774: 4628: 4221: 4123: 4051: 3993: 3957: 3836: 3769: 2065: 2063: 382: 374: 356: 338: 333: 316: 251: 236: 225: 204: 176: 171: 155: 145: 126: 114: 102: 83: 60: 2786: 2011:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture 1037:", the anti-Christian leaders from the era of the 648:Participation in the Mexican Revolution, 1910–1917 2517:, Coerver, Don M. and Suzanne B. Pasztor, pg. 55. 2229:. Greenwood Press, Westport, 2000. Pages 157–158. 2164:. University Park: Penn State Press 2001, pp. 1–5 2151:, Ed. William H. Beezley. Blackwell, 2011, p. 567 1703:"Vargas Llosa: "México es la dictadura perfecta"" 1087:, started to refer to Mexico as "Soviet Mexico". 3005:Plutarco Elias Calles and the Mexican Revolution 1783:Plutarco Elías Calles and the Mexican Revolution 421:leader from 1929 to 1934, a period known as the 3219:Newspaper clippings about Plutarco Elías Calles 3131:. Mexico City: Fondo de Cultura Económica 1987. 3129:Reformar desde el origen: Plutarco Elias Calles 3060:. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2010. 51: and the second or maternal family name is 3112:La campaña presidencial de 1923–1924 en México 2991:Caudillo and Peasant in the Mexican Revolution 409:from 1924 to 1928. After the assassination of 4883:Institutional Revolutionary Party politicians 4199: 3747: 3315: 2324:, p. 70 (2006 University Press of Kentucky), 2123:"Presidentes mexicanos en la portada de Time" 1939:John Womack, Jr. "The Mexican Revolution" in 1159:with the Mexican government and the Vatican. 1140:conflict between the Mexican government, the 449:. During his presidency, he implemented many 8: 2781: 2779: 2777: 2775: 2773: 1741:. New York: HarperCollins 1997, pp. 404–405. 1689:Arizona Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 425:. Previously, he served as a general in the 3089:Calles y el movimiento liberal en Nicaragua 2481:. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 393. 2009:Roderic Ai Camp, "Alberto Pani Arteaga" in 1519:after surviving surgery earlier that week. 98:1 December 1924 – 30 November 1928 4206: 4192: 4184: 3754: 3740: 3732: 3322: 3308: 3300: 3231: 3007:(Denver: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006). 2866:– via National Library of Australia. 2810:Meyer, Michael C. and Sherman, William L. 2553:"Mexico - Reference Information - History" 2149:A Companion to Mexican History and Culture 1840:, p. 406, citing Macías Richard, Gerardo. 1626:On the Persecution of the Church in Mexico 1065:of 1923 between the U.S. and Mexico, when 580:José Juan Elías. His paternal grandfather. 68: 57: 4115:Authentic Party of the Mexican Revolution 3184:Plutarco Elías Calles can be seen in the 3034:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1961. 2732: 2730: 2306:(May 2016), 96 #2, p319-353, at page 323. 1714: 1539:(1900–1965), governor of Sonora 1931–34; 1361:After a large demonstration in 1930, the 1247:sent a telegram to US Secretary of State 799:Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers 755:Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers 457:reforms, opposition to which sparked the 4215:Secretaries of Finance and Public Credit 2031:Meyer, "Mexico in the 1920s" pp. 219–20. 1952:Womack, "The Mexican Revolution", p. 200 1701:Vargas Llosa, Mario (1 September 1990). 1531:Plutarco Elías Calles and Natalia Chacón 1526: 1457:, one of the last remaining influential 1396: 1309:President-elect Obregón was murdered by 1288: 1057:Dwight Morrow, U.S. Ambassador to Mexico 3179:by Plutarco Elías Calles at archive.org 3159:. Instituto Sonorense de Cultura, 1995. 3136:Calles y su gobierno: Ensayo biográfico 1680: 1477:. During this time, he also befriended 828:of populist rhetoric to build support. 308: 1930; died 1932) 3098:, Boletín 23. Mexico City: FAPEC 1996. 1918: 1905:. U of Nebraska Press. pp. 1–20. 705:Service in the Carranza administration 417:and held unofficial power as Mexico's 278: 4110:Zapatista Army of National Liberation 3143:Plutarco Elias Calles desde su exilio 2683:"STIMSON AND MOODY CLASH OVER LAREDO" 1881: 1879: 1101:, and the U.S. ambassador to Mexico, 791:American Federation of Labor Building 29:President of Mexico from 1924 to 1928 7: 1777: 1775: 1582:Partido Revolucionario Institucional 1331:Partido Revolucionario Institucional 721:Revolt of the Sonoran generals, 1920 527:in 1929. During the presidencies of 441:. During the Maximato, he served as 229:Monument to the Revolution Spanish: 32:For the municipality in Sonora, see 4933:Mexican secretaries of the interior 4888:Laborist Party (Mexico) politicians 4021:Querétaro Constitutional Convention 3152:. Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1988. 3065:Hispanic American Historical Review 2657:"HOOVER DISCUSSES TANGLE AT LAREDO" 2304:Hispanic American Historical Review 1325:, PNR), the predecessor of today's 1130:According to historian Robert Weis: 1049:Petroleum and U.S.-Mexico relations 820:In 1924, Calles won the election. 282: 2904:"Gen. Calles Dies In Mexico At 68" 2434:. Eternal Word Television Network. 1606:Plutarco Elías Calles Municipality 1405:, his remains were transferred to 1383:1934 Mexican Presidential election 586:Francisco Plutarco Elías Campuzano 547:. In 1934, Elías Calles supported 403:Francisco Plutarco Elías Campuzano 181:Francisco Plutarco Elías Campuzano 34:Plutarco Elías Calles Municipality 25: 4908:Mexican people of Spanish descent 4868:20th-century presidents of Mexico 4104:Institutional Revolutionary Party 3188:National Film Archives of México 3121:. Mexico City: El Caballito 1982. 2814:(5th E. Oxford Univ. Press 1995). 2343:"THE CRISTERO REBELLION – PART 1" 2040:Cristina Puga, "Alberto Pani" in 1855:The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1940 1766:The Mexican Revolution, 1910–1940 1485:Return from exile and final years 1327:Institutional Revolutionary Party 1305:Mexican flag during Calles's term 525:Institutional Revolutionary Party 415:Institutional Revolutionary Party 4953:People of the Mexican Revolution 4923:Mexican secretaries of education 4863:20th-century Mexican politicians 4619: 4173:Sonora in the Mexican Revolution 3690: 3044:. New York: HarperCollins 1997. 2738:"MEXICO: Solution Without Blood" 1669:Sonora in the Mexican Revolution 1654:List of heads of state of Mexico 1638: 1263:and the Chamber of Commerce led 733:to overthrow Carranza under the 604:(1707–1790), who emigrated from 361: 343: 2943:Leonor Llorente de Elías Calles 2744:. 20 April 1936. Archived from 1323:Partido Nacional Revolucionario 1295:Partido Nacional Revolucionario 1285:Partido Nacional Revolucionario 1142:Roman Catholic Church in Mexico 443:Secretariat of Public Education 305: 274: 4928:Mexican Secretaries of Finance 4918:Mexican Secretaries of Economy 4913:Mexican secretaries of defense 3141:Loyo Camacho, Martha Beatriz. 3117:José Valenzuela, Georgette E. 3110:José Valenzuela, Georgette E. 2257:, p. 418, Harper Collins 1998. 1769:, p. 203-204, UNM Press, 2002. 1659:History of democracy in Mexico 1600:He is honored with statues in 1198:", long live Christ the King! 668:(the political winners of the 488:. Obregón selected him as the 445:, Secretary of War again, and 1: 3818:French Intervention in Mexico 3107:20, no. 2 (oct 1970): 265–84. 3067:(May 2016), 96#2, pp.319-353. 2812:The Course of Mexican History 1925:: CS1 maint: date and year ( 1271:Founding a new party and the 1225:1928 Mexican general election 975:at the U.S.-Mexico border to 789:Plutarco Elías Calles at the 539:, Elías Calles served as the 464:Born on 25 September 1877 in 326:María Jesús Campuzano Noriega 4136:Liberation Army of the South 4064:Mexican Constitution of 1917 4016:Convention of Aguascalientes 2269:Revolutions in World History 1871:Mexico and the United States 1802:. U.S. National Park Service 1541:Plutarco Elías Calles Chacón 1319:National Revolutionary Party 811:American Federation of Labor 241:National Revolutionary Party 43:, the first or paternal 3676:Andrés Manuel López Obrador 3402:Francisco Javier Echeverría 3382:Antonio López de Santa Anna 3223:20th Century Press Archives 2445:Scheina, Robert L. (2003). 2272:, p. 30 (2004, Routledge), 413:, Elías Calles founded the 4974: 4099:Monument to the Revolution 3924:Francisco León de la Barra 3782:Economic History of Mexico 3528:Francisco León de la Barra 3042:Mexico: Biography of Power 2941:Quirós Martínez, Roberto. 2891:Mexico: Biography of Power 2188:Mexico: Biography of Power 1838:Mexico: Biography of Power 1796:"Francisco Elías Gonzalez" 1739:Mexico: Biography of Power 1589:Monument to the Revolution 1557:Monument to the Revolution 1443:Nicolás Rodríguez Carrasco 1278: 1222: 1123: 1029:, giving him the nickname 918: 660:Calles was a supporter of 554:Monument to the Revolution 504:laws that resulted in the 38: 31: 4617: 4036:United States involvement 3699: 3688: 3651:Carlos Salinas de Gortari 3503:Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada 3337: 3288: 3279: 3271: 3266: 3256: 3247: 3239: 3234: 2451:. Brassey's. p. 33. 1941:Mexico Since Independence 1899:Buchenau, Jürgen (2023). 1844:. Mexico 1995, pp. 71–72. 1407:Monumento a la Revolución 1239:Attempted arrest in Texas 751:Secretary of the Interior 468:, Elías Calles fought in 439:Secretary of the Interior 392: 231:Monumento a la Revolución 167: 134: 91: 79: 67: 4251:González Pérez de Angulo 3864:Francisco "Pancho" Villa 3598:Abelardo Luján Rodríguez 3267:Awards and achievements 3155:Richard, Macías Carlos. 3094:Castro Martínez, Pedro. 2998:Twentieth-Century Mexico 2426:Van Hove, Brian (1994). 2363:Lynne Rienner Publishers 2355:Shirk, David A. (2005). 2199:Medina-Navascues, Tere. 1016:Calles changed Mexico's 602:Francisco Elías González 447:Secretary of the Economy 263:Natalia Chacón Amarillas 4958:Politicians from Sonora 4893:Mexican anti-communists 4026:Pancho Villa Expedition 4001:Treaty of Ciudad Juárez 3965:Plan of San Luis Potosí 3568:Francisco Lagos Cházaro 3447:Manuel María Lombardini 3412:José Joaquín de Herrera 3177:Mexico Before the World 2428:"Blood-Drenched Altars" 2345:, Mexico Connect, 1996. 1363:Mexican Communist Party 1091:editorial pages of the 4362:Fernández del Castillo 4059:Emigration from Mexico 3994:Political developments 3854:José María Pino Suárez 3523:Manuel González Flores 3442:Juan Bautista Ceballos 3282:Cover of Time Magazine 2042:Encyclopedia of Mexico 1615:(r. 1922–1939) in the 1573: 1560: 1532: 1410: 1330: 1322: 1306: 1298: 1137: 1058: 1004: 956: 930: 883: 860: 841: 794: 769:, radical agrarians. 657: 581: 4938:Mexican spiritualists 4084:1968 student protests 3904:Plutarco Elías Calles 3583:Plutarco Elías Calles 3548:Francisco S. Carvajal 3480:Manuel Robles Pezuela 3377:Valentín Gómez Farías 3056:Lucas, Jeffrey Kent. 2962:Plutarco Elías Calles 2930:Plutarco Elías Calles 2503:Plutarco Elías Calles 2400:10.1353/tam.2013.0058 2358:Mexico's New Politics 2318:Joes, Anthony James. 2266:Richards, Michael D. 2227:The history of Mexico 2097:Plutarco Elías Calles 2071:Plutarco Elías Calles 2055:Plutarco Elías Calles 1998:Plutarco Elías Calles 1985:Plutarco Elías Calles 1972:Plutarco Elías Calles 1887:Plutarco Elías Calles 1853:Gonzales, Michael J. 1763:Gonzales, Michael J. 1566: 1554: 1530: 1423:Tomás Garrido Canabal 1400: 1304: 1292: 1132: 1120:Church-state conflict 1056: 1002: 954: 928: 879: 858: 840:Plutarco Elías Calles 839: 832:Presidency, 1924–1928 788: 690:Battle of Agua Prieta 676:in his home state of 656:Plutarco Elías Calles 655: 643:Before the presidency 575: 568:Early life and career 399:Plutarco Elías Calles 375:Years of service 323:Plutarco Elías Lucero 62:Plutarco Elías Calles 4423:Arrangoiz y Berzábal 3884:Ricardo Flores Magón 3803:Constitution of 1857 3621:Adolfo Ruiz Cortines 3616:Miguel Alemán Valdés 3611:Manuel Ávila Camacho 3563:Roque González Garza 3462:Juan Álvarez Hurtado 3427:Pedro María de Anaya 3372:Manuel Gómez Pedraza 3362:Anastasio Bustamante 3352:José María Bocanegra 3331:Presidents of Mexico 3074:70.1 (2013): 63-91. 2974:Iniquis afflictisque 2825:"Falleció Luís León" 2748:on 25 November 2011. 2528:"Mexico – President" 1621:Iniquis afflictisque 1537:Rodolfo Elías Calles 1491:Manuel Ávila Camacho 1375:Manuel Pérez Treviño 1265:Texas governor Moody 1149:Constitution of 1917 1105:, was replaced with 969:Pan-American Highway 889:Mexican Constitution 715:Spanish flu pandemic 682:José María Maytorena 588:, he was one of two 281:; died 151:José María Maytorena 4943:People from Guaymas 4584:García de la Cadena 4551:González Echeverría 4328:Gómez de la Cortina 3980:Plan of Agua Prieta 3914:José Yves Limantour 3869:Venustiano Carranza 3849:Francisco I. Madero 3705:President of Mexico 3646:Miguel de la Madrid 3641:José López Portillo 3626:Adolfo López Mateos 3593:Pascual Ortiz Rubio 3573:Adolfo de la Huerta 3553:Venustiano Carranza 3533:Francisco I. Madero 3508:José María Iglesias 3475:Félix María Zuloaga 3250:President of Mexico 3138:. Mexico City 1931. 2764:16 May 2008 at the 2473:Ruiz, Ramón Eduardo 2160:Bliss, Katherine E. 2127:El Siglo de Torreón 2108:Vaughan, Mary Kay. 1462:highly-influential 1447:Pascual Ortiz Rubio 1348:Pascual Ortiz Rubio 1063:Bucareli Agreements 965:Juan Andreu Almazán 735:Plan of Agua Prieta 727:Adolfo de la Huerta 711:Venustiano Carranza 674:Constitutional Army 666:Venustiano Carranza 662:Francisco I. Madero 626:French Intervention 598:Provincias Internas 533:Pascual Ortiz Rubio 482:Adolfo de la Huerta 474:Constitutional Army 470:Venustiano Carranza 427:Constitutional Army 407:President of Mexico 162:Adolfo de la Huerta 86:President of Mexico 4948:People from Sonora 4146:División del Norte 4141:Constitutionalists 3929:Félix Díaz Velasco 3763:Mexican Revolution 3671:Enrique Peña Nieto 3631:Gustavo Díaz Ordaz 3490:José Ignacio Pavón 3422:José Mariano Salas 3342:Guadalupe Victoria 3235:Political offices 3087:Buchenau, Jürgen. 3030:Dulles, John W.F. 3003:Buchenau, Jürgen. 2945:. Mexico City 1933 2908:The New York Times 2713:The New York Times 2689:. 20 December 1929 2687:The New York Times 2661:The New York Times 2637:. 16 December 1929 2635:The New York Times 2611:. 17 December 1929 2609:The New York Times 2585:. 14 December 1929 2583:The New York Times 2532:Globalsecurity.org 2432:Faith & Reason 2225:Kirkwood, Burton. 2129:. 13 February 2014 1781:Buchanau, Jürgen, 1716:10.4000/alhim.8256 1664:Mexican Revolution 1578:Mexican Revolution 1574: 1561: 1533: 1411: 1403:Gustavo Díaz Ordaz 1352:Abelardo Rodríguez 1311:José de León Toral 1307: 1299: 1103:James R. Sheffield 1059: 1005: 957: 931: 884: 861: 842: 795: 757:(CROM), headed by 696:Governor of Sonora 670:Mexican Revolution 658: 582: 562:Mario Vargas Llosa 537:Abelardo Rodríguez 478:Mexican Revolution 451:left-wing populist 431:Governor of Sonora 387:Mexican Revolution 129:Governor of Sonora 4840: 4839: 4471:De Haro y Tamariz 4448:Esteva y González 4384:De Haro y Tamariz 4351:De Haro y Tamariz 4181: 4180: 4094:Historical Museum 3985:Plan of San Diego 3975:Plan of Guadalupe 3859:Victoriano Huerta 3777:History of Mexico 3729: 3728: 3716:Emperor of Mexico 3683:(President-elect) 3681:Claudia Sheinbaum 3588:Emilio Portes Gil 3558:Eulalio Gutiérrez 3543:Victoriano Huerta 3467:Ignacio Comonfort 3432:Manuel de la Peña 3407:Valentín Canalizo 3298: 3297: 3289:Succeeded by 3275:Chauncey M. Depew 3260:Emilio Portes Gil 3257:Succeeded by 3186:Cineteca Nacional 3127:Krauze, Enrique. 3105:Historia Mexicana 3013:978-0-7425-3749-1 2910:. 20 October 1945 2889:Krauze, Enrique. 2715:. 18 January 1930 2663:. 12 January 1930 2289:Krauze, Enrique. 2251:Krauze, Enrique. 2238:Krauze, Enrique. 2173:Krauze, Enrique. 1912:978-1-4962-3613-5 1737:Krauze, Enrique. 1435:Saturnino Cedillo 1431:Emilio Portes Gil 1315:Emilio Portes Gil 1196:¡Viva Cristo Rey! 529:Emilio Portes Gil 396: 395: 191:25 September 1877 121:Emilio Portes Gil 16:(Redirected from 4965: 4903:Mexican generals 4898:Mexican atheists 4623: 4590:De Landero y Cos 4573:De Landero y Cos 4451:Aguirre González 4429:Iturbe y Anciola 4373:Iturbe y Anciola 4208: 4201: 4194: 4185: 3949:Genovevo de la O 3837:Important people 3756: 3749: 3742: 3733: 3694: 3693: 3392:José Justo Corro 3347:Vicente Guerrero 3324: 3317: 3310: 3301: 3286:8 December 1924 3272:Preceded by 3240:Preceded by 3232: 3148:Macías, Carlos. 3134:Kubli, Luciano. 2977: 2976:, 12, 15, 19–20. 2971: 2965: 2958: 2952: 2946: 2939: 2933: 2926: 2920: 2919: 2917: 2915: 2900: 2894: 2887: 2881: 2874: 2868: 2867: 2865: 2863: 2846: 2840: 2839: 2837: 2835: 2821: 2815: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2799: 2797: 2783: 2768: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2734: 2725: 2724: 2722: 2720: 2705: 2699: 2698: 2696: 2694: 2679: 2673: 2672: 2670: 2668: 2653: 2647: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2627: 2621: 2620: 2618: 2616: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2592: 2590: 2575: 2569: 2568: 2566: 2564: 2559:on 13 March 2013 2555:. Archived from 2549: 2543: 2542: 2540: 2538: 2524: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2499: 2493: 2492: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2442: 2436: 2435: 2423: 2412: 2411: 2383: 2377: 2376: 2352: 2346: 2339: 2333: 2316: 2307: 2300: 2294: 2287: 2281: 2264: 2258: 2249: 2243: 2236: 2230: 2223: 2217: 2210: 2204: 2197: 2191: 2184: 2178: 2171: 2165: 2158: 2152: 2145: 2139: 2138: 2136: 2134: 2119: 2113: 2106: 2100: 2093: 2087: 2080: 2074: 2067: 2058: 2051: 2045: 2038: 2032: 2029: 2023: 2020: 2014: 2007: 2001: 1994: 1988: 1981: 1975: 1968: 1962: 1959: 1953: 1950: 1944: 1937: 1931: 1930: 1924: 1916: 1896: 1890: 1883: 1874: 1867: 1858: 1851: 1845: 1834: 1828: 1821: 1812: 1811: 1809: 1807: 1792: 1786: 1779: 1770: 1761: 1755: 1748: 1742: 1735: 1729: 1728: 1718: 1698: 1692: 1685: 1648: 1643: 1642: 1641: 1479:José Vasconcelos 1261:President Hoover 1075:Frank B. Kellogg 989:José Vasconcelos 825:social democracy 739:Ignacio Bonillas 590:natural children 556:in Mexico City. 435:Secretary of War 367: 365: 364: 349: 347: 346: 334:Military service 309: 307: 286: 284: 280: 276: 211: 190: 188: 172:Personal details 158: 148: 139: 117: 105: 96: 72: 58: 21: 4973: 4972: 4968: 4967: 4966: 4964: 4963: 4962: 4843: 4842: 4841: 4836: 4770: 4726:Beteta Monsalve 4701:Beteta Quintana 4624: 4615: 4593:Fuentes y Muñiz 4523:Lerdo de Tejada 4500:Lerdo de Tejada 4217: 4212: 4182: 4177: 4119: 4089:Popular culture 4079:Mexican miracle 4047: 4011:Morelos Commune 3989: 3953: 3909:Lázaro Cárdenas 3874:Emiliano Zapata 3832: 3765: 3760: 3730: 3725: 3695: 3691: 3686: 3666:Felipe Calderón 3656:Ernesto Zedillo 3636:Luis Echeverría 3606:Lázaro Cárdenas 3602: 3538:Pedro Lascuráin 3494: 3471: 3417:Mariano Paredes 3387:Miguel Barragán 3367:Melchor Múzquiz 3333: 3328: 3294: 3292:Dwight F. Davis 3285: 3277: 3262: 3253: 3245: 3172: 3084: 3038:Krauze, Enrique 2986: 2984:Further reading 2981: 2980: 2972: 2968: 2959: 2955: 2949: 2940: 2936: 2927: 2923: 2913: 2911: 2902: 2901: 2897: 2888: 2884: 2875: 2871: 2861: 2859: 2848: 2847: 2843: 2833: 2831: 2823: 2822: 2818: 2809: 2805: 2795: 2793: 2785: 2784: 2771: 2766:Wayback Machine 2757: 2753: 2736: 2735: 2728: 2718: 2716: 2707: 2706: 2702: 2692: 2690: 2681: 2680: 2676: 2666: 2664: 2655: 2654: 2650: 2640: 2638: 2629: 2628: 2624: 2614: 2612: 2603: 2602: 2598: 2588: 2586: 2577: 2576: 2572: 2562: 2560: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2536: 2534: 2526: 2525: 2521: 2513: 2509: 2500: 2496: 2489: 2471: 2470: 2466: 2459: 2444: 2443: 2439: 2425: 2424: 2415: 2385: 2384: 2380: 2373: 2354: 2353: 2349: 2340: 2336: 2317: 2310: 2301: 2297: 2288: 2284: 2265: 2261: 2250: 2246: 2237: 2233: 2224: 2220: 2211: 2207: 2198: 2194: 2185: 2181: 2172: 2168: 2159: 2155: 2146: 2142: 2132: 2130: 2121: 2120: 2116: 2107: 2103: 2094: 2090: 2081: 2077: 2068: 2061: 2052: 2048: 2039: 2035: 2030: 2026: 2021: 2017: 2008: 2004: 1995: 1991: 1982: 1978: 1969: 1965: 1960: 1956: 1951: 1947: 1938: 1934: 1917: 1913: 1898: 1897: 1893: 1884: 1877: 1868: 1861: 1852: 1848: 1835: 1831: 1822: 1815: 1805: 1803: 1794: 1793: 1789: 1780: 1773: 1762: 1758: 1749: 1745: 1736: 1732: 1700: 1699: 1695: 1686: 1682: 1677: 1644: 1639: 1637: 1634: 1549: 1525: 1487: 1455:Luis N. Morones 1395: 1379:Lázaro Cárdenas 1287: 1279:Main articles: 1277: 1241: 1236: 1234:Post-presidency 1227: 1221: 1128: 1122: 1099:Calvin Coolidge 1051: 1014: 997: 985: 949: 941:Colegio Militar 923: 917: 905:Banco de México 901:Alberto J. Pani 897: 881:Luis N. Morones 874: 866:Luis N. Morones 850:Manuel González 834: 803:Luis N. Morones 801:(CROM), led by 779:Calvin Coolidge 775:Bucareli Treaty 759:Luis N. Morones 747: 723: 707: 698: 650: 645: 570: 549:Lázaro Cárdenas 518:Bucareli Treaty 514:Luis N. Morones 362: 360: 344: 342: 329: 312: 311: 303: 299: 296: 295:Leonor Llorente 288: 272: 268: 265: 243: 237:Political party 213: 209: 208:19 October 1945 192: 186: 184: 183: 182: 156: 146: 140: 135: 115: 103: 97: 92: 75: 74:Calles in 1924. 63: 56: 37: 30: 23: 22: 18:Plutarco Calles 15: 12: 11: 5: 4971: 4969: 4961: 4960: 4955: 4950: 4945: 4940: 4935: 4930: 4925: 4920: 4915: 4910: 4905: 4900: 4895: 4890: 4885: 4880: 4875: 4870: 4865: 4860: 4855: 4845: 4844: 4838: 4837: 4835: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4819: 4817:González Anaya 4814: 4809: 4804: 4799: 4794: 4789: 4784: 4778: 4776: 4772: 4771: 4769: 4768: 4763: 4761:Ortiz Martínez 4758: 4753: 4748: 4743: 4738: 4733: 4728: 4723: 4721:López Portillo 4718: 4713: 4708: 4703: 4698: 4693: 4688: 4683: 4678: 4673: 4668: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4648: 4643: 4638: 4632: 4630: 4626: 4625: 4618: 4616: 4614: 4613: 4608: 4603: 4600: 4597: 4594: 4591: 4588: 4585: 4582: 4579: 4574: 4571: 4568: 4567:Mejía Escalada 4565: 4560: 4555: 4552: 4549: 4546: 4543: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4525: 4520: 4515: 4510: 4505: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4484: 4481: 4478: 4475: 4474:Sierra y Rosso 4472: 4469: 4466: 4461: 4458: 4455: 4452: 4449: 4446: 4441: 4438: 4433: 4430: 4427: 4424: 4421: 4418: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4402: 4399: 4398:Suárez Iriarte 4396: 4393: 4388: 4385: 4382: 4377: 4374: 4371: 4366: 4363: 4360: 4355: 4352: 4349: 4346: 4341: 4338: 4335: 4332: 4329: 4326: 4323: 4318: 4315: 4310: 4307: 4304: 4301: 4298: 4295: 4292: 4289: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4268: 4265: 4262: 4257: 4252: 4249: 4247:García Salinas 4244: 4241: 4238: 4235: 4234:García Illueca 4232: 4229: 4225: 4223: 4219: 4218: 4213: 4211: 4210: 4203: 4196: 4188: 4179: 4178: 4176: 4175: 4170: 4165: 4164: 4163: 4158: 4153: 4148: 4143: 4138: 4127: 4125: 4121: 4120: 4118: 4117: 4112: 4107: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4055: 4053: 4049: 4048: 4046: 4045: 4044: 4043: 4033: 4028: 4023: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4006:Decena trágica 4003: 3997: 3995: 3991: 3990: 3988: 3987: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3961: 3959: 3955: 3954: 3952: 3951: 3946: 3944:Manuel Palafox 3941: 3939:Eufemio Zapata 3936: 3934:Bernardo Reyes 3931: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3899:Aquiles Serdán 3896: 3891: 3889:Pascual Orozco 3886: 3881: 3879:Álvaro Obregón 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3846: 3840: 3838: 3834: 3833: 3831: 3830: 3825: 3820: 3815: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3773: 3771: 3767: 3766: 3761: 3759: 3758: 3751: 3744: 3736: 3727: 3726: 3724: 3723: 3713: 3710:Vice president 3700: 3697: 3696: 3689: 3687: 3685: 3684: 3678: 3673: 3668: 3663: 3658: 3653: 3648: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3628: 3623: 3618: 3613: 3608: 3601: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3578:Álvaro Obregón 3575: 3570: 3565: 3560: 3555: 3550: 3545: 3540: 3535: 3530: 3525: 3520: 3515: 3513:Juan N. Méndez 3510: 3505: 3500: 3493: 3492: 3487: 3485:Miguel Miramón 3482: 3477: 3470: 3469: 3464: 3459: 3454: 3452:Martín Carrera 3449: 3444: 3439: 3437:Mariano Arista 3434: 3429: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3409: 3404: 3399: 3394: 3389: 3384: 3379: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3338: 3335: 3334: 3329: 3327: 3326: 3319: 3312: 3304: 3296: 3295: 3290: 3287: 3278: 3273: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3263: 3258: 3255: 3246: 3243:Álvaro Obregón 3241: 3237: 3236: 3230: 3229: 3216: 3195: 3181: 3171: 3170:External links 3168: 3167: 3166: 3160: 3153: 3146: 3139: 3132: 3125: 3122: 3115: 3108: 3100: 3099: 3092: 3083: 3080: 3079: 3078: 3068: 3061: 3053: 3052: 3035: 3027: 3026: 3015: 3001: 2994: 2985: 2982: 2979: 2978: 2966: 2953: 2947: 2934: 2921: 2895: 2882: 2869: 2850:"MEXICAN COUP" 2841: 2816: 2803: 2769: 2751: 2726: 2700: 2674: 2648: 2622: 2596: 2570: 2544: 2519: 2507: 2494: 2487: 2464: 2457: 2437: 2413: 2378: 2371: 2347: 2334: 2308: 2295: 2282: 2259: 2244: 2231: 2218: 2205: 2192: 2179: 2166: 2153: 2140: 2125:(in Spanish). 2114: 2101: 2088: 2075: 2059: 2046: 2033: 2024: 2015: 2002: 1989: 1976: 1963: 1954: 1945: 1932: 1911: 1891: 1875: 1859: 1846: 1829: 1813: 1787: 1771: 1756: 1754:, p. 405. 1743: 1730: 1693: 1679: 1678: 1676: 1673: 1672: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1656: 1650: 1649: 1633: 1630: 1608:in his honor. 1548: 1545: 1524: 1521: 1486: 1483: 1394: 1387: 1276: 1269: 1240: 1237: 1235: 1232: 1223:Main article: 1220: 1217: 1124:Main article: 1121: 1118: 1094:New York Times 1067:Álvaro Obregón 1050: 1047: 1013: 1010: 996: 993: 984: 981: 948: 947:Infrastructure 945: 916: 913: 896: 893: 873: 870: 859:Calles in 1925 833: 830: 815:Woodrow Wilson 809:, head of the 807:Samuel Gompers 763:Laborist Party 746: 743: 731:Álvaro Obregón 722: 719: 706: 703: 697: 694: 649: 646: 644: 641: 569: 566: 490:Laborist Party 486:Álvaro Obregón 411:Álvaro Obregón 394: 393: 390: 389: 384: 380: 379: 376: 372: 371: 358: 357:Branch/service 354: 353: 340: 336: 335: 331: 330: 328: 327: 324: 320: 318: 314: 313: 301: 297: 294: 293: 292: 291: 270: 266: 261: 260: 259: 258: 255: 253: 249: 248: 245:Laborist Party 238: 234: 233: 227: 223: 222: 212:(aged 68) 206: 202: 201: 180: 178: 174: 173: 169: 168: 165: 164: 159: 153: 152: 149: 143: 142: 132: 131: 124: 123: 118: 112: 111: 109:Álvaro Obregón 106: 100: 99: 89: 88: 81: 80: 77: 76: 73: 65: 64: 61: 28: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4970: 4959: 4956: 4954: 4951: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4941: 4939: 4936: 4934: 4931: 4929: 4926: 4924: 4921: 4919: 4916: 4914: 4911: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4901: 4899: 4896: 4894: 4891: 4889: 4886: 4884: 4881: 4879: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4869: 4866: 4864: 4861: 4859: 4856: 4854: 4851: 4850: 4848: 4833: 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4808: 4805: 4803: 4800: 4798: 4795: 4793: 4790: 4788: 4785: 4783: 4780: 4779: 4777: 4773: 4767: 4764: 4762: 4759: 4757: 4754: 4752: 4749: 4747: 4744: 4742: 4739: 4737: 4734: 4732: 4731:Moctezuma Cid 4729: 4727: 4724: 4722: 4719: 4717: 4714: 4712: 4709: 4707: 4704: 4702: 4699: 4697: 4694: 4692: 4689: 4687: 4684: 4682: 4679: 4677: 4676:Montes de Oca 4674: 4672: 4669: 4667: 4664: 4662: 4659: 4657: 4654: 4652: 4649: 4647: 4644: 4642: 4639: 4637: 4634: 4633: 4631: 4627: 4622: 4612: 4609: 4607: 4604: 4601: 4598: 4595: 4592: 4589: 4586: 4583: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4572: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4553: 4550: 4547: 4544: 4542: 4539: 4537: 4534: 4532: 4529: 4527:Garay y Garay 4526: 4524: 4521: 4519: 4516: 4514: 4511: 4509: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4485: 4482: 4479: 4476: 4473: 4470: 4467: 4465: 4462: 4459: 4457:Piña y Cuevas 4456: 4453: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4439: 4437: 4434: 4431: 4428: 4425: 4422: 4420:Piña y Cuevas 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4403: 4400: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4386: 4383: 4381: 4378: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4353: 4350: 4347: 4345: 4342: 4339: 4336: 4333: 4330: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4308: 4305: 4302: 4299: 4296: 4293: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4269: 4266: 4263: 4261: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4250: 4248: 4245: 4242: 4239: 4236: 4233: 4230: 4227: 4226: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4209: 4204: 4202: 4197: 4195: 4190: 4189: 4186: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4162: 4159: 4157: 4154: 4152: 4149: 4147: 4144: 4142: 4139: 4137: 4134: 4133: 4132: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4122: 4116: 4113: 4111: 4108: 4105: 4102: 4100: 4097: 4095: 4092: 4090: 4087: 4085: 4082: 4080: 4077: 4075: 4072: 4070: 4067: 4065: 4062: 4060: 4057: 4056: 4054: 4050: 4042: 4039: 4038: 4037: 4034: 4032: 4029: 4027: 4024: 4022: 4019: 4017: 4014: 4012: 4009: 4007: 4004: 4002: 3999: 3998: 3996: 3992: 3986: 3983: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3970:Plan of Ayala 3968: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3960: 3956: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3894:Carmen Serdán 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3847: 3845: 3844:Porfirio Díaz 3842: 3841: 3839: 3835: 3829: 3826: 3824: 3821: 3819: 3816: 3814: 3811: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799:social system 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3780: 3778: 3775: 3774: 3772: 3768: 3764: 3757: 3752: 3750: 3745: 3743: 3738: 3737: 3734: 3721: 3717: 3714: 3711: 3707: 3706: 3702: 3701: 3698: 3682: 3679: 3677: 3674: 3672: 3669: 3667: 3664: 3662: 3659: 3657: 3654: 3652: 3649: 3647: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3637: 3634: 3632: 3629: 3627: 3624: 3622: 3619: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3609: 3607: 3604: 3603: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3574: 3571: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3561: 3559: 3556: 3554: 3551: 3549: 3546: 3544: 3541: 3539: 3536: 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3524: 3521: 3519: 3518:Porfirio Díaz 3516: 3514: 3511: 3509: 3506: 3504: 3501: 3499: 3498:Benito Juárez 3496: 3495: 3491: 3488: 3486: 3483: 3481: 3478: 3476: 3473: 3472: 3468: 3465: 3463: 3460: 3458: 3455: 3453: 3450: 3448: 3445: 3443: 3440: 3438: 3435: 3433: 3430: 3428: 3425: 3423: 3420: 3418: 3415: 3413: 3410: 3408: 3405: 3403: 3400: 3398: 3397:Nicolás Bravo 3395: 3393: 3390: 3388: 3385: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3368: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3350: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3340: 3339: 3336: 3332: 3325: 3320: 3318: 3313: 3311: 3306: 3305: 3302: 3293: 3284: 3283: 3276: 3270: 3265: 3261: 3252: 3251: 3244: 3238: 3233: 3228: 3224: 3220: 3217: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3206: 3201: 3200: 3196: 3194: 3191: 3187: 3182: 3180: 3178: 3174: 3173: 3169: 3164: 3161: 3158: 3154: 3151: 3147: 3144: 3140: 3137: 3133: 3130: 3126: 3123: 3120: 3116: 3113: 3109: 3106: 3102: 3101: 3097: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3085: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3066: 3062: 3059: 3055: 3054: 3051: 3050:0-06-016325-9 3047: 3043: 3039: 3036: 3033: 3029: 3028: 3024: 3020: 3016: 3014: 3010: 3006: 3002: 2999: 2995: 2992: 2988: 2987: 2983: 2975: 2970: 2967: 2963: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2948: 2944: 2938: 2935: 2931: 2925: 2922: 2909: 2905: 2899: 2896: 2892: 2886: 2883: 2879: 2873: 2870: 2857: 2856: 2851: 2845: 2842: 2830: 2826: 2820: 2817: 2813: 2807: 2804: 2792: 2788: 2782: 2780: 2778: 2776: 2774: 2770: 2767: 2763: 2760: 2755: 2752: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2733: 2731: 2727: 2714: 2710: 2704: 2701: 2688: 2684: 2678: 2675: 2662: 2658: 2652: 2649: 2636: 2632: 2626: 2623: 2610: 2606: 2600: 2597: 2584: 2580: 2574: 2571: 2558: 2554: 2548: 2545: 2533: 2529: 2523: 2520: 2516: 2511: 2508: 2504: 2498: 2495: 2490: 2488:0-393-31066-3 2484: 2480: 2479: 2474: 2468: 2465: 2460: 2458:1-57488-452-2 2454: 2450: 2449: 2441: 2438: 2433: 2429: 2422: 2420: 2418: 2414: 2409: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2382: 2379: 2374: 2372:1-58826-270-7 2368: 2364: 2360: 2359: 2351: 2348: 2344: 2338: 2335: 2331: 2330:0-8131-9170-X 2327: 2323: 2322: 2315: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2299: 2296: 2292: 2286: 2283: 2279: 2278:0-415-22497-7 2275: 2271: 2270: 2263: 2260: 2256: 2255: 2248: 2245: 2241: 2235: 2232: 2228: 2222: 2219: 2215: 2209: 2206: 2202: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2183: 2180: 2176: 2170: 2167: 2163: 2157: 2154: 2150: 2144: 2141: 2128: 2124: 2118: 2115: 2111: 2105: 2102: 2098: 2092: 2089: 2085: 2079: 2076: 2072: 2066: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2050: 2047: 2043: 2037: 2034: 2028: 2025: 2019: 2016: 2012: 2006: 2003: 2000:, pp. 115–16. 1999: 1993: 1990: 1986: 1980: 1977: 1973: 1967: 1964: 1958: 1955: 1949: 1946: 1942: 1936: 1933: 1928: 1922: 1914: 1908: 1904: 1903: 1895: 1892: 1888: 1882: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1866: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1850: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1833: 1830: 1826: 1820: 1818: 1814: 1801: 1797: 1791: 1788: 1784: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1767: 1760: 1757: 1753: 1747: 1744: 1740: 1734: 1731: 1726: 1722: 1717: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1697: 1694: 1690: 1684: 1681: 1674: 1670: 1667: 1665: 1662: 1660: 1657: 1655: 1652: 1651: 1647: 1646:Mexico portal 1636: 1631: 1629: 1627: 1623: 1622: 1618: 1614: 1609: 1607: 1603: 1598: 1596: 1595: 1590: 1585: 1583: 1579: 1572: 1571: 1565: 1558: 1553: 1546: 1544: 1542: 1538: 1529: 1523:Personal life 1522: 1520: 1518: 1513: 1511: 1507: 1502: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1484: 1482: 1480: 1476: 1471: 1469: 1465: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1392: 1388: 1386: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1371: 1368: 1367:César Sandino 1364: 1359: 1357: 1356:Dwight Morrow 1353: 1349: 1345: 1344: 1339: 1334: 1332: 1328: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1312: 1303: 1296: 1291: 1286: 1282: 1274: 1270: 1268: 1266: 1262: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1249:Henry Stimson 1246: 1245:Laredo, Texas 1238: 1233: 1231: 1226: 1219:1928 election 1218: 1216: 1213: 1211: 1208: 1203: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1172: 1169: 1168:anti-Catholic 1165: 1160: 1158: 1157:Dwight Morrow 1154: 1150: 1145: 1143: 1136: 1131: 1127: 1119: 1117: 1115: 1110: 1108: 1107:Dwight Morrow 1104: 1100: 1096: 1095: 1088: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1068: 1064: 1055: 1048: 1046: 1042: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1011: 1009: 1001: 995:Public health 994: 992: 990: 982: 980: 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 953: 946: 944: 942: 937: 936:Joaquín Amaro 927: 922: 914: 912: 910: 906: 902: 894: 892: 890: 882: 878: 871: 869: 868:of the CROM. 867: 857: 853: 851: 847: 846:Porfirio Díaz 838: 831: 829: 826: 821: 818: 816: 812: 808: 804: 800: 792: 787: 783: 780: 776: 770: 768: 765:, as well as 764: 760: 756: 752: 744: 742: 740: 736: 732: 728: 720: 718: 716: 712: 704: 702: 695: 693: 691: 687: 683: 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 654: 647: 642: 640: 637: 633: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 594: 591: 587: 579: 574: 567: 565: 563: 557: 555: 550: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 521: 519: 515: 511: 508:. He allowed 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 467: 462: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 432: 428: 424: 420: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 391: 388: 385: 381: 377: 373: 370: 359: 355: 352: 341: 337: 332: 325: 322: 321: 319: 315: 290: 289: 264: 257: 256: 254: 250: 246: 242: 239: 235: 232: 228: 226:Resting place 224: 220: 216: 207: 203: 199: 195: 179: 175: 170: 166: 163: 160: 154: 150: 144: 138: 133: 130: 125: 122: 119: 113: 110: 107: 101: 95: 90: 87: 82: 78: 71: 66: 59: 54: 50: 46: 42: 35: 27: 19: 4878:Cristero War 4775:21st century 4741:Silva-Herzog 4681:Elías Calles 4680: 4666:De la Huerta 4629:20th century 4602:Gómez Farías 4504:De la Fuente 4432:De Elorriaga 4413:Riva Palacio 4380:Gómez Farías 4369:De Gorostiza 4344:De Gorostiza 4321:De Gorostiza 4291:Gómez Valdés 4274:Gómez Farías 4237:De Arrillaga 4222:19th century 4074:Land Reforms 4069:Cristero War 3919:Ramón Corral 3903: 3703: 3582: 3280: 3248: 3203: 3198: 3185: 3176: 3162: 3156: 3149: 3142: 3135: 3128: 3118: 3111: 3104: 3095: 3088: 3072:The Americas 3071: 3064: 3057: 3041: 3031: 3018: 3004: 2997: 2990: 2973: 2969: 2964:, pp. 201–02 2961: 2956: 2950: 2942: 2937: 2929: 2924: 2912:. Retrieved 2907: 2898: 2890: 2885: 2877: 2872: 2860:. Retrieved 2855:Weekly Times 2853: 2844: 2832:. Retrieved 2829:Diario26.com 2828: 2819: 2811: 2806: 2794:. Retrieved 2790: 2754: 2746:the original 2741: 2717:. Retrieved 2712: 2703: 2691:. Retrieved 2686: 2677: 2665:. Retrieved 2660: 2651: 2639:. Retrieved 2634: 2625: 2613:. Retrieved 2608: 2599: 2587:. Retrieved 2582: 2573: 2561:. Retrieved 2557:the original 2547: 2535:. Retrieved 2531: 2522: 2514: 2510: 2502: 2497: 2477: 2467: 2447: 2440: 2431: 2391: 2388:The Americas 2387: 2381: 2357: 2350: 2337: 2320: 2303: 2298: 2290: 2285: 2268: 2262: 2253: 2247: 2239: 2234: 2226: 2221: 2213: 2208: 2200: 2195: 2187: 2182: 2174: 2169: 2161: 2156: 2148: 2143: 2131:. Retrieved 2117: 2109: 2104: 2096: 2091: 2083: 2078: 2070: 2057:, pp. 120–21 2054: 2049: 2041: 2036: 2027: 2018: 2010: 2005: 1997: 1992: 1984: 1979: 1971: 1966: 1957: 1948: 1940: 1935: 1901: 1894: 1886: 1870: 1869:Stacy, Lee. 1854: 1849: 1841: 1837: 1832: 1824: 1804:. Retrieved 1799: 1790: 1782: 1765: 1759: 1751: 1746: 1738: 1733: 1706: 1696: 1688: 1683: 1625: 1619: 1613:Pope Pius XI 1610: 1599: 1592: 1586: 1575: 1568: 1534: 1514: 1510:spiritualism 1503: 1488: 1472: 1463: 1458: 1427:Fauto Topete 1418: 1416: 1412: 1390: 1372: 1360: 1341: 1337: 1335: 1308: 1294: 1293:Logo of the 1272: 1257: 1253:Lucio Blanco 1242: 1228: 1214: 1204: 1200: 1195: 1173: 1161: 1153:Cristero War 1146: 1138: 1133: 1129: 1126:Cristero War 1111: 1092: 1089: 1080:Soviet Union 1072: 1060: 1043: 1030: 1015: 1006: 986: 973:Nuevo Laredo 958: 932: 898: 885: 862: 843: 822: 819: 796: 771: 766: 748: 724: 708: 699: 686:Pancho Villa 659: 638: 634: 608:, Spain, to 595: 585: 583: 558: 545:conservative 522: 506:Cristero War 502:anticlerical 498:labor rights 463: 459:Cristero War 402: 398: 397: 383:Battles/wars 369:Mexican Army 247:(until 1929) 210:(1945-10-19) 157:Succeeded by 136: 116:Succeeded by 93: 52: 48: 41:Spanish name 26: 4858:1945 deaths 4853:1877 births 3828:Científicos 3787:Encomiendas 3661:Vicente Fox 3457:Rómulo Díaz 3357:Pedro Vélez 2341:Tuck, Jim. 1800:www.nps.gov 1506:Axis powers 1495:Mexico City 1439:Aarón Sáenz 1389:End of the 1338:Jefe Máximo 1166:. Calles's 476:during the 215:Mexico City 147:Preceded by 104:Preceded by 4847:Categories 4746:Petricioli 4711:Ortiz Mena 4651:Gorostieta 4596:De la Peña 4480:Olasagarre 4408:De la Rosa 4358:De la Rosa 4354:Echeverría 4334:Echeverría 4325:Echeverría 4284:Echeverría 4168:Soldaderas 4161:Magonistas 4156:Felicistas 4041:formations 3823:Porfiriato 3813:La Reforma 3808:Reform War 3770:Background 3254:1924–1928 3202:, film on 3199:El General 3082:In Spanish 2960:Buchenau, 2928:Buchenau, 2862:9 December 2719:16 January 2693:16 January 2667:16 January 2641:16 January 2615:16 January 2589:16 January 2501:Buchenau, 2095:Buchenau, 2069:Buchenau, 2053:Buchenau, 1996:Buchenau, 1983:Buchenau, 1970:Buchenau, 1885:Buchenau, 1675:References 1617:encyclical 1517:hemorrhage 1499:Cuernavaca 1468:Guanajuato 1329:(Spanish: 1321:(Spanish: 1210:Miguel Pro 1184:Guanajuato 1164:Calles Law 1035:Grand Turk 1018:civil code 971:, linking 961:Porfiriato 959:Since the 919:See also: 848:succeeded 767:agraristas 455:secularist 339:Allegiance 187:1877-09-25 4807:Videgaray 4636:Limantour 4611:Limantour 4440:Gutiérrez 4426:Gutiérrez 4348:Trigueros 4340:Trigueros 4313:Bocanegra 4279:Bocanegra 4260:Bocanegra 4231:De Medina 4228:Maldonado 4151:Federales 3792:Haciendas 3192:channel 2914:26 August 2880:, p. 436. 2834:5 January 2796:5 January 2563:6 January 2537:5 January 2505:, p. 207. 2408:143629257 2190:, p. 413. 2133:27 August 2073:, p. 121. 1921:cite book 1827:, p. 404. 1725:1628-6731 1691:7, 26-45. 1594:caudillos 1570:caudillos 1475:San Diego 1464:callistas 1459:callistas 1419:callistas 1393:and exile 1275:1929–1934 1192:Michoacán 1180:Zacatecas 1114:Nicaragua 1085:Bolshevik 1012:Civil law 983:Education 977:Tapachula 614:Chihuahua 610:Zacatecas 541:kingmaker 378:1914–1920 141:1915–1919 137:In office 94:In office 84:47th 4792:Carstens 4706:Carrillo 4661:Alvarado 4646:Esquivel 4558:Iglesias 4545:Castaños 4508:Iglesias 4404:Lombardo 4391:Canalizo 4387:Villamil 4331:Lombardo 4131:Factions 4031:Maximato 2876:Krauze, 2762:Archived 2475:(1993). 2186:Krauze, 2099:, p. 123 1987:, p. 115 1974:, 112–13 1836:Krauze, 1823:Krauze, 1750:Krauze, 1632:See also 1391:Maximato 1343:Maximato 1333:, PRI). 1281:Maximato 1273:Maximato 1039:Crusades 1031:El Turco 915:Military 761:and the 606:La Rioja 494:populist 423:Maximato 419:de facto 221:, Mexico 200:, Mexico 39:In this 4832:Ramírez 4827:Herrera 4797:Cordero 4716:Margáin 4691:Bassols 4656:Cabrera 4581:Ramírez 4570:Benítez 4486:Canseco 4468:Urquidi 4460:Esparza 4401:Rondero 4395:Zubieta 4337:Canseco 4309:Lebrija 4303:Mangino 4300:Vallejo 4288:Lebrija 4267:Mangino 4243:Salgado 3225:of the 3221:in the 3214:trailer 3190:Youtube 2932:, p. 94 2893:p. 436. 2791:Jbla.de 1707:El Pais 1602:Sonoyta 1176:Jalisco 1023:Syrians 895:Finance 688:in the 630:Cananea 578:colonel 317:Parents 310: 302: 298: 287: 271: 267: 252:Spouses 194:Guaymas 45:surname 4782:Gurría 4766:Gurría 4736:Ibarra 4696:Suárez 4641:Madero 4606:Romero 4599:Dublán 4577:Romero 4563:Romero 4536:Prieto 4518:Prieto 4490:Prieto 4483:Parrés 4477:Parrés 4464:Prieto 4436:Ocampo 4365:Parrés 4297:Segura 4294:Blasco 4264:Maniau 4255:Zavala 4240:Esteva 4052:Legacy 3720:Regent 3205:P.O.V. 3076:online 3048: 3023:online 3011: 2878:Mexico 2485: 2455: 2406: 2369: 2328: 2276: 1909: 1825:Mexico 1752:Mexico 1723: 1709:(38). 1547:Legacy 1350:, and 1207:Jesuit 1188:Colima 909:relief 793:, 1924 678:Sonora 622:Apache 535:, and 484:, and 466:Sonora 437:, and 401:(born 366: 351:Mexico 348: 277: 198:Sonora 53:Calles 4822:Urzúa 4812:Meade 4802:Meade 4756:Serra 4686:Gómez 4554:Núñez 4548:Núñez 4513:Payno 4495:Payno 4454:Yáñez 4444:Payno 4417:Icaza 4376:Garay 4317:Garay 4124:Other 4106:(PRI) 3958:Plans 3797:Casta 2404:S2CID 1806:3 May 1027:Turks 872:Labor 618:Yaqui 584:Born 429:, as 304:( 300: 285:) 273:( 269: 49:Elías 4751:Aspe 4671:Pani 4587:Toro 4541:Mata 4531:Mata 4306:Alas 4270:Alas 3046:ISBN 3009:ISBN 2916:2023 2864:2020 2836:2019 2798:2019 2742:Time 2721:2022 2695:2022 2669:2022 2643:2022 2617:2022 2591:2022 2565:2019 2539:2019 2483:ISBN 2453:ISBN 2367:ISBN 2326:ISBN 2274:ISBN 2135:2023 1927:link 1907:ISBN 1808:2024 1721:ISSN 1555:The 1497:and 1451:CROM 1377:and 1283:and 1190:and 729:and 684:and 620:and 576:The 510:CROM 453:and 283:1927 279:1899 219:D.F. 205:Died 177:Born 127:2nd 4787:Gil 3227:ZBW 3210:PBS 3208:on 2396:doi 1711:doi 1025:or 512:'s 472:'s 47:is 4849:: 3040:, 2906:. 2852:. 2827:. 2789:. 2772:^ 2740:. 2729:^ 2711:. 2685:. 2659:. 2633:. 2607:. 2581:. 2530:. 2430:. 2416:^ 2402:. 2392:70 2390:. 2365:. 2361:. 2311:^ 2062:^ 1923:}} 1919:{{ 1889:, 1878:^ 1862:^ 1816:^ 1798:. 1774:^ 1719:. 1705:. 1501:. 1453:, 1445:, 1441:, 1437:, 1433:, 1429:, 1425:, 1186:, 1182:, 1178:, 692:. 531:, 461:. 433:, 306:m. 275:m. 217:, 196:, 4207:e 4200:t 4193:v 3755:e 3748:t 3741:v 3722:) 3718:( 3712:) 3708:( 3323:e 3316:t 3309:v 3025:. 2918:. 2838:. 2800:. 2723:. 2697:. 2671:. 2645:. 2619:. 2593:. 2567:. 2541:. 2491:. 2461:. 2410:. 2398:: 2375:. 2332:. 2280:. 2137:. 1929:) 1915:. 1810:. 1727:. 1713:: 1624:( 1409:. 189:) 185:( 55:. 36:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index