1575:. Timminco. Retrieved on 2011-04-02. Note regarding Timminco: On May 14, 2009, Timminco Limited, Photon Consulting LLC, Rogol Energy Consulting LLC, Michael Rogol, Dr. Heinz Schimmelbusch, Robert Dietrich, René Boisvert, Arthur R. Spector, Jack L. Messman, John C. Fox, Michael D. Winfield, Mickey P. Yakisch and John P. Walsh were named as defendants in a lawsuit. The claim was for $ 500 million plus punitive damages. The Superior Court of Justice decision in favor of the defendants is available here: https://www.canlii.org/en/on/onsc/doc/2016/2016onsc3124/2016onsc3124.html An appeal to the Ontario Superior Court is available at the following link. The Court again found in favor of the defendants and awarded costs accordingly. https://www.canlii.org/en/on/onca/doc/2017/2017onca369/2017onca369.html An appeal to the Canadian Supreme Court was made. The final decision by the Canadian Supreme Court fully vindicating the defendants' position with partial costs awarded to the defendants. The final decision is available here: https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-l-csc-a/en/16947/1/document.do A summary of this case is available here: https://www.canadianunderwriter.ca/insurance/court-shuts-door-case-may-muddied-water-limitation-periods-1004126598/
569:) for polysilicon deposition is about 1.7 eV. Based on this equation, the rate of polysilicon deposition increases as the deposition temperature increases. There will be a minimum temperature, however, wherein the rate of deposition becomes faster than the rate at which unreacted silane arrives at the surface. Beyond this temperature, the deposition rate can no longer increase with temperature, since it is now being hampered by lack of silane from which the polysilicon will be generated. Such a reaction is then said to be "mass-transport-limited". When a polysilicon deposition process becomes mass-transport-limited, the reaction rate becomes dependent primarily on reactant concentration, reactor geometry, and gas flow.
1039:
polysilicon. Buyers will accept down payment and long-term agreements to acquire a large enough volume of polysilicon. On the contrary, spot prices will be below contract prices once the solar PV installation is in a down trend. In late 2010, booming installation brought up the spot prices of polysilicon. In the first half of 2011, prices of polysilicon kept strong owing to the FIT policies of Italy. The solar PV price survey and market research firm, PVinsights, reported that the prices of polysilicon might be dragged down by lack of installation in the second half of 2011. As recently as 2008 prices were over $ 400/kg spiking from levels around $ 200/kg, while seen falling to $ 15/kg in 2013.
708:
are attractive because of a low cost of production even with reduced efficiency. Higher efficiency devices yield modules that occupy less space and are more compact; however, the 5–10% efficiency of typical CSG devices still makes them attractive for installation in large central-service stations, such as a power station. The issue of efficiency versus cost is a value decision of whether one requires an "energy dense" solar cell or sufficient area is available for the installation of less expensive alternatives. For instance, a solar cell used for power generation in a remote location might require a more highly efficient solar cell than one used for low-power applications, such as solar
581:
inside a low-pressure reactor either by changing the pumping speed or changing the inlet gas flow into the reactor. If the inlet gas is composed of both silane and nitrogen, the inlet gas flow, and hence the reactor pressure, may be varied either by changing the nitrogen flow at constant silane flow, or changing both the nitrogen and silane flow to change the total gas flow while keeping the gas ratio constant. Recent investigations have shown that e-beam evaporation, followed by SPC (if needed) can be a cost-effective and faster alternative for producing solar-grade poly-Si thin films. Modules produced by such method are shown to have a photovoltaic efficiency of ~6%.
801:
662:
the
Siemens process. GT Solar claims a new Siemens process can produce at $ 27/kg and may reach $ 20/kg in 5 years. GCL-Poly expects production costs to be $ 20/kg by end of 2011. Elkem Solar estimates their UMG costs to be $ 25/kg, with a capacity of 6,000 tonnes by the end of 2010. Calisolar expects UMG technology to produce at $ 12/kg in 5 years with boron at 0.3 ppm and phosphorus at 0.6 ppm. At $ 50/kg and 7.5 g/W, module manufacturers spend $ 0.37/W for the polysilicon. For comparison, if a CdTe manufacturer pays spot price for tellurium ($ 420/kg in April 2010) and has a 3
691:; however, it has potential for large-scale photovoltaic devices. The abundance, stability, and low toxicity of silicon, combined with the low cost of polysilicon relative to single crystals makes this variety of material attractive for photovoltaic production. Grain size has been shown to have an effect on the efficiency of polycrystalline solar cells. Solar cell efficiency increases with grain size. This effect is due to reduced recombination in the solar cell. Recombination, which is a limiting factor for current in a solar cell, occurs more prevalently at grain boundaries, see figure 1.
243:. Polycrystalline silicon (or semi-crystalline silicon, polysilicon, poly-Si, or simply "poly") is a material consisting of multiple small silicon crystals. Polycrystalline cells can be recognized by a visible grain, a "metal flake effect". Semiconductor grade (also solar grade) polycrystalline silicon is converted to single-crystal silicon – meaning that the randomly associated crystallites of silicon in polycrystalline silicon are converted to a large single crystal. Single-crystal silicon is used to manufacture most Si-based
203:
1031:
726:
25:
658:. UMG-Si greatly reduces impurities in a variety of ways that require less equipment and energy than the Siemens process. It is about 99% pure which is three or more orders of magnitude less pure and about 10 times less expensive than polysilicon ($ 1.70 to $ 3.20 per kg from 2005 to 2008 compared to $ 40 to $ 400 per kg for polysilicon). It has the potential to provide nearly-as-good solar cell efficiency at 1/5 the capital expenditure, half the energy requirements, and less than $ 15/kg.
605:
3366:
401:
278:
56:
339:
3378:
136:(ppb), while polycrystalline solar grade silicon (SoG-Si) is generally less pure. In the 2010's, production shifted toward China, with China-based companies accounting for seven of the top ten producers and around 90% of total worldwide production capacity of approximately 1,400,000 MT. German, US and South Korea companies account for the remainder.
553:
thickness uniformities of ±5%. Critical process variables for polysilicon deposition include temperature, pressure, silane concentration, and dopant concentration. Wafer spacing and load size have been shown to have only minor effects on the deposition process. The rate of polysilicon deposition increases rapidly with temperature, since it follows
695:
depend on the polycrystalline grain size, which is a physical parameter that the material scientist can manipulate. Through the methods of crystallization to form polycrystalline silicon, an engineer can control the size of the polycrystalline grains which will vary the physical properties of the material.
573:
processes must be surface-reaction-limited because they result in excellent thickness uniformity and step coverage. A plot of the logarithm of the deposition rate against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature in the surface-reaction-limited region results in a straight line whose slope is equal to –qE
820:
But as established producers (mentioned below) expand their capacities, additional newcomers – many from Asia – are moving into the market. Even long-time players in the field have recently had difficulties expanding plant production. It is yet unclear which companies will be able to produce at costs
707:
A primary concern in the photovoltaics industry is cell efficiency. However, sufficient cost savings from cell manufacturing can be suitable to offset reduced efficiency in the field, such as the use of larger solar cell arrays compared with more compact/higher efficiency designs. Designs such as CSG
449:
manufacturing. One of its primary uses is as gate electrode material for MOS devices. A polysilicon gate's electrical conductivity may be increased by depositing a metal (such as tungsten) or a metal silicide (such as tungsten silicide) over the gate. Polysilicon may also be employed as a resistor, a
694:
The resistivity, mobility, and free-carrier concentration in monocrystalline silicon vary with doping concentration of the single crystal silicon. Whereas the doping of polycrystalline silicon does have an effect on the resistivity, mobility, and free-carrier concentration, these properties strongly
682:
A picture of grain boundaries for polysilicon. Each grain is crystalline over the width of the grain. The grain boundary separates the grains where the adjoining grain is at a different orientation from its neighbor. The grain boundary separates regions of different crystal structure thus serving as
661:
In 2008 several companies were touting the potential of UMG-Si, but in 2010 the credit crisis greatly lowered the cost of polysilicon and several UMG-Si producers put plans on hold. The
Siemens process will remain the dominant form of production for years to come due to more efficiently implementing
584:
Polysilicon doping, if needed, is also done during the deposition process, usually by adding phosphine, arsine, or diborane. Adding phosphine or arsine results in slower deposition, while adding diborane increases the deposition rate. The deposition thickness uniformity usually degrades when dopants
572:
When the rate at which polysilicon deposition occurs is slower than the rate at which unreacted silane arrives, then it is said to be surface-reaction-limited. A deposition process that is surface-reaction-limited is primarily dependent on reactant concentration and reaction temperature. Deposition
389:
The deposition of polycrystalline silicon on plastic substrates is motivated by the desire to be able to manufacture digital displays on flexible screens. Therefore, a relatively new technique called laser crystallization has been devised to crystallize a precursor amorphous silicon (a-Si) material
1038:
Prices of polysilicon are often divided into two categories, contract and spot prices, and higher purity commands higher prices. While in booming installation times, price rally occurs in polysilicon. Not only spot prices surpass contract prices in the market; but it is also hard to acquire enough
492:
in supply of polysilicon feedstock and was forced to idle about a quarter of its cell and module manufacturing capacity in 2007. Only twelve factories were known to produce solar-grade polysilicon in 2008; however, by 2013 the number increased to over 100 manufacturers. Monocrystalline silicon is
580:
At reduced pressure levels for VLSI manufacturing, polysilicon deposition rate below 575 °C is too slow to be practical. Above 650 °C, poor deposition uniformity and excessive roughness will be encountered due to unwanted gas-phase reactions and silane depletion. Pressure can be varied
816:
Asia predicts 328,000 tons production with only 196,000 tons of demand, with spot prices expected to fall 56%. While good for renewable energy prospects, the subsequent drop in price could be brutal for manufacturers. As of late 2012, SolarIndustryMag reports a capacity of 385,000 tons will be
703:
The use of polycrystalline silicon in the production of solar cells requires less material and therefore provides higher profits and increased manufacturing throughput. Polycrystalline silicon does not need to be deposited on a silicon wafer to form a solar cell, rather it can be deposited on
552:
Polysilicon layers can be deposited using 100% silane at a pressure of 25–130 Pa (0.19–0.98 Torr) or with 20–30% silane (diluted in nitrogen) at the same total pressure. Both of these processes can deposit polysilicon on 10–200 wafers per run, at a rate of 10–20 nm/min and with
812:, in July 2011, the total polysilicon production in 2010 was 209,000 tons. First-tier suppliers account for 64% of the market while China-based polysilicon firms have 30% of market share. The total production is likely to increase 37.4% to 281,000 tons by end of 2011. For 2012,
669:
Q-Cells, Canadian Solar, and
Calisolar have used Timminco UMG. Timminco is able to produce UMG-Si with 0.5 ppm boron for $ 21/kg but were sued by shareholders because they had expected $ 10/kg. RSI and Dow Corning have also been in litigation over UMG-Si technology.
704:
other-cheaper materials, thus reducing the cost. Not requiring a silicon wafer alleviates the silicon shortages occasionally faced by the microelectronics industry. An example of not using a silicon wafer is crystalline silicon on glass (CSG) materials
1150:
Méndez, Laura; Forniés, Eduardo; Garrain, Daniel; Pérez Vázquez, Antonio; Souto, Alejandro; Vlasenko, Timur (1 October 2021). "Upgraded metallurgical grade silicon and polysilicon for solar electricity production: A comparative life cycle assessment".
132:. The photovoltaic industry also produces upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon (UMG-Si), using metallurgical instead of chemical purification processes. When produced for the electronics industry, polysilicon contains impurity levels of less than one
416:
The molten silicon will then crystallize as it cools. By precisely controlling the temperature gradients, researchers have been able to grow very large grains, of up to hundreds of micrometers in size in the extreme case, although grain sizes of 10
425:
are also common. In order to create devices on polysilicon over large-areas, however, a crystal grain size smaller than the device feature size is needed for homogeneity of the devices. Another method to produce poly-Si at low temperatures is
829:
Wacker's projected its total hyperpure-polysilicon production capacity to increase to 67,000 metric tons by 2014, due to its new polysilicon-production facility in
Cleveland, Tennessee (US) with an annual capacity of 15,000 metric tons.
465:
characteristics. When polysilicon and a-Si devices are used in the same process, this is called hybrid processing. A complete polysilicon active layer process is also used in some cases where a small pixel size is required, such as in
385:
in certain processing regimes, these processes still require relatively high temperatures of at least 300 °C. These temperatures make deposition of polysilicon possible for glass substrates but not for plastic substrates.
251:
industry, starting from poly rods that are two to three meters in length. In the microelectronics industry (semiconductor industry), poly is used at both the macro and micro scales. Single crystals are grown using the
178:. While polysilicon and multisilicon are often used as synonyms, multicrystalline usually refers to crystals larger than one millimetre. Multicrystalline solar cells are the most common type of solar cells in the
1964:
2112:
1762:
1584:
616:
The
Siemens process is the most commonly used method of polysilicon production, especially for electronics, with close to 75% of the world's production using this process as of 2005.
2291:
461:
and light-induced stress. This allows more complex, high-speed circuitry to be created on the glass substrate along with the a-Si devices, which are still needed for their low-
1536:
683:
a center for recombination. 'd' here is a characteristic grain size, which should be maximized for maximum solar cell efficiency. Typical values of d are about 1 micrometre.
139:
The polysilicon feedstock – large rods, usually broken into chunks of specific sizes and packaged in clean rooms before shipment – is directly cast into multicrystalline
214:, the crystalline framework is homogeneous, which can be recognized by an even external colouring. The entire sample is one single, continuous and unbroken crystal as
2215:
2001:
3271:
2948:
488:. For the first time, in 2006, over half of the world's supply of polysilicon was being used by PV manufacturers. The solar industry was severely hindered by a
1976:
2753:
666:
thickness, their cost would be 10 times less, $ 0.037/Watt. At 0.1 g/W and $ 31/ozt for silver, polysilicon solar producers spend $ 0.10/W on silver.
2626:
2032:
1075:. Normally the waste silicon tetrachloride is recycled but this adds to the cost of manufacture as it needs to be heated to 1,800 °F (980 °C).
430:
where an amorphous-Si thin film can be crystallized at temperatures as low as 150 °C if annealed while in contact of another metal film such as
3088:
299:
1335:
493:
higher priced and a more efficient semiconductor than polycrystalline as it has undergone additional recrystallization via the
Czochralski method.
3055:
3050:
2384:
2198:
484:
Polycrystalline silicon is the key feedstock in the crystalline silicon based photovoltaic industry and used for the production of conventional
679:
450:
conductor, or as an ohmic contact for shallow junctions, with the desired electrical conductivity attained by doping the polysilicon material.
1755:
1496:
1469:
1690:
Ghosh, Amal K.; Fishman, Charles & Feng, Tom (1980), "Theory of the electrical and photovoltaic properties of polycrystalline silicon",
3093:
2299:
1244:
1071:
Due to the rapid growth in manufacturing in China and the lack of regulatory controls, there have been reports of the dumping of waste
3109:
2461:
2187:
501:
Polysilicon deposition, or the process of depositing a layer of polycrystalline silicon on a semiconductor wafer, is achieved by the
3237:
3172:
3114:
2611:
1668:
1270:
889:
325:
1212:
1595:
1063:
of as much as 57 percent on polysilicon shipped from these two countries in order to stop the product from being sold below cost.
3404:
3242:
3005:
2486:
1430:
C.Becker, Microstructure and photovoltaic performance of polycrystalline silicon thin films on temperature-stable ZnO:Al layers.
841:
397:
pulses are used to heat the deposited a-Si material to above the melting point of silicon, without melting the entire substrate.
800:
261:
3256:
2763:
2621:
2502:
1548:
3419:
3207:
2733:
2527:
2476:
1560:
1415:
303:
764:
Polysilicon production by country in 2013 (company head-quarter, not location of facility). World total of 227,000 tonnes.
3040:
2321:
427:
227:
1646:
3414:
3327:
3307:
2687:
2446:
2135:
1634:
905:
3217:
2692:
2377:
2088:
2008:
1095:
993:
113:
598:
288:
182:
and consume most of the worldwide produced polysilicon. About 5 tons of polysilicon is required to manufacture one 1
3227:
3080:
3069:
2943:
2790:
2748:
2728:
1980:
307:
292:
2641:
2616:
2456:
959:
635:
594:
545:
467:
378:
355:
3381:
3142:
3124:
3015:
2861:
2848:
2843:
2743:
1537:
Is
Upgraded Metallurgical Grade Silicon The Only Hope For Manufacturers of Photovoltaic Solar Cells? – GLG News
1056:
354:
processing technologies. For these technologies it is deposited using low-pressure chemical-vapour deposition (
202:
1830:
3232:
3152:
3030:
3000:
2758:
2738:
2667:
2553:
2548:
2517:
1300:
Kolic, Y (1995). "Electron powder ribbon polycrystalline silicon plates used for porous layer fabrication".
1100:
489:
211:
187:
179:
1030:
687:
Currently, polysilicon is commonly used for the conducting gate materials in semiconductor devices such as
3370:
3212:
3182:
3147:
3134:
3020:
2795:
2596:
2586:
2481:
2370:
502:
370:
125:
1884:
457:
of the polysilicon can be orders of magnitude larger and the material also shows greater stability under
3187:
3177:
3157:
3010:
2833:
2636:
2439:
2434:
2253:
Price cut of solar PV supply chain spreads and the price of poly-silicon might be dragged down by others
1343:
1072:
609:
462:
160:
129:
3222:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3167:
3162:
2677:
2606:
2451:
2419:
2251:
1699:
1309:
1170:
1125:
985:
947:
374:
363:
359:
106:
2163:
2876:
2856:
2823:
2631:
2567:
2507:
2466:
1572:
1130:
1105:
479:
409:
230:). In contrast, in an amorphous structure the order in atomic positions is limited to short range.
156:
148:
604:
2912:
2871:
2818:
2591:
2471:
1977:"TOKUYAMA:About Us:Business Activities:Specialty Products Business Division:Electronic Materials"
1194:
1160:
562:
554:
253:
247:
devices. Polycrystalline silicon can be as much as 99.9999% pure. Ultra-pure poly is used in the
133:
2917:
1805:
1596:
http://www.bernreuter.com/fileadmin/user_upload/samples/SWE_6-2010_Solar_Silicon_Conference.pdf
1512:
3409:
2938:
2933:
2866:
2662:
2601:
2532:
2522:
2065:
2026:
1942:
1897:
1664:
1492:
1465:
1459:
1411:
1186:
1090:
1085:
1052:
382:
215:
191:
1486:
1248:
2995:
2963:
2953:
2424:
1707:
1608:"Personal finance news, articles, tips and advice on managing your money - myfinances.co.uk"
1317:
1178:
857:
624:
244:
36:. The reason given is: industry and production figures, in particular, are very out of date.
2907:
2838:
2074:
1951:
1898:"EANS-News: Wacker Chemie AG / POLYSILICON FACILITIES START UP AT WACKER'SBURGHAUSEN SITE"
1001:
709:
655:
346:
At the component level, polysilicon has long been used as the conducting gate material in
234:
144:
117:
94:
1381:
1278:
128:
into silicon at high temperatures. An emerging, alternative process of refinement uses a
1703:
1313:
1220:
1174:
739:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
381:, plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD), or solid-phase crystallization of
55:
38:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
3317:
3292:
2958:
2810:
2712:
2702:
2672:
2429:
1732:
1461:
Advances in Solar Energy: An Annual Review of
Research and Development, Volume 1 · 1982
1060:
678:
458:
454:
223:
219:
175:
2351:
390:
on a plastic substrate without melting or damaging the plastic. Short, high-intensity
3398:
2979:
2902:
2892:
2805:
2697:
2414:
2393:
1831:"Solar Polysilicon Manufacturers Cranking Out Supply Despite Losses - Solar Industry"
1410:(2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons. p. 27.
1321:
1198:
1110:
873:
248:
2266:
1923:
1780:
1364:
1182:
821:
low enough to be profitable after the steep drop in spot-prices of the last months.
400:
226:
are rare in nature and can also be difficult to produce in the laboratory (see also
3347:
3302:
3035:
2707:
1607:
257:
171:
121:
102:
3342:
3312:
3287:
3045:
2682:
2657:
2046:
1733:"CSG-2: Expanding the production of a new polycrystalline silicon PV technology"
1115:
1048:
977:
405:
391:
277:
239:
152:
338:
2828:
2800:
2578:
1120:
1018:
651:
485:
453:
One major difference between polysilicon and a-Si is that the mobility of the
422:
63:
2124:
1637:, Companies, Technologies, Cost, Capacities, Global Perspectives through 2012
1435:
3119:
3025:
2897:
963:
939:
809:
514:
431:
418:
1190:
2089:"Samsung Fine Chemicals And MEMC Sign Polysilicon Joint Venture Agreement"
654:
is being produced as a low cost alternative to polysilicon created by the
3332:
3322:
3297:
2352:"Sand Trap: Will the silicon shortage stunt the solar industry's growth?"
183:
1756:"Solar Insight, Research note – PV production 2013: an all Asian-affair"
3337:
924:
Market
Realist cites World production capacity at 300,000 tons in 2013.
813:
647:
206:
Comparing polycrystalline (left) to monocrystalline (right) solar cells
167:
98:
808:
The polysilicon manufacturing market is growing rapidly. According to
1740:
Proceedings of the 21st
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference
1711:
688:
628:
506:
439:
347:
140:
1750:
1748:
1165:
143:
or submitted to a recrystallization process to grow single crystal
2199:"Beijing Lier Plans 1.4 Billion Yuan Polysilicon Project in Henan"
1029:
952:
799:
677:
663:
603:
399:
394:
337:
201:
54:
186:(MW) of conventional solar modules. Polysilicon is distinct from
2362:
446:
435:
369:
More recently, intrinsic and doped polysilicon is being used in
351:
2366:
836:
Largest polysilicon producers in 2013 (market-share in %)
1855:
Commerzbank Equity Research, Robert Schramm, Lauren Licuanan:
719:
271:
18:
1761:. Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 16 April 2014. pp. 2–3.
358:) reactors at high temperatures and is usually heavily doped
2227:
1239:
1237:
1563:. GUNTHER Portfolio (2010-04-29). Retrieved on 2011-04-02.
1551:. GUNTHER Portfolio (2010-04-29). Retrieved on 2011-04-02.
1488:
High-Efficient Low-Cost Photovoltaics: Recent Developments
1005:, (2011: 4.3 kt, under construction 3 kt), China
951:(2009: 8 kt, Jan 2013: 11 kt, 2015: 31 kt)
926:
BNEF estimated actual production for 2013 at 227,000 tons
631:
impurities. The process is relatively expensive and slow.
2292:"China Imposes Duties on Polysilicon From U.S., S. Korea"
2113:
Solarserver | Das Internetportal für erneuerbare Energien
1965:
Solarserver | Das Internetportal für erneuerbare Energien
1585:
Solarserver | Das Internetportal für erneuerbare Energien
1881:
1806:"Polysilicon surplus seen to erode prices, says analyst"
1464:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 153–.
712:
or pocket calculators, or near established power grids.
2158:
2156:
1491:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 47–.
237:
phases are composed of a number of smaller crystals or
1561:
Dow Corning stopped UMG Solar Grade Silicon Production
1549:
Dow Corning stopped UMG Solar Grade Silicon Production
593:"Siemens process" redirects here. For other uses, see
2047:"404 - Page Not Found : SunEdison Semiconductor"
608:
Schematic diagram of the traditional Siemens and the
2216:
Gulf Times Ras Laffan to get $ 1bn polysilicon plant
1539:. Glgroup.com (2008-05-20). Retrieved on 2011-04-02.
3280:
3264:
3255:
3133:
3102:
3079:
3068:
2988:
2972:
2926:
2885:
2783:
2776:
2721:
2650:
2577:
2566:
2541:
2495:
2407:
2400:
1647:
Solar Grade Litigation: Dow Corning vs. RSI Silicon
513:) at high temperatures of 580 to 650 °C. This
1047:The Chinese government accused United States and
804:Chemical processing at a P.S.T. polysilicon plant
404:Polycrystalline silicon (used to produce silicon
2322:"Solar Energy Firms Leave Waste Behind in China"
1408:An Introduction To Semiconductor Microtechnology
623:and then to silicon in a reactor, thus removing
147:. The boules are then sliced into thin silicon
116:by a chemical purification process, called the
1021:, announced an 8 t facility for start in 2013.
3272:List of countries by photovoltaics production
2949:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One
2378:
1649:. GUNTHER Portfolio. Retrieved on 2011-04-02.
1245:"China: The new silicon valley – Polysilicon"
561:/kT) where q is electron charge and k is the
557:behavior, that is deposition rate = A·exp(–qE
8:
1659:Streetman, B. G. & Banerjee, S. (2000),
967:(2010: 8 kt, Jan 2013: 18 kt) USA.
595:Chemical vapor deposition § Polysilicon
2754:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
2267:"Login to DIGITIMES archive & research"
1885:WACKER TENNESSEE Frequently Asked Questions
1781:"Login to DIGITIMES archive & research"
1663:(5th ed.), New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
1453:
1451:
1449:
1009:Beijing Lier High-temperature Materials Co.
306:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
70:: polysilicon rod (top) and chunks (bottom)
3261:
3076:
2780:
2627:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells
2574:
2404:
2385:
2371:
2363:
1726:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1635:The Who's Who of Solar Silicon Production
1513:"Polysilicon Production: Siemens Process"
1164:
326:Learn how and when to remove this message
210:In single-crystal silicon, also known as
124:of volatile silicon compounds, and their
3089:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system
1685:
1683:
1681:
1679:
832:
342:A rod of semiconductor-grade polysilicon
3056:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge
3051:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
1868:Citigroup Global Markets, Timothy Lam:
1142:
1059:. As a consequence, in 2013 it imposed
973:(2011: 3.2 kt, 2013: 14.5 kt)
2134:. Arizona State University. Nov 2010.
2063:
2031:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2024:
1940:
1857:Feedback form Solar Silicon Conference
101:, used as a raw material by the solar
2141:from the original on January 24, 2023
981:, (2011: 5 kt, Jan 2011), Russia
650:(UMG) silicon (also known as UMG-Si)
445:Polysilicon has many applications in
373:as the active and/or doped layers in
7:
3377:
642:Upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon
304:adding citations to reliable sources
3094:List of photovoltaic power stations
619:The process converts MG Si to SiHCl
3110:Rooftop photovoltaic power station
2513:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)
2462:Third-generation photovoltaic cell
1768:from the original on 30 June 2014.
1034:History of polysilicon spot prices
377:. Although it can be deposited by
174:, giving the material its typical
14:
3115:Building-integrated photovoltaics
2612:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
2518:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)
2164:"Polysilicon - Solar Value Chain"
1406:Morgan, D. V.; Board, K. (1991).
1247:. 2 February 2015. Archived from
3376:
3365:
3364:
2487:Polarizing organic photovoltaics
1485:Vesselinka Petrova-Koch (2009).
1458:Karl W. Boer (6 December 2012).
1336:"Photovoltaics: Getting Cheaper"
1153:Science of the Total Environment
724:
276:
66:made of polycrystalline silicon
23:
2622:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics
2503:List of semiconductor materials
2350:Alan Joch (November 10, 2006).
1183:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147969
151:and used for the production of
2734:Incremental conductance method
2528:Copper indium gallium selenide
2477:Thermodynamic efficiency limit
2298:. 18 July 2013. Archived from
2265:DIGITIMES (23 November 2012).
1661:Solid State Electronic Devices
166:Polysilicon consists of small
1:
3041:South African Solar Challenge
585:are added during deposition.
428:metal-induced crystallization
112:Polysilicon is produced from
2688:Photovoltaic mounting system
1322:10.1016/0040-6090(94)05644-S
915:
899:
883:
867:
851:
2693:Maximum power point tracker
1367:A Shortage Hits Solar Power
1213:"POLYSILICON MANUFACTURERS"
1096:Metallurgical grade silicon
994:Osaka Titanium Technologies
517:process releases hydrogen.
114:metallurgical grade silicon
16:High purity form of silicon
3436:
2944:Solar panels on spacecraft
2791:Solar-powered refrigerator
2749:Concentrated photovoltaics
2729:Perturb and observe method
2508:Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
1870:Asia Solar View – May 2010
1779:DIGITIMES (19 July 2011).
1692:Journal of Applied Physics
592:
565:. The activation energy (E
477:
198:Vs monocrystalline silicon
3360:
2642:Heterojunction solar cell
2617:Dye-sensitized solar cell
2457:Multi-junction solar cell
2447:Nominal power (Watt-peak)
2073:Cite uses generic title (
1950:Cite uses generic title (
1365:The Wall Street Journal,
943:(2010: 15 kt) China.
920:
835:
817:reached by yearend 2012.
782: South Korea (11.4%)
733:This section needs to be
636:chemical vapor deposition
474:Feedstock for PV industry
32:This article needs to be
3125:Strasskirchen Solar Park
3016:American Solar Challenge
2862:Solar-powered flashlight
2849:Solar-powered calculator
2844:Solar cell phone charger
2533:Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
2168:www.greenrhinoenergy.com
1015:Qatar Solar Technologies
120:. This process involves
79:multicrystalline silicon
3405:Group IV semiconductors
3031:Frisian Solar Challenge
3001:List of solar car teams
2759:Space-based solar power
2739:Constant voltage method
2668:Solar charge controller
2554:Timeline of solar cells
2549:Growth of photovoltaics
1101:Nanocrystalline silicon
212:monocrystalline silicon
188:monocrystalline silicon
75:Polycrystalline silicon
3021:Formula Sun Grand Prix
2853:Solar-powered fountain
2796:Solar air conditioning
2597:Quantum dot solar cell
2587:Nanocrystal solar cell
2482:Sun-free photovoltaics
2093:www.chemicalonline.com
1731:Basore, P. A. (2006),
1035:
986:Mitsubishi Polysilicon
805:
684:
674:Potential applications
613:
599:Siemens–Martin process
503:chemical decomposition
413:
371:large-area electronics
343:
207:
180:fast-growing PV market
71:
3420:Allotropes of silicon
3011:World Solar Challenge
2834:Photovoltaic keyboard
2764:PV system performance
2637:Perovskite solar cell
2435:Solar cell efficiency
1882:http://www.wacker.com
1436:DOI:10.1063/1.3240343
1073:silicon tetrachloride
1033:
890:Hemlock Semiconductor
803:
788: Germany (21.6%)
681:
610:fluidized bed reactor
607:
403:
375:thin-film transistors
341:
205:
161:semiconductor devices
130:fluidized bed reactor
58:
3281:Individual producers
2989:Solar vehicle racing
2678:Solar micro-inverter
2607:Plasmonic solar cell
2452:Thin-film solar cell
2420:Photoelectric effect
1835:solarindustrymag.com
1434:106, 084506 (2009),
1126:Thin-film solar cell
948:Tokuyama Corporation
612:purification process
300:improve this section
262:Bridgman–Stockbarger
233:Polycrystalline and
107:electronics industry
93:, is a high purity,
3415:Silicon solar cells
2877:Solar traffic light
2857:Solar-powered radio
2824:Solar-powered watch
2632:Printed solar panel
2467:Solar cell research
1704:1980JAP....51..446G
1517:Bernreuter Research
1314:1995TSF...255..159K
1217:BernReuter Research
1175:2021ScTEn.78947969M
1131:Wafer (electronics)
1106:Photovoltaic module
997:(2008: 4.2 kt)
989:(2008: 4.3 kt)
933:Other manufacturers
770: China (36.1%)
648:metallurgical-grade
480:Crystalline silicon
468:projection displays
410:Czochralski process
157:integrated circuits
2913:The Quiet Achiever
2872:Solar street light
2819:Solar-powered pump
2592:Organic solar cell
2472:Thermophotovoltaic
2440:Quantum efficiency
2232:www.pvinsights.com
1281:on 25 January 2009
1036:
806:
794: Japan (4.9%)
685:
614:
563:Boltzmann constant
497:Deposition methods
414:
344:
208:
176:metal flake effect
72:
3392:
3391:
3356:
3355:
3251:
3250:
3064:
3063:
2939:Mauro Solar Riser
2934:Electric aircraft
2867:Solar-powered fan
2772:
2771:
2663:Balance of system
2651:System components
2602:Hybrid solar cell
2562:
2561:
2523:Cadmium telluride
2271:www.digitimes.com
1785:www.digitimes.com
1498:978-3-540-79358-8
1471:978-1-4684-8992-7
1369:. April 29, 2006.
1346:on 2 January 2015
1091:Cadmium telluride
1086:Amorphous silicon
1053:predatory pricing
1051:manufacturers of
1011:(2012: 5 kt)
930:
929:
825:Leading producers
776: USA (25.9%)
754:
753:
383:amorphous silicon
336:
335:
328:
228:recrystallisation
192:amorphous silicon
53:
52:
3427:
3380:
3379:
3368:
3367:
3262:
3103:Building-mounted
3081:PV power station
3077:
3006:Solar challenges
2996:Solar car racing
2964:Solar Challenger
2954:Gossamer Penguin
2781:
2575:
2425:Solar irradiance
2405:
2387:
2380:
2373:
2364:
2359:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2333:
2318:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2288:
2282:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2262:
2256:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2224:
2218:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2195:
2189:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2160:
2151:
2150:
2148:
2146:
2140:
2129:
2121:
2115:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2101:
2099:
2085:
2079:
2078:
2071:
2069:
2061:
2059:
2057:
2043:
2037:
2036:
2030:
2022:
2020:
2019:
2013:
2007:. Archived from
2006:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1988:
1979:. Archived from
1973:
1967:
1962:
1956:
1955:
1948:
1946:
1938:
1936:
1934:
1928:www.ldksolar.com
1920:
1914:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1894:
1888:
1879:
1873:
1866:
1860:
1859:. 28. April 2010
1853:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1842:
1837:. 2 October 2012
1827:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1816:
1802:
1796:
1795:
1793:
1791:
1776:
1770:
1769:
1767:
1760:
1752:
1743:
1742:
1737:
1728:
1715:
1714:
1712:10.1063/1.327342
1687:
1674:
1673:
1656:
1650:
1644:
1638:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1612:
1604:
1598:
1593:
1587:
1582:
1576:
1570:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1546:
1540:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1524:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1482:
1476:
1475:
1455:
1444:
1438:
1428:
1422:
1421:
1403:
1397:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1386:www.enfsolar.com
1377:
1371:
1362:
1356:
1355:
1353:
1351:
1342:. Archived from
1332:
1326:
1325:
1302:Thin Solid Films
1297:
1291:
1290:
1288:
1286:
1277:. Archived from
1267:
1261:
1260:
1258:
1256:
1251:on 25 April 2015
1241:
1232:
1231:
1229:
1228:
1219:. Archived from
1209:
1203:
1202:
1168:
1147:
833:
793:
787:
781:
775:
769:
749:
746:
740:
728:
727:
720:
634:It is a type of
625:transition metal
543:
542:
541:
532:(g) → Si(s) + 2
531:
530:
529:
331:
324:
320:
317:
311:
280:
272:
220:grain boundaries
170:, also known as
134:part per billion
48:
45:
39:
27:
26:
19:
3435:
3434:
3430:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3425:
3424:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3388:
3352:
3276:
3247:
3129:
3098:
3071:
3060:
2984:
2973:Water transport
2968:
2922:
2908:Solar golf cart
2881:
2839:Solar road stud
2768:
2722:System concepts
2717:
2646:
2569:
2558:
2537:
2491:
2396:
2391:
2356:Plenty Magazine
2349:
2346:
2341:
2331:
2329:
2326:Washington Post
2320:
2319:
2315:
2305:
2303:
2290:
2289:
2285:
2275:
2273:
2264:
2263:
2259:
2250:
2246:
2236:
2234:
2226:
2225:
2221:
2214:
2210:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2186:
2182:
2172:
2170:
2162:
2161:
2154:
2144:
2142:
2138:
2127:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2111:
2107:
2097:
2095:
2087:
2086:
2082:
2072:
2062:
2055:
2053:
2045:
2044:
2040:
2023:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2004:
2002:"Archived copy"
2000:
1999:
1995:
1986:
1984:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1963:
1959:
1949:
1939:
1932:
1930:
1924:"404 Not Found"
1922:
1921:
1917:
1907:
1905:
1904:. 21 April 2010
1902:presseportal.de
1896:
1895:
1891:
1880:
1876:
1867:
1863:
1854:
1850:
1840:
1838:
1829:
1828:
1824:
1814:
1812:
1810:www.eetasia.com
1804:
1803:
1799:
1789:
1787:
1778:
1777:
1773:
1765:
1758:
1754:
1753:
1746:
1735:
1730:
1729:
1718:
1689:
1688:
1677:
1671:
1658:
1657:
1653:
1645:
1641:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1610:
1606:
1605:
1601:
1594:
1590:
1583:
1579:
1571:
1567:
1559:
1555:
1547:
1543:
1535:
1531:
1522:
1520:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1499:
1484:
1483:
1479:
1472:
1457:
1456:
1447:
1441:
1429:
1425:
1418:
1405:
1404:
1400:
1390:
1388:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1363:
1359:
1349:
1347:
1340:nyecospaces.com
1334:
1333:
1329:
1299:
1298:
1294:
1284:
1282:
1269:
1268:
1264:
1254:
1252:
1243:
1242:
1235:
1226:
1224:
1211:
1210:
1206:
1149:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1135:
1081:
1069:
1045:
1028:
1002:Daqo New Energy
971:Hankook Silicon
925:
842:GCL-Poly Energy
827:
798:
797:
796:
795:
791:
789:
785:
783:
779:
777:
773:
771:
767:
759:
750:
744:
741:
738:
729:
725:
718:
710:accent lighting
701:
676:
656:Siemens process
644:
622:
602:
591:
589:Siemens process
576:
568:
560:
540:
537:
536:
535:
533:
528:
525:
524:
523:
521:
512:
499:
482:
476:
455:charge carriers
332:
321:
315:
312:
297:
281:
270:
245:microelectronic
235:paracrystalline
224:single crystals
200:
118:Siemens process
95:polycrystalline
49:
43:
40:
37:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3433:
3431:
3423:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3397:
3396:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3386:
3374:
3361:
3358:
3357:
3354:
3353:
3351:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3318:Solar Frontier
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3293:Hanwha Q CELLS
3290:
3284:
3282:
3278:
3277:
3275:
3274:
3268:
3266:
3259:
3253:
3252:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3238:United Kingdom
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3173:Czech Republic
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3145:
3139:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3106:
3104:
3100:
3099:
3097:
3096:
3091:
3085:
3083:
3074:
3066:
3065:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2992:
2990:
2986:
2985:
2983:
2982:
2976:
2974:
2970:
2969:
2967:
2966:
2961:
2959:Qinetiq Zephyr
2956:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2930:
2928:
2924:
2923:
2921:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2889:
2887:
2886:Land transport
2883:
2882:
2880:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2813:
2811:Solar backpack
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2787:
2785:
2778:
2774:
2773:
2770:
2769:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2756:
2751:
2746:
2741:
2736:
2731:
2725:
2723:
2719:
2718:
2716:
2715:
2713:Synchronverter
2710:
2705:
2703:Solar shingles
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2673:Solar inverter
2670:
2665:
2660:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2589:
2583:
2581:
2572:
2564:
2563:
2560:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2551:
2545:
2543:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2505:
2499:
2497:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2432:
2430:Solar constant
2427:
2422:
2417:
2411:
2409:
2402:
2398:
2397:
2392:
2390:
2389:
2382:
2375:
2367:
2361:
2360:
2345:
2344:External links
2342:
2340:
2339:
2328:. 9 March 2008
2313:
2283:
2257:
2244:
2219:
2208:
2190:
2180:
2152:
2116:
2105:
2080:
2038:
1993:
1968:
1957:
1915:
1889:
1874:
1861:
1848:
1822:
1797:
1771:
1744:
1716:
1675:
1669:
1651:
1639:
1627:
1599:
1588:
1577:
1565:
1553:
1541:
1529:
1504:
1497:
1477:
1470:
1445:
1439:
1432:J. Appl. Phys.
1423:
1416:
1398:
1372:
1357:
1327:
1292:
1262:
1233:
1204:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1133:
1128:
1123:
1118:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1068:
1065:
1061:import tariffs
1044:
1041:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1012:
1006:
998:
990:
982:
974:
968:
956:
944:
935:
934:
928:
927:
918:
917:
914:
911:
908:
902:
901:
898:
895:
892:
886:
885:
882:
879:
876:
870:
869:
866:
863:
860:
854:
853:
850:
847:
844:
838:
837:
826:
823:
790:
784:
778:
772:
766:
762:
761:
760:
758:
755:
752:
751:
732:
730:
723:
717:
714:
700:
697:
675:
672:
643:
640:
620:
590:
587:
574:
566:
558:
550:
549:
538:
526:
510:
498:
495:
478:Main article:
475:
472:
459:electric field
334:
333:
284:
282:
275:
269:
266:
199:
196:
81:, also called
51:
50:
31:
29:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3432:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3402:
3400:
3385:
3384:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3363:
3362:
3359:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3273:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3140:
3138:
3136:
3132:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3107:
3105:
3101:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3086:
3084:
3082:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3067:
3057:
3054:
3052:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2981:
2978:
2977:
2975:
2971:
2965:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2937:
2935:
2932:
2931:
2929:
2927:Air transport
2925:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2903:Solar roadway
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2893:Solar vehicle
2891:
2890:
2888:
2884:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2827:
2825:
2822:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2806:Solar charger
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2782:
2779:
2775:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2752:
2750:
2747:
2745:
2742:
2740:
2737:
2735:
2732:
2730:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2698:Solar tracker
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2659:
2656:
2655:
2653:
2649:
2643:
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2565:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2504:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2441:
2438:
2437:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2416:
2415:Photovoltaics
2413:
2412:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2394:Photovoltaics
2388:
2383:
2381:
2376:
2374:
2369:
2368:
2365:
2357:
2353:
2348:
2347:
2343:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2314:
2302:on 2017-03-14
2301:
2297:
2293:
2287:
2284:
2272:
2268:
2261:
2258:
2255:
2254:
2248:
2245:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2220:
2217:
2212:
2209:
2205:. 2011-07-12.
2204:
2200:
2194:
2191:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2169:
2165:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2125:"Nitol Solar"
2120:
2117:
2114:
2109:
2106:
2094:
2090:
2084:
2081:
2076:
2067:
2052:
2048:
2042:
2039:
2034:
2028:
2014:on 2010-12-15
2010:
2003:
1997:
1994:
1983:on 2011-04-06
1982:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1966:
1961:
1958:
1953:
1944:
1929:
1925:
1919:
1916:
1903:
1899:
1893:
1890:
1886:
1883:
1878:
1875:
1872:, 3. May 2010
1871:
1865:
1862:
1858:
1852:
1849:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1811:
1807:
1801:
1798:
1786:
1782:
1775:
1772:
1764:
1757:
1751:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1734:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1686:
1684:
1682:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1670:0-13-025538-6
1666:
1662:
1655:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1640:
1636:
1631:
1628:
1616:
1609:
1603:
1600:
1597:
1592:
1589:
1586:
1581:
1578:
1574:
1573:Press Release
1569:
1566:
1562:
1557:
1554:
1550:
1545:
1542:
1538:
1533:
1530:
1518:
1514:
1508:
1505:
1500:
1494:
1490:
1489:
1481:
1478:
1473:
1467:
1463:
1462:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1437:
1433:
1427:
1424:
1419:
1413:
1409:
1402:
1399:
1387:
1383:
1376:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1361:
1358:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1331:
1328:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1296:
1293:
1280:
1276:
1275:solarworld.de
1272:
1266:
1263:
1250:
1246:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1223:on 2024-05-29
1222:
1218:
1214:
1208:
1205:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1146:
1143:
1137:
1132:
1129:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1114:
1112:
1111:Photovoltaics
1109:
1107:
1104:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1094:
1092:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1083:
1078:
1076:
1074:
1066:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1042:
1040:
1032:
1025:
1020:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1003:
999:
996:
995:
991:
988:
987:
983:
980:
979:
975:
972:
969:
966:
965:
961:
957:
954:
950:
949:
945:
942:
941:
937:
936:
932:
931:
923:
919:
912:
909:
907:
904:
903:
896:
893:
891:
888:
887:
880:
877:
875:
872:
871:
864:
861:
859:
858:Wacker Chemie
856:
855:
848:
845:
843:
840:
839:
834:
831:
824:
822:
818:
815:
811:
802:
765:
756:
748:
736:
731:
722:
721:
716:Manufacturers
715:
713:
711:
705:
698:
696:
692:
690:
680:
673:
671:
667:
665:
659:
657:
653:
649:
641:
639:
637:
632:
630:
626:
617:
611:
606:
600:
596:
588:
586:
582:
578:
570:
564:
556:
547:
520:
519:
518:
516:
508:
504:
496:
494:
491:
487:
481:
473:
471:
469:
464:
460:
456:
451:
448:
443:
441:
437:
433:
429:
424:
420:
411:
407:
402:
398:
396:
393:
387:
384:
380:
376:
372:
367:
365:
361:
357:
353:
349:
340:
330:
327:
319:
309:
305:
301:
295:
294:
290:
285:This section
283:
279:
274:
273:
267:
265:
263:
259:
255:
250:
249:semiconductor
246:
242:
241:
236:
231:
229:
225:
221:
217:
216:its structure
213:
204:
197:
195:
193:
189:
185:
181:
177:
173:
169:
164:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
137:
135:
131:
127:
126:decomposition
123:
119:
115:
110:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
69:
65:
61:
57:
47:
35:
30:
21:
20:
3382:
3369:
3348:Yingli Solar
3328:Sungen Solar
3303:Motech Solar
3257:PV companies
3218:South Africa
3036:Solar Splash
2777:Applications
2708:Solar mirror
2568:Photovoltaic
2512:
2355:
2330:. Retrieved
2325:
2316:
2304:. Retrieved
2300:the original
2295:
2286:
2274:. Retrieved
2270:
2260:
2252:
2247:
2235:. Retrieved
2231:
2228:"PVinsights"
2222:
2211:
2202:
2193:
2183:
2171:. Retrieved
2167:
2143:. Retrieved
2131:
2119:
2108:
2096:. Retrieved
2092:
2083:
2054:. Retrieved
2051:www.memc.com
2050:
2041:
2016:. Retrieved
2009:the original
1996:
1985:. Retrieved
1981:the original
1971:
1960:
1931:. Retrieved
1927:
1918:
1906:. Retrieved
1901:
1892:
1877:
1869:
1864:
1856:
1851:
1839:. Retrieved
1834:
1825:
1813:. Retrieved
1809:
1800:
1788:. Retrieved
1784:
1774:
1739:
1695:
1691:
1660:
1654:
1642:
1630:
1618:. Retrieved
1614:
1602:
1591:
1580:
1568:
1556:
1544:
1532:
1521:. Retrieved
1519:. 2020-06-29
1516:
1507:
1487:
1480:
1460:
1442:
1431:
1426:
1407:
1401:
1389:. Retrieved
1385:
1375:
1366:
1360:
1348:. Retrieved
1344:the original
1339:
1330:
1308:(1–2): 159.
1305:
1301:
1295:
1283:. Retrieved
1279:the original
1274:
1265:
1253:. Retrieved
1249:the original
1225:. Retrieved
1221:the original
1216:
1207:
1156:
1152:
1145:
1070:
1049:South Korean
1046:
1037:
1014:
1008:
1000:
992:
984:
976:
970:
958:
946:
938:
921:
828:
819:
807:
763:
742:
734:
706:
702:
693:
686:
668:
660:
645:
633:
618:
615:
583:
579:
571:
551:
548:at 500-800°C
500:
483:
452:
444:
415:
406:monocrystals
388:
368:
345:
322:
316:January 2014
313:
298:Please help
286:
258:zone melting
240:crystallites
238:
232:
218:contains no
209:
172:crystallites
165:
138:
122:distillation
111:
103:photovoltaic
90:
86:
82:
78:
74:
73:
67:
59:
41:
33:
3343:Trina Solar
3288:First Solar
3228:Switzerland
3208:Netherlands
3046:Tour de Sol
2744:Fill factor
2683:Solar cable
2658:Solar panel
2579:Solar cells
2145:January 23,
1615:My Finances
1380:Ltd., ENF.
1271:"Solar ABC"
1116:Polycrystal
978:Nitol Solar
913:21,500 tons
897:36,000 tons
881:42,000 tons
878:South Korea
865:52,000 tons
849:65,000 tons
699:Novel ideas
486:solar cells
392:ultraviolet
254:Czochralski
153:solar cells
83:polysilicon
64:solar cells
3399:Categories
3265:By country
3135:By country
3070:Generation
2980:Solar boat
2829:Solar Tuki
2815:Solar tree
2801:Solar lamp
2784:Appliances
2408:Technology
2018:2011-04-03
1987:2011-04-03
1698:(1): 446,
1523:2024-06-29
1417:0471924784
1227:2024-08-18
1166:2102.11571
1159:: 147969.
1138:References
1121:Solar cell
1019:Ras Laffan
745:April 2021
652:solar cell
423:micrometer
419:nanometers
268:Components
159:and other
68:Right side
3143:Australia
3120:Solar Ark
3026:Solar Cup
2918:Sunmobile
2898:Solar car
2496:Materials
2296:Bloomberg
2203:Bloomberg
1382:"ENF Ltd"
1199:232013656
1057:"dumping"
964:SunEdison
940:LDK Solar
810:Digitimes
646:Upgraded
638:process.
555:Arrhenius
515:pyrolysis
432:aluminium
287:does not
264:methods.
60:Left side
44:June 2024
3410:Crystals
3371:Category
3333:Sunpower
3323:Solyndra
3298:JA Solar
3233:Thailand
3153:Bulgaria
2401:Concepts
2306:14 March
2276:10 April
2237:10 April
2173:10 April
2136:Archived
2098:10 April
2066:cite web
2056:10 April
2027:cite web
1943:cite web
1933:10 April
1908:10 April
1841:10 April
1815:10 April
1790:10 April
1763:Archived
1620:10 April
1391:10 April
1350:10 April
1285:10 April
1255:30 April
1191:34082204
1079:See also
757:Capacity
490:shortage
222:. Large
184:megawatt
168:crystals
97:form of
3383:Commons
3338:Suntech
3213:Romania
3183:Germany
3148:Belgium
3072:systems
2542:History
2332:8 March
1700:Bibcode
1310:Bibcode
1171:Bibcode
1043:Dumping
922:Source:
862:Germany
814:EETimes
735:updated
689:MOSFETs
463:leakage
308:removed
293:sources
99:silicon
87:poly-Si
34:updated
3188:Greece
3178:France
3158:Canada
2570:system
2132:RusTec
1887:, 2015
1667:
1495:
1468:
1414:
1197:
1189:
910:Norway
792:
786:
780:
774:
768:
629:dopant
597:, and
507:silane
440:silver
364:p-type
360:n-type
348:MOSFET
149:wafers
145:boules
141:ingots
3313:Sharp
3223:Spain
3203:Japan
3198:Italy
3193:India
3168:China
3163:Chile
2139:(PDF)
2128:(PDF)
2012:(PDF)
2005:(PDF)
1766:(PDF)
1759:(PDF)
1736:(PDF)
1611:(PDF)
1195:S2CID
1161:arXiv
1067:Waste
1026:Price
1017:, at
953:Japan
846:China
438:, or
421:to 1
395:laser
379:LPCVD
356:LPCVD
91:mc-Si
89:, or
77:, or
2334:2015
2308:2017
2278:2018
2239:2018
2175:2018
2147:2023
2100:2018
2075:help
2058:2018
2033:link
1952:help
1935:2018
1910:2018
1843:2018
1817:2018
1792:2018
1665:ISBN
1622:2018
1493:ISBN
1466:ISBN
1412:ISBN
1393:2018
1352:2018
1287:2018
1257:2015
1187:PMID
960:MEMC
900:12%
884:14%
868:17%
852:22%
627:and
577:/k.
544:(g)
509:(SiH
447:VLSI
436:gold
352:CMOS
350:and
291:any
289:cite
260:and
190:and
105:and
3308:REC
1708:doi
1318:doi
1306:255
1179:doi
1157:789
1055:or
916:7%
906:REC
894:USA
874:OCI
546:CVD
522:SiH
505:of
408:by
362:or
302:by
3401::
3243:US
2354:.
2324:.
2294:.
2269:.
2230:.
2201:.
2166:.
2155:^
2130:.
2091:.
2070::
2068:}}
2064:{{
2049:.
2029:}}
2025:{{
1947::
1945:}}
1941:{{
1926:.
1900:.
1833:.
1808:.
1783:.
1747:^
1738:,
1719:^
1706:,
1696:51
1694:,
1678:^
1613:.
1515:.
1448:^
1384:.
1338:.
1316:.
1304:.
1273:.
1236:^
1215:.
1193:.
1185:.
1177:.
1169:.
1155:.
664:μm
470:.
442:.
434:,
366:.
256:,
194:.
163:.
155:,
109:.
85:,
62::
2386:e
2379:t
2372:v
2358:.
2336:.
2310:.
2280:.
2241:.
2177:.
2149:.
2102:.
2077:)
2060:.
2035:)
2021:.
1990:.
1954:)
1937:.
1912:.
1845:.
1819:.
1794:.
1710::
1702::
1624:.
1526:.
1501:.
1474:.
1420:.
1395:.
1354:.
1324:.
1320::
1312::
1289:.
1259:.
1230:.
1201:.
1181::
1173::
1163::
962:/
955:.
747:)
743:(
737:.
621:3
601:.
575:a
567:a
559:a
539:2
534:H
527:4
511:4
412:)
329:)
323:(
318:)
314:(
310:.
296:.
46:)
42:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
