1586:. Timminco. Retrieved on 2011-04-02. Note regarding Timminco: On May 14, 2009, Timminco Limited, Photon Consulting LLC, Rogol Energy Consulting LLC, Michael Rogol, Dr. Heinz Schimmelbusch, Robert Dietrich, René Boisvert, Arthur R. Spector, Jack L. Messman, John C. Fox, Michael D. Winfield, Mickey P. Yakisch and John P. Walsh were named as defendants in a lawsuit. The claim was for $ 500 million plus punitive damages. The Superior Court of Justice decision in favor of the defendants is available here: https://www.canlii.org/en/on/onsc/doc/2016/2016onsc3124/2016onsc3124.html An appeal to the Ontario Superior Court is available at the following link. The Court again found in favor of the defendants and awarded costs accordingly. https://www.canlii.org/en/on/onca/doc/2017/2017onca369/2017onca369.html An appeal to the Canadian Supreme Court was made. The final decision by the Canadian Supreme Court fully vindicating the defendants' position with partial costs awarded to the defendants. The final decision is available here: https://scc-csc.lexum.com/scc-csc/scc-l-csc-a/en/16947/1/document.do A summary of this case is available here: https://www.canadianunderwriter.ca/insurance/court-shuts-door-case-may-muddied-water-limitation-periods-1004126598/
580:) for polysilicon deposition is about 1.7 eV. Based on this equation, the rate of polysilicon deposition increases as the deposition temperature increases. There will be a minimum temperature, however, wherein the rate of deposition becomes faster than the rate at which unreacted silane arrives at the surface. Beyond this temperature, the deposition rate can no longer increase with temperature, since it is now being hampered by lack of silane from which the polysilicon will be generated. Such a reaction is then said to be "mass-transport-limited". When a polysilicon deposition process becomes mass-transport-limited, the reaction rate becomes dependent primarily on reactant concentration, reactor geometry, and gas flow.
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polysilicon. Buyers will accept down payment and long-term agreements to acquire a large enough volume of polysilicon. On the contrary, spot prices will be below contract prices once the solar PV installation is in a down trend. In late 2010, booming installation brought up the spot prices of polysilicon. In the first half of 2011, prices of polysilicon kept strong owing to the FIT policies of Italy. The solar PV price survey and market research firm, PVinsights, reported that the prices of polysilicon might be dragged down by lack of installation in the second half of 2011. As recently as 2008 prices were over $ 400/kg spiking from levels around $ 200/kg, while seen falling to $ 15/kg in 2013.
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are attractive because of a low cost of production even with reduced efficiency. Higher efficiency devices yield modules that occupy less space and are more compact; however, the 5–10% efficiency of typical CSG devices still makes them attractive for installation in large central-service stations, such as a power station. The issue of efficiency versus cost is a value decision of whether one requires an "energy dense" solar cell or sufficient area is available for the installation of less expensive alternatives. For instance, a solar cell used for power generation in a remote location might require a more highly efficient solar cell than one used for low-power applications, such as solar
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inside a low-pressure reactor either by changing the pumping speed or changing the inlet gas flow into the reactor. If the inlet gas is composed of both silane and nitrogen, the inlet gas flow, and hence the reactor pressure, may be varied either by changing the nitrogen flow at constant silane flow, or changing both the nitrogen and silane flow to change the total gas flow while keeping the gas ratio constant. Recent investigations have shown that e-beam evaporation, followed by SPC (if needed) can be a cost-effective and faster alternative for producing solar-grade poly-Si thin films. Modules produced by such method are shown to have a photovoltaic efficiency of ~6%.
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the
Siemens process. GT Solar claims a new Siemens process can produce at $ 27/kg and may reach $ 20/kg in 5 years. GCL-Poly expects production costs to be $ 20/kg by end of 2011. Elkem Solar estimates their UMG costs to be $ 25/kg, with a capacity of 6,000 tonnes by the end of 2010. Calisolar expects UMG technology to produce at $ 12/kg in 5 years with boron at 0.3 ppm and phosphorus at 0.6 ppm. At $ 50/kg and 7.5 g/W, module manufacturers spend $ 0.37/W for the polysilicon. For comparison, if a CdTe manufacturer pays spot price for tellurium ($ 420/kg in April 2010) and has a 3
702:; however, it has potential for large-scale photovoltaic devices. The abundance, stability, and low toxicity of silicon, combined with the low cost of polysilicon relative to single crystals makes this variety of material attractive for photovoltaic production. Grain size has been shown to have an effect on the efficiency of polycrystalline solar cells. Solar cell efficiency increases with grain size. This effect is due to reduced recombination in the solar cell. Recombination, which is a limiting factor for current in a solar cell, occurs more prevalently at grain boundaries, see figure 1.
254:. Polycrystalline silicon (or semi-crystalline silicon, polysilicon, poly-Si, or simply "poly") is a material consisting of multiple small silicon crystals. Polycrystalline cells can be recognized by a visible grain, a "metal flake effect". Semiconductor grade (also solar grade) polycrystalline silicon is converted to single-crystal silicon – meaning that the randomly associated crystallites of silicon in polycrystalline silicon are converted to a large single crystal. Single-crystal silicon is used to manufacture most Si-based
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669:. UMG-Si greatly reduces impurities in a variety of ways that require less equipment and energy than the Siemens process. It is about 99% pure which is three or more orders of magnitude less pure and about 10 times less expensive than polysilicon ($ 1.70 to $ 3.20 per kg from 2005 to 2008 compared to $ 40 to $ 400 per kg for polysilicon). It has the potential to provide nearly-as-good solar cell efficiency at 1/5 the capital expenditure, half the energy requirements, and less than $ 15/kg.
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147:(ppb), while polycrystalline solar grade silicon (SoG-Si) is generally less pure. In the 2010's, production shifted toward China, with China-based companies accounting for seven of the top ten producers and around 90% of total worldwide production capacity of approximately 1,400,000 MT. German, US and South Korea companies account for the remainder.
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thickness uniformities of ±5%. Critical process variables for polysilicon deposition include temperature, pressure, silane concentration, and dopant concentration. Wafer spacing and load size have been shown to have only minor effects on the deposition process. The rate of polysilicon deposition increases rapidly with temperature, since it follows
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depend on the polycrystalline grain size, which is a physical parameter that the material scientist can manipulate. Through the methods of crystallization to form polycrystalline silicon, an engineer can control the size of the polycrystalline grains which will vary the physical properties of the material.
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processes must be surface-reaction-limited because they result in excellent thickness uniformity and step coverage. A plot of the logarithm of the deposition rate against the reciprocal of the absolute temperature in the surface-reaction-limited region results in a straight line whose slope is equal to –qE
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But as established producers (mentioned below) expand their capacities, additional newcomers – many from Asia – are moving into the market. Even long-time players in the field have recently had difficulties expanding plant production. It is yet unclear which companies will be able to produce at costs
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A primary concern in the photovoltaics industry is cell efficiency. However, sufficient cost savings from cell manufacturing can be suitable to offset reduced efficiency in the field, such as the use of larger solar cell arrays compared with more compact/higher efficiency designs. Designs such as CSG
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manufacturing. One of its primary uses is as gate electrode material for MOS devices. A polysilicon gate's electrical conductivity may be increased by depositing a metal (such as tungsten) or a metal silicide (such as tungsten silicide) over the gate. Polysilicon may also be employed as a resistor, a
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The resistivity, mobility, and free-carrier concentration in monocrystalline silicon vary with doping concentration of the single crystal silicon. Whereas the doping of polycrystalline silicon does have an effect on the resistivity, mobility, and free-carrier concentration, these properties strongly
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A picture of grain boundaries for polysilicon. Each grain is crystalline over the width of the grain. The grain boundary separates the grains where the adjoining grain is at a different orientation from its neighbor. The grain boundary separates regions of different crystal structure thus serving as
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In 2008 several companies were touting the potential of UMG-Si, but in 2010 the credit crisis greatly lowered the cost of polysilicon and several UMG-Si producers put plans on hold. The
Siemens process will remain the dominant form of production for years to come due to more efficiently implementing
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Polysilicon doping, if needed, is also done during the deposition process, usually by adding phosphine, arsine, or diborane. Adding phosphine or arsine results in slower deposition, while adding diborane increases the deposition rate. The deposition thickness uniformity usually degrades when dopants
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When the rate at which polysilicon deposition occurs is slower than the rate at which unreacted silane arrives, then it is said to be surface-reaction-limited. A deposition process that is surface-reaction-limited is primarily dependent on reactant concentration and reaction temperature. Deposition
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The deposition of polycrystalline silicon on plastic substrates is motivated by the desire to be able to manufacture digital displays on flexible screens. Therefore, a relatively new technique called laser crystallization has been devised to crystallize a precursor amorphous silicon (a-Si) material
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Prices of polysilicon are often divided into two categories, contract and spot prices, and higher purity commands higher prices. While in booming installation times, price rally occurs in polysilicon. Not only spot prices surpass contract prices in the market; but it is also hard to acquire enough
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in supply of polysilicon feedstock and was forced to idle about a quarter of its cell and module manufacturing capacity in 2007. Only twelve factories were known to produce solar-grade polysilicon in 2008; however, by 2013 the number increased to over 100 manufacturers. Monocrystalline silicon is
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At reduced pressure levels for VLSI manufacturing, polysilicon deposition rate below 575 °C is too slow to be practical. Above 650 °C, poor deposition uniformity and excessive roughness will be encountered due to unwanted gas-phase reactions and silane depletion. Pressure can be varied
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Asia predicts 328,000 tons production with only 196,000 tons of demand, with spot prices expected to fall 56%. While good for renewable energy prospects, the subsequent drop in price could be brutal for manufacturers. As of late 2012, SolarIndustryMag reports a capacity of 385,000 tons will be
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The use of polycrystalline silicon in the production of solar cells requires less material and therefore provides higher profits and increased manufacturing throughput. Polycrystalline silicon does not need to be deposited on a silicon wafer to form a solar cell, rather it can be deposited on
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Polysilicon layers can be deposited using 100% silane at a pressure of 25–130 Pa (0.19–0.98 Torr) or with 20–30% silane (diluted in nitrogen) at the same total pressure. Both of these processes can deposit polysilicon on 10–200 wafers per run, at a rate of 10–20 nm/min and with
823:, in July 2011, the total polysilicon production in 2010 was 209,000 tons. First-tier suppliers account for 64% of the market while China-based polysilicon firms have 30% of market share. The total production is likely to increase 37.4% to 281,000 tons by end of 2011. For 2012,
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Q-Cells, Canadian Solar, and
Calisolar have used Timminco UMG. Timminco is able to produce UMG-Si with 0.5 ppm boron for $ 21/kg but were sued by shareholders because they had expected $ 10/kg. RSI and Dow Corning have also been in litigation over UMG-Si technology.
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other-cheaper materials, thus reducing the cost. Not requiring a silicon wafer alleviates the silicon shortages occasionally faced by the microelectronics industry. An example of not using a silicon wafer is crystalline silicon on glass (CSG) materials
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Méndez, Laura; Forniés, Eduardo; Garrain, Daniel; Pérez Vázquez, Antonio; Souto, Alejandro; Vlasenko, Timur (1 October 2021). "Upgraded metallurgical grade silicon and polysilicon for solar electricity production: A comparative life cycle assessment".
143:. The photovoltaic industry also produces upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon (UMG-Si), using metallurgical instead of chemical purification processes. When produced for the electronics industry, polysilicon contains impurity levels of less than one
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The molten silicon will then crystallize as it cools. By precisely controlling the temperature gradients, researchers have been able to grow very large grains, of up to hundreds of micrometers in size in the extreme case, although grain sizes of 10
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are also common. In order to create devices on polysilicon over large-areas, however, a crystal grain size smaller than the device feature size is needed for homogeneity of the devices. Another method to produce poly-Si at low temperatures is
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Wacker's projected its total hyperpure-polysilicon production capacity to increase to 67,000 metric tons by 2014, due to its new polysilicon-production facility in
Cleveland, Tennessee (US) with an annual capacity of 15,000 metric tons.
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characteristics. When polysilicon and a-Si devices are used in the same process, this is called hybrid processing. A complete polysilicon active layer process is also used in some cases where a small pixel size is required, such as in
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in certain processing regimes, these processes still require relatively high temperatures of at least 300 °C. These temperatures make deposition of polysilicon possible for glass substrates but not for plastic substrates.
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industry, starting from poly rods that are two to three meters in length. In the microelectronics industry (semiconductor industry), poly is used at both the macro and micro scales. Single crystals are grown using the
189:. While polysilicon and multisilicon are often used as synonyms, multicrystalline usually refers to crystals larger than one millimetre. Multicrystalline solar cells are the most common type of solar cells in the
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The
Siemens process is the most commonly used method of polysilicon production, especially for electronics, with close to 75% of the world's production using this process as of 2005.
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and light-induced stress. This allows more complex, high-speed circuitry to be created on the glass substrate along with the a-Si devices, which are still needed for their low-
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a center for recombination. 'd' here is a characteristic grain size, which should be maximized for maximum solar cell efficiency. Typical values of d are about 1 micrometre.
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The polysilicon feedstock – large rods, usually broken into chunks of specific sizes and packaged in clean rooms before shipment – is directly cast into multicrystalline
225:, the crystalline framework is homogeneous, which can be recognized by an even external colouring. The entire sample is one single, continuous and unbroken crystal as
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499:. For the first time, in 2006, over half of the world's supply of polysilicon was being used by PV manufacturers. The solar industry was severely hindered by a
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thickness, their cost would be 10 times less, $ 0.037/Watt. At 0.1 g/W and $ 31/ozt for silver, polysilicon solar producers spend $ 0.10/W on silver.
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where an amorphous-Si thin film can be crystallized at temperatures as low as 150 °C if annealed while in contact of another metal film such as
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higher priced and a more efficient semiconductor than polycrystalline as it has undergone additional recrystallization via the
Czochralski method.
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Polycrystalline silicon is the key feedstock in the crystalline silicon based photovoltaic industry and used for the production of conventional
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conductor, or as an ohmic contact for shallow junctions, with the desired electrical conductivity attained by doping the polysilicon material.
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Ghosh, Amal K.; Fishman, Charles & Feng, Tom (1980), "Theory of the electrical and photovoltaic properties of polycrystalline silicon",
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Due to the rapid growth in manufacturing in China and the lack of regulatory controls, there have been reports of the dumping of waste
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Polysilicon deposition, or the process of depositing a layer of polycrystalline silicon on a semiconductor wafer, is achieved by the
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of as much as 57 percent on polysilicon shipped from these two countries in order to stop the product from being sold below cost.
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C.Becker, Microstructure and photovoltaic performance of polycrystalline silicon thin films on temperature-stable ZnO:Al layers.
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pulses are used to heat the deposited a-Si material to above the melting point of silicon, without melting the entire substrate.
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Polysilicon production by country in 2013 (company head-quarter, not location of facility). World total of 227,000 tonnes.
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and consume most of the worldwide produced polysilicon. About 5 tons of polysilicon is required to manufacture one 1
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Is
Upgraded Metallurgical Grade Silicon The Only Hope For Manufacturers of Photovoltaic Solar Cells? – GLG News
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processing technologies. For these technologies it is deposited using low-pressure chemical-vapour deposition (
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Kolic, Y (1995). "Electron powder ribbon polycrystalline silicon plates used for porous layer fabrication".
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Currently, polysilicon is commonly used for the conducting gate materials in semiconductor devices such as
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of the polysilicon can be orders of magnitude larger and the material also shows greater stability under
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Price cut of solar PV supply chain spreads and the price of poly-silicon might be dragged down by others
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241:). In contrast, in an amorphous structure the order in atomic positions is limited to short range.
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1988:"TOKUYAMA:About Us:Business Activities:Specialty Products Business Division:Electronic Materials"
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devices. Polycrystalline silicon can be as much as 99.9999% pure. Ultra-pure poly is used in the
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http://www.bernreuter.com/fileadmin/user_upload/samples/SWE_6-2010_Solar_Silicon_Conference.pdf
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1619:"Personal finance news, articles, tips and advice on managing your money - myfinances.co.uk"
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47:. The reason given is: industry and production figures, in particular, are very out of date.
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1909:"EANS-News: Wacker Chemie AG / POLYSILICON FACILITIES START UP AT WACKER'SBURGHAUSEN SITE"
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At the component level, polysilicon has long been used as the conducting gate material in
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into silicon at high temperatures. An emerging, alternative process of refinement uses a
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
392:, plasma-enhanced chemical vapour deposition (PECVD), or solid-phase crystallization of
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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
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Advances in Solar Energy: An Annual Review of
Research and Development, Volume 1 · 1982
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on a plastic substrate without melting or damaging the plastic. Short, high-intensity
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1842:"Solar Polysilicon Manufacturers Cranking Out Supply Despite Losses - Solar Industry"
1421:(2nd ed.). Chichester, West Sussex, England: John Wiley & Sons. p. 27.
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low enough to be profitable after the steep drop in spot-prices of the last months.
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are rare in nature and can also be difficult to produce in the laboratory (see also
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1744:"CSG-2: Expanding the production of a new polycrystalline silicon PV technology"
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One major difference between polysilicon and a-Si is that the mobility of the
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1648:, Companies, Technologies, Cost, Capacities, Global Perspectives through 2012
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2100:"Samsung Fine Chemicals And MEMC Sign Polysilicon Joint Venture Agreement"
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is being produced as a low cost alternative to polysilicon created by the
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2363:"Sand Trap: Will the silicon shortage stunt the solar industry's growth?"
194:
1767:"Solar Insight, Research note – PV production 2013: an all Asian-affair"
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Market
Realist cites World production capacity at 300,000 tons in 2013.
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Comparing polycrystalline (left) to monocrystalline (right) solar cells
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The polysilicon manufacturing market is growing rapidly. According to
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Proceedings of the 21st
European Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conference
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or submitted to a recrystallization process to grow single crystal
2210:"Beijing Lier Plans 1.4 Billion Yuan Polysilicon Project in Henan"
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197:(MW) of conventional solar modules. Polysilicon is distinct from
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More recently, intrinsic and doped polysilicon is being used in
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Largest polysilicon producers in 2013 (market-share in %)
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Commerzbank Equity Research, Robert Schramm, Lauren Licuanan:
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29:
1772:. Bloomberg New Energy Finance. 16 April 2014. pp. 2–3.
369:) reactors at high temperatures and is usually heavily doped
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1574:. GUNTHER Portfolio (2010-04-29). Retrieved on 2011-04-02.
1562:. GUNTHER Portfolio (2010-04-29). Retrieved on 2011-04-02.
1499:
High-Efficient Low-Cost Photovoltaics: Recent Developments
1016:, (2011: 4.3 kt, under construction 3 kt), China
962:(2009: 8 kt, Jan 2013: 11 kt, 2015: 31 kt)
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BNEF estimated actual production for 2013 at 227,000 tons
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impurities. The process is relatively expensive and slow.
2303:"China Imposes Duties on Polysilicon From U.S., S. Korea"
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Solarserver | Das Internetportal für erneuerbare Energien
1976:
Solarserver | Das Internetportal für erneuerbare Energien
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Solarserver | Das Internetportal für erneuerbare Energien
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1817:"Polysilicon surplus seen to erode prices, says analyst"
1475:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 153–.
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or pocket calculators, or near established power grids.
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2167:
1502:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 47–.
248:
phases are composed of a number of smaller crystals or
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Dow Corning stopped UMG Solar Grade Silicon Production
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Dow Corning stopped UMG Solar Grade Silicon Production
604:"Siemens process" redirects here. For other uses, see
2058:"404 - Page Not Found : SunEdison Semiconductor"
619:
Schematic diagram of the traditional Siemens and the
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Gulf Times Ras Laffan to get $ 1bn polysilicon plant
1550:. Glgroup.com (2008-05-20). Retrieved on 2011-04-02.
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Solar Grade Litigation: Dow Corning vs. RSI Silicon
524:) at high temperatures of 580 to 650 °C. This
1058:The Chinese government accused United States and
815:Chemical processing at a P.S.T. polysilicon plant
415:Polycrystalline silicon (used to produce silicon
2333:"Solar Energy Firms Leave Waste Behind in China"
1419:An Introduction To Semiconductor Microtechnology
634:and then to silicon in a reactor, thus removing
158:. The boules are then sliced into thin silicon
127:by a chemical purification process, called the
1032:, announced an 8 t facility for start in 2013.
3283:List of countries by photovoltaics production
2960:Solar-Powered Aircraft Developments Solar One
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1660:. GUNTHER Portfolio. Retrieved on 2011-04-02.
1256:"China: The new silicon valley – Polysilicon"
572:/kT) where q is electron charge and k is the
568:behavior, that is deposition rate = A·exp(–qE
8:
1670:Streetman, B. G. & Banerjee, S. (2000),
978:(2010: 8 kt, Jan 2013: 18 kt) USA.
606:Chemical vapor deposition § Polysilicon
2765:Photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collector
2278:"Login to DIGITIMES archive & research"
1896:WACKER TENNESSEE Frequently Asked Questions
1792:"Login to DIGITIMES archive & research"
1674:(5th ed.), New Jersey: Prentice Hall,
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1020:Beijing Lier High-temperature Materials Co.
317:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
81:: polysilicon rod (top) and chunks (bottom)
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2638:Copper indium gallium selenide solar cells
2585:
2415:
2396:
2382:
2374:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1731:
1646:The Who's Who of Solar Silicon Production
1524:"Polysilicon Production: Siemens Process"
1175:
337:Learn how and when to remove this message
221:In single-crystal silicon, also known as
135:of volatile silicon compounds, and their
3100:Grid-connected photovoltaic power system
1696:
1694:
1692:
1690:
843:
353:A rod of semiconductor-grade polysilicon
3067:Victorian Model Solar Vehicle Challenge
3062:Hunt-Winston School Solar Car Challenge
1879:Citigroup Global Markets, Timothy Lam:
1153:
1070:. As a consequence, in 2013 it imposed
984:(2011: 3.2 kt, 2013: 14.5 kt)
2145:. Arizona State University. Nov 2010.
2074:
2042:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2035:
1951:
1868:Feedback form Solar Silicon Conference
112:, used as a raw material by the solar
2152:from the original on January 24, 2023
992:, (2011: 5 kt, Jan 2011), Russia
661:(UMG) silicon (also known as UMG-Si)
456:Polysilicon has many applications in
384:as the active and/or doped layers in
7:
3388:
653:Upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon
315:adding citations to reliable sources
3105:List of photovoltaic power stations
630:The process converts MG Si to SiHCl
3121:Rooftop photovoltaic power station
2524:Polycrystalline silicon (multi-Si)
2473:Third-generation photovoltaic cell
1779:from the original on 30 June 2014.
1045:History of polysilicon spot prices
388:. Although it can be deposited by
185:, giving the material its typical
25:
3126:Building-integrated photovoltaics
2623:Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
2529:Monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si)
2175:"Polysilicon - Solar Value Chain"
1417:Morgan, D. V.; Board, K. (1991).
1258:. 2 February 2015. Archived from
3387:
3376:
3375:
2498:Polarizing organic photovoltaics
1496:Vesselinka Petrova-Koch (2009).
1469:Karl W. Boer (6 December 2012).
1347:"Photovoltaics: Getting Cheaper"
1164:Science of the Total Environment
735:
287:
77:made of polycrystalline silicon
34:
2633:Cadmium telluride photovoltaics
2514:List of semiconductor materials
2361:Alan Joch (November 10, 2006).
1194:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147969
162:and used for the production of
2745:Incremental conductance method
2539:Copper indium gallium selenide
2488:Thermodynamic efficiency limit
2309:. 18 July 2013. Archived from
2276:DIGITIMES (23 November 2012).
1672:Solid State Electronic Devices
177:Polysilicon consists of small
1:
3052:South African Solar Challenge
596:are added during deposition.
439:metal-induced crystallization
123:Polysilicon is produced from
2699:Photovoltaic mounting system
1333:10.1016/0040-6090(94)05644-S
926:
910:
894:
878:
862:
2704:Maximum power point tracker
1378:A Shortage Hits Solar Power
1224:"POLYSILICON MANUFACTURERS"
1107:Metallurgical grade silicon
1005:Osaka Titanium Technologies
528:process releases hydrogen.
125:metallurgical grade silicon
27:High purity form of silicon
3447:
2955:Solar panels on spacecraft
2802:Solar-powered refrigerator
2760:Concentrated photovoltaics
2740:Perturb and observe method
2519:Crystalline silicon (c-Si)
1881:Asia Solar View – May 2010
1790:DIGITIMES (19 July 2011).
1703:Journal of Applied Physics
603:
576:. The activation energy (E
488:
209:Vs monocrystalline silicon
3371:
2653:Heterojunction solar cell
2628:Dye-sensitized solar cell
2468:Multi-junction solar cell
2458:Nominal power (Watt-peak)
2084:Cite uses generic title (
1961:Cite uses generic title (
1376:The Wall Street Journal,
954:(2010: 15 kt) China.
931:
846:
828:reached by yearend 2012.
793: South Korea (11.4%)
744:This section needs to be
647:chemical vapor deposition
485:Feedstock for PV industry
43:This article needs to be
3136:Strasskirchen Solar Park
3027:American Solar Challenge
2873:Solar-powered flashlight
2860:Solar-powered calculator
2855:Solar cell phone charger
2544:Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
2179:www.greenrhinoenergy.com
1026:Qatar Solar Technologies
131:. This process involves
90:multicrystalline silicon
3416:Group IV semiconductors
3042:Frisian Solar Challenge
3012:List of solar car teams
2770:Space-based solar power
2750:Constant voltage method
2679:Solar charge controller
2565:Timeline of solar cells
2560:Growth of photovoltaics
1112:Nanocrystalline silicon
223:monocrystalline silicon
199:monocrystalline silicon
86:Polycrystalline silicon
3032:Formula Sun Grand Prix
2864:Solar-powered fountain
2807:Solar air conditioning
2608:Quantum dot solar cell
2598:Nanocrystal solar cell
2493:Sun-free photovoltaics
2104:www.chemicalonline.com
1742:Basore, P. A. (2006),
1046:
997:Mitsubishi Polysilicon
816:
695:
685:Potential applications
624:
610:Siemens–Martin process
514:chemical decomposition
424:
382:large-area electronics
354:
218:
191:fast-growing PV market
82:
3431:Allotropes of silicon
3022:World Solar Challenge
2845:Photovoltaic keyboard
2775:PV system performance
2648:Perovskite solar cell
2446:Solar cell efficiency
1893:http://www.wacker.com
1447:DOI:10.1063/1.3240343
1084:silicon tetrachloride
1044:
901:Hemlock Semiconductor
814:
799: Germany (21.6%)
692:
621:fluidized bed reactor
618:
414:
386:thin-film transistors
352:
216:
172:semiconductor devices
141:fluidized bed reactor
69:
3292:Individual producers
3000:Solar vehicle racing
2689:Solar micro-inverter
2618:Plasmonic solar cell
2463:Thin-film solar cell
2431:Photoelectric effect
1846:solarindustrymag.com
1445:106, 084506 (2009),
1137:Thin-film solar cell
959:Tokuyama Corporation
623:purification process
311:improve this section
273:Bridgman–Stockbarger
244:Polycrystalline and
118:electronics industry
104:, is a high purity,
3426:Silicon solar cells
2888:Solar traffic light
2868:Solar-powered radio
2835:Solar-powered watch
2643:Printed solar panel
2478:Solar cell research
1715:1980JAP....51..446G
1528:Bernreuter Research
1325:1995TSF...255..159K
1228:BernReuter Research
1186:2021ScTEn.78947969M
1142:Wafer (electronics)
1117:Photovoltaic module
1008:(2008: 4.2 kt)
1000:(2008: 4.3 kt)
944:Other manufacturers
781: China (36.1%)
659:metallurgical-grade
491:Crystalline silicon
479:projection displays
421:Czochralski process
168:integrated circuits
2924:The Quiet Achiever
2883:Solar street light
2830:Solar-powered pump
2603:Organic solar cell
2483:Thermophotovoltaic
2451:Quantum efficiency
2243:www.pvinsights.com
1292:on 25 January 2009
1047:
817:
805: Japan (4.9%)
696:
625:
574:Boltzmann constant
508:Deposition methods
425:
355:
219:
187:metal flake effect
83:
3403:
3402:
3367:
3366:
3262:
3261:
3075:
3074:
2950:Mauro Solar Riser
2945:Electric aircraft
2878:Solar-powered fan
2783:
2782:
2674:Balance of system
2662:System components
2613:Hybrid solar cell
2573:
2572:
2534:Cadmium telluride
2282:www.digitimes.com
1796:www.digitimes.com
1509:978-3-540-79358-8
1482:978-1-4684-8992-7
1380:. April 29, 2006.
1357:on 2 January 2015
1102:Cadmium telluride
1097:Amorphous silicon
1064:predatory pricing
1062:manufacturers of
1022:(2012: 5 kt)
941:
940:
836:Leading producers
787: USA (25.9%)
765:
764:
394:amorphous silicon
347:
346:
339:
239:recrystallisation
203:amorphous silicon
64:
63:
16:(Redirected from
3438:
3391:
3390:
3379:
3378:
3273:
3114:Building-mounted
3092:PV power station
3088:
3017:Solar challenges
3007:Solar car racing
2975:Solar Challenger
2965:Gossamer Penguin
2792:
2586:
2436:Solar irradiance
2416:
2398:
2391:
2384:
2375:
2370:
2349:
2348:
2346:
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2110:
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2072:
2070:
2068:
2054:
2048:
2047:
2041:
2033:
2031:
2030:
2024:
2018:. Archived from
2017:
2009:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1999:
1990:. Archived from
1984:
1978:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1959:
1957:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1939:www.ldksolar.com
1931:
1925:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1905:
1899:
1890:
1884:
1877:
1871:
1870:. 28. April 2010
1864:
1858:
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1855:
1853:
1848:. 2 October 2012
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1723:10.1063/1.327342
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1405:
1403:
1397:www.enfsolar.com
1388:
1382:
1373:
1367:
1366:
1364:
1362:
1353:. Archived from
1343:
1337:
1336:
1313:Thin Solid Films
1308:
1302:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1288:. Archived from
1278:
1272:
1271:
1269:
1267:
1262:on 25 April 2015
1252:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1239:
1230:. Archived from
1220:
1214:
1213:
1179:
1158:
844:
804:
798:
792:
786:
780:
760:
757:
751:
739:
738:
731:
645:It is a type of
636:transition metal
554:
553:
552:
543:(g) → Si(s) + 2
542:
541:
540:
342:
335:
331:
328:
322:
291:
283:
231:grain boundaries
181:, also known as
145:part per billion
59:
56:
50:
38:
37:
30:
21:
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3441:
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3405:
3404:
3399:
3363:
3287:
3258:
3140:
3109:
3082:
3071:
2995:
2984:Water transport
2979:
2933:
2919:Solar golf cart
2892:
2850:Solar road stud
2779:
2733:System concepts
2728:
2657:
2580:
2569:
2548:
2502:
2407:
2402:
2367:Plenty Magazine
2360:
2357:
2352:
2342:
2340:
2337:Washington Post
2331:
2330:
2326:
2316:
2314:
2301:
2300:
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2203:
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2149:
2138:
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2118:
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2106:
2098:
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2083:
2073:
2066:
2064:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2034:
2028:
2026:
2022:
2015:
2013:"Archived copy"
2011:
2010:
2006:
1997:
1995:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1970:
1960:
1950:
1943:
1941:
1935:"404 Not Found"
1933:
1932:
1928:
1918:
1916:
1915:. 21 April 2010
1913:presseportal.de
1907:
1906:
1902:
1891:
1887:
1878:
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1861:
1851:
1849:
1840:
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1823:
1821:www.eetasia.com
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1351:nyecospaces.com
1345:
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1160:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1146:
1092:
1080:
1056:
1039:
1013:Daqo New Energy
982:Hankook Silicon
936:
853:GCL-Poly Energy
838:
809:
808:
807:
806:
802:
800:
796:
794:
790:
788:
784:
782:
778:
770:
761:
755:
752:
749:
740:
736:
729:
721:accent lighting
712:
687:
667:Siemens process
655:
633:
613:
602:
600:Siemens process
587:
579:
571:
551:
548:
547:
546:
544:
539:
536:
535:
534:
532:
523:
510:
493:
487:
466:charge carriers
343:
332:
326:
323:
308:
292:
281:
256:microelectronic
246:paracrystalline
235:single crystals
211:
129:Siemens process
106:polycrystalline
60:
54:
51:
48:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Siemens process
15:
12:
11:
5:
3444:
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3341:
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3331:
3329:Solar Frontier
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3304:Hanwha Q CELLS
3301:
3295:
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3249:United Kingdom
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3201:
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3186:
3184:Czech Republic
3181:
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2997:
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2987:
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2972:
2970:Qinetiq Zephyr
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2897:Land transport
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2870:
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2822:Solar backpack
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2724:Synchronverter
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2714:Solar shingles
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2696:
2691:
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2684:Solar inverter
2681:
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2453:
2443:
2441:Solar constant
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2428:
2422:
2420:
2413:
2409:
2408:
2403:
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2355:External links
2353:
2351:
2350:
2339:. 9 March 2008
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2938:Air transport
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2914:Solar roadway
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2817:Solar charger
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2709:Solar tracker
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2426:Photovoltaics
2424:
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2405:Photovoltaics
2399:
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2313:on 2017-03-14
2312:
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2216:. 2011-07-12.
2215:
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2202:
2199:
2195:
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2164:
2148:
2144:
2137:
2136:"Nitol Solar"
2131:
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2120:
2117:
2105:
2101:
2095:
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2078:
2063:
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2025:on 2010-12-15
2021:
2014:
2008:
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1994:on 2011-04-06
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1681:0-13-025538-6
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1584:Press Release
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1286:solarworld.de
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1234:on 2024-05-29
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1122:Photovoltaics
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869:Wacker Chemie
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296:This section
294:
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266:
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260:semiconductor
257:
253:
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247:
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227:its structure
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138:
137:decomposition
134:
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111:
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103:
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91:
87:
80:
76:
72:
68:
58:
46:
41:
32:
31:
19:
3393:
3380:
3359:Yingli Solar
3339:Sungen Solar
3314:Motech Solar
3268:PV companies
3229:South Africa
3047:Solar Splash
2788:Applications
2719:Solar mirror
2579:Photovoltaic
2523:
2366:
2341:. Retrieved
2336:
2327:
2315:. Retrieved
2311:the original
2306:
2297:
2285:. Retrieved
2281:
2271:
2263:
2258:
2246:. Retrieved
2242:
2239:"PVinsights"
2233:
2222:
2213:
2204:
2194:
2182:. Retrieved
2178:
2154:. Retrieved
2142:
2130:
2119:
2107:. Retrieved
2103:
2094:
2065:. Retrieved
2062:www.memc.com
2061:
2052:
2027:. Retrieved
2020:the original
2007:
1996:. Retrieved
1992:the original
1982:
1971:
1942:. Retrieved
1938:
1929:
1917:. Retrieved
1912:
1903:
1888:
1880:
1875:
1867:
1862:
1850:. Retrieved
1845:
1836:
1824:. Retrieved
1820:
1811:
1799:. Retrieved
1795:
1785:
1750:
1706:
1702:
1671:
1665:
1653:
1641:
1629:. Retrieved
1625:
1613:
1602:
1591:
1579:
1567:
1555:
1543:
1532:. Retrieved
1530:. 2020-06-29
1527:
1518:
1498:
1491:
1471:
1453:
1442:
1437:
1418:
1412:
1400:. Retrieved
1396:
1386:
1377:
1371:
1359:. Retrieved
1355:the original
1350:
1341:
1319:(1–2): 159.
1316:
1312:
1306:
1294:. Retrieved
1290:the original
1285:
1276:
1264:. Retrieved
1260:the original
1236:. Retrieved
1232:the original
1227:
1218:
1167:
1163:
1156:
1081:
1060:South Korean
1057:
1048:
1025:
1019:
1011:
1003:
995:
987:
981:
969:
957:
949:
932:
839:
830:
818:
774:
753:
745:
717:
713:
704:
697:
679:
671:
656:
644:
629:
626:
594:
590:
582:
562:
559:at 500-800°C
511:
494:
463:
455:
426:
417:monocrystals
399:
379:
356:
333:
327:January 2014
324:
309:Please help
297:
269:zone melting
251:crystallites
249:
243:
229:contains no
220:
183:crystallites
176:
149:
133:distillation
122:
114:photovoltaic
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
84:
78:
70:
52:
44:
3354:Trina Solar
3299:First Solar
3239:Switzerland
3219:Netherlands
3057:Tour de Sol
2755:Fill factor
2694:Solar cable
2669:Solar panel
2590:Solar cells
2156:January 23,
1626:My Finances
1391:Ltd., ENF.
1282:"Solar ABC"
1127:Polycrystal
989:Nitol Solar
924:21,500 tons
908:36,000 tons
892:42,000 tons
889:South Korea
876:52,000 tons
860:65,000 tons
710:Novel ideas
497:solar cells
403:ultraviolet
265:Czochralski
164:solar cells
94:polysilicon
75:solar cells
3410:Categories
3276:By country
3146:By country
3081:Generation
2991:Solar boat
2840:Solar Tuki
2826:Solar tree
2812:Solar lamp
2795:Appliances
2419:Technology
2029:2011-04-03
1998:2011-04-03
1709:(1): 446,
1534:2024-06-29
1428:0471924784
1238:2024-08-18
1177:2102.11571
1170:: 147969.
1149:References
1132:Solar cell
1030:Ras Laffan
756:April 2021
663:solar cell
434:micrometer
430:nanometers
279:Components
170:and other
79:Right side
3154:Australia
3131:Solar Ark
3037:Solar Cup
2929:Sunmobile
2909:Solar car
2507:Materials
2307:Bloomberg
2214:Bloomberg
1393:"ENF Ltd"
1210:232013656
1068:"dumping"
975:SunEdison
951:LDK Solar
821:Digitimes
657:Upgraded
649:process.
566:Arrhenius
526:pyrolysis
443:aluminium
298:does not
275:methods.
71:Left side
55:June 2024
3421:Crystals
3382:Category
3344:Sunpower
3334:Solyndra
3309:JA Solar
3244:Thailand
3164:Bulgaria
2412:Concepts
2317:14 March
2287:10 April
2248:10 April
2184:10 April
2147:Archived
2109:10 April
2077:cite web
2067:10 April
2038:cite web
1954:cite web
1944:10 April
1919:10 April
1852:10 April
1826:10 April
1801:10 April
1774:Archived
1631:10 April
1402:10 April
1361:10 April
1296:10 April
1266:30 April
1202:34082204
1090:See also
768:Capacity
501:shortage
233:. Large
195:megawatt
179:crystals
108:form of
3394:Commons
3349:Suntech
3224:Romania
3194:Germany
3159:Belgium
3083:systems
2553:History
2343:8 March
1711:Bibcode
1321:Bibcode
1182:Bibcode
1054:Dumping
933:Source:
873:Germany
825:EETimes
746:updated
700:MOSFETs
474:leakage
319:removed
304:sources
110:silicon
98:poly-Si
45:updated
3199:Greece
3189:France
3169:Canada
2581:system
2143:RusTec
1898:, 2015
1678:
1506:
1479:
1425:
1208:
1200:
921:Norway
803:
797:
791:
785:
779:
640:dopant
608:, and
518:silane
451:silver
375:p-type
371:n-type
359:MOSFET
160:wafers
156:boules
152:ingots
3324:Sharp
3234:Spain
3214:Japan
3209:Italy
3204:India
3179:China
3174:Chile
2150:(PDF)
2139:(PDF)
2023:(PDF)
2016:(PDF)
1777:(PDF)
1770:(PDF)
1747:(PDF)
1622:(PDF)
1206:S2CID
1172:arXiv
1078:Waste
1037:Price
1028:, at
964:Japan
857:China
449:, or
432:to 1
406:laser
390:LPCVD
367:LPCVD
102:mc-Si
100:, or
88:, or
2345:2015
2319:2017
2289:2018
2250:2018
2186:2018
2158:2023
2111:2018
2086:help
2069:2018
2044:link
1963:help
1946:2018
1921:2018
1854:2018
1828:2018
1803:2018
1676:ISBN
1633:2018
1504:ISBN
1477:ISBN
1423:ISBN
1404:2018
1363:2018
1298:2018
1268:2015
1198:PMID
971:MEMC
911:12%
895:14%
879:17%
863:22%
638:and
588:/k.
555:(g)
520:(SiH
458:VLSI
447:gold
363:CMOS
361:and
302:any
300:cite
271:and
201:and
116:and
3319:REC
1719:doi
1329:doi
1317:255
1190:doi
1168:789
1066:or
927:7%
917:REC
905:USA
885:OCI
557:CVD
533:SiH
516:of
419:by
373:or
313:by
3412::
3254:US
2365:.
2335:.
2305:.
2280:.
2241:.
2212:.
2177:.
2166:^
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2102:.
2081::
2079:}}
2075:{{
2060:.
2040:}}
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1956:}}
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1349:.
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1315:.
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1247:^
1226:.
1204:.
1196:.
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445:,
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2001:.
1965:)
1948:.
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1713::
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1331::
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545:H
538:4
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307:.
57:)
53:(
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
