659:, chain extending and introducing crosslink structures have been used to enhance the mechanical properties of PLA polymers. Annealing has been shown to significantly increase the degree of crystallinity of PLA polymers. In one study, increasing the duration of annealing directly affected thermal conductivity, density, and the glass transition temperature. Structural changes from this treatment further improved characteristics such as compressive strength and rigidity by nearly 80%. Processes such as this may boost PLA’s presence in the plastics market, as improving the mechanical properties will be important to replace current petroleum-derived plastics. It has also been demonstrated that the addition of a PLA-based, cross-linked nucleating agent improved the degree of crystallinity of the final PLA material. Alongside the use of the nucleating agent, annealing was shown to further improve the degree of crystallinity and, therefore, the toughness and
679:
increasing molecular weight is by introducing branches of the same polymer chain onto the backbone. Through characterization of a branched and linear grade PLA, branched PLA leads to faster crystallization. Furthermore, the branched PLA experiences much longer relaxation times at low shear rates, contributing to higher viscosity than the linear grade. This is presumed to be from high molecular weight regions within the branched PLA. However, the branched PLA was observed to shear thin more strongly, leading to a much lower viscosity at high shear rates. Understanding properties such as these are crucial when determining optimal processing conditions for materials, and that simple changes to the structure can alter its behavior dramatically.
941:
1011:
483:
113:
968:
782:
40:
4008:
180:
1159:
824:, housings for kitchen appliances and electronics such as laptops and handheld devices, and microwavable trays. (However, PLA is not suitable for microwavable containers because of its low glass transition temperature.) It is used for compost bags, food packaging and loose-fill packaging material that is cast, injection molded, or spun. In the form of a film, it shrinks upon heating, allowing it to be used in
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183:
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185:
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conditions (58 °C (136 °F)), PLA can partly (about half) decompose into water and carbon dioxide in 60 days, after which the remainder decomposes much more slowly, with the rate depending on the material's degree of crystallinity. Environments without the necessary conditions will see very
1184:
7 ("others") is applicable for PLA. In
Belgium, Galactic started the first pilot unit to chemically recycle PLA (Loopla). Unlike mechanical recycling, waste material can hold various contaminants. Polylactic acid can be chemically recycled to monomer by thermal depolymerization or hydrolysis. When
630:
at high stress levels. An effort to increase the elongation at break for PLA has been underway, especially to bolster PLA’s presence as a commodity plastic and improve the bioplastics landscape. For example, PLLA biocomposites have been of interest to improve these mechanical properties. By mixing
476:
is required to drive the reaction toward polycondensation. Molecular weights of 130 kDa can be obtained this way. Even higher molecular weights can be attained by carefully crystallizing the crude polymer from the melt. Carboxylic acid and alcohol end groups are thus concentrated in the amorphous
678:
Backbone architecture of PLA and its effect on crystallization kinetics has also been investigated, specifically to better understand the most suitable processing conditions for PLA. The molecular weight of polymer chains can play a significant role in the mechanical properties. One method of
467:
The direct condensation of lactic acid monomers can also be used to produce PLA. This process needs to be carried out at less than 200 °C; above that temperature, the entropically favored lactide monomer is generated. This reaction generates one equivalent of water for every condensation
874:
PLA can degrade into innocuous lactic acid, making it suitable for use as medical implants in the form of anchors, screws, plates, pins, rods, and mesh. Depending on the type used, it breaks down inside the body within 6 months to 2 years. This gradual degradation is desirable for a support
643:
compared to pure PLLA, indicating improved nucleation density and also contributing to an increase of elongation at break from 6% in pure PLLA to 140-190% in the biocomposites. Biocomposites such as these are of great interest for food packaging because of their improved strength and
607:-lactide). PDLA and PLLA form a highly regular stereocomplex with increased crystallinity. The temperature stability is maximised when a 1:1 blend is used, but even at lower concentrations of 3–10% of PDLA, there is still a substantial improvement. In the latter case, PDLA acts as a
1088:
The degradation rate is very slow in ambient temperatures. A 2017 study found that at 25 °C (77 °F) in seawater, PLA showed no loss of mass over a year, but the study did not measure breakdown of the polymer chains or water absorption. As a result, it degrades poorly in
568:("lac-OCA"), a five-membered cyclic compound has been used academically as well. This compound is more reactive than lactide, because its polymerization is driven by the loss of one equivalent of carbon dioxide per equivalent of lactic acid. Water is not a co-product.
983:
603:. The melting temperature of PLLA can be increased by 40–50 °C and its heat deflection temperature can be increased from approximately 60 °C to up to 190 °C by physically blending the polymer with PDLA (poly-
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988:
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during incineration. PLA can be combusted with no remaining residue. This and other results suggest that incineration is an environmentally friendly disposal of waste PLA. Upon being incinerated, PLA can release carbon
990:
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PLA-printed solids can be encased in plaster-like moulding materials, then burned out in a furnace, so that the resulting void can be filled with molten metal. This is known as "lost PLA casting", a type of
987:
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of the material. This example reveals the ability to utilize multiple of these processes to reinforce the mechanical properties of PLA. Polylactic acid can be processed like most thermoplastics into
472:) step. The condensation reaction is reversible and subject to equilibrium, so removal of water is required to generate high molecular weight species. Water removal by application of a vacuum or by
915:
PLLA is used to stimulate collagen synthesis in fibroblasts via foreign body reaction in the presence of macrophages. Macrophages act as a stimulant in secretion of cytokines and mediators such as
2083:
Urayama H, Kanamori T, Fukushima K, Kimura Y (1 September 2003). "Controlled crystal nucleation in the melt-crystallization of poly(l-lactide) and poly(l-lactide)/poly(d-lactide) stereocomplex".
686:
temperatures, making them undesirable because of low strength and melting point. A stereocomplex of PDLA and PLLA has a higher glass transition temperature, lending it more mechanical strength.
875:
structure, because it gradually transfers the load to the body (e.g., to the bone) as that area heals. The strength characteristics of PLA and PLLA implants are well documented.
866:
In the form of fibers, PLA is used for monofilament fishing line and netting for vegetation and weed prevention. It is used for sandbags, planting pots, binding tape and ropes .
1203:: PLA is biodegradable under industrial composting conditions, starting with chemical hydrolysis process, followed by microbial digestion, to ultimately degrade the PLA. Under
4339:
1010:
3624:
Pantani R, Sorrentino A (2013). "Influence of crystallinity on the biodegradation rate of injection-moulded poly(lactic acid) samples in controlled composting conditions".
2585:
Sato S, Gondo D, Wada T, Kanehashi S, Nagai K (2013). "Effects of
Various Liquid Organic Solvents on Solvent-Induced Crystallization of AMorphous Poly(lactic acid) Film".
3273:
Pavia FC, La
Carrubba V, Piccarolo S, Brucato V (August 2008). "Polymeric scaffolds prepared via thermally induced phase separation: tuning of structure and morphology".
2859:
Lam CX, Olkowski R, Swieszkowski W, Tan KC, Gibson I, Hutmacher DW (2008). "Mechanical and in vitro evaluations of composite PLDLLA/TCP scaffolds for bone engineering".
2550:
Giordano RA, Wu BM, Borland SW, Cima LG, Sachs EM, Cima MJ (1997). "Mechanical properties of dense polylactic acid structures fabricated by three dimensional printing".
1502:
Vert M, Chen J, Hellwich KH, Hodge P, Nakano T, Scholz C, et al. "Nomenclature and
Terminology for Linear Lactic Acid-Based Polymers (IUPAC Recommendations 2019)".
3706:
Chien YC, Liang C, Liu SH, Yang SH (July 2010). "Combustion kinetics and emission characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from polylactic acid combustion".
2153:
Urayama H, Ma C, Kimura Y (July 2003). "Mechanical and
Thermal Properties of Poly(L-lactide) Incorporating Various Inorganic Fillers with Particle and Whisker Shapes".
489:
Another method devised is by contacting lactic acid with a zeolite. This condensation reaction is a one-step process, and runs about 100 °C lower in temperature.
2188:
Trimaille T, Pichot C, Elaissari A, Fessi H, Briançon S, Delair T (1 November 2003). "Poly(d,l-lactic acid) nanoparticle preparation and colloidal characterization".
1956:
Farah S, Anderson DG, Langer R (December 2016). "Physical and mechanical properties of PLA, and their functions in widespread applications - A comprehensive review".
689:
The high surface energy of PLA results in good printability, making it widely used in 3D printing. The tensile strength for 3D printed PLA was previously determined.
186:
940:
615:
of PDLA is slower than for PLA due to the higher crystallinity of PDLA. The flexural modulus of PLA is higher than polystyrene and PLA has good heat sealability.
3597:
Iovino R, Zullo R, Rao MA, Cassar L, Gianfreda L (2008). "Biodegradation of poly(lactic acid)/starch/coir biocompositesunder controlled composting conditions".
1467:
Simmons H, Tiwary P, Colwell JE, Kontopoulou M (August 2019). "Improvements in the crystallinity and mechanical properties of PLA by nucleation and annealing".
1321:
986:
626:, the material is very brittle and results in less than 10% elongation at break. Furthermore, this limits PLA’s use in applications that require some level of
2118:
Tsuji H (1 January 1995). "Properties and morphologies of poly(l-lactide): 1. Annealing condition effects on properties and morphologies of poly(l-lactide)".
1093:
and household composts, but is effectively digested in hotter industrial composts, usually degrading best at temperatures of over 60 °C (140 °F).
919:, which stimulate the fibroblast to secrete collagen into the surrounding tissue. Therefore, PLLA has potential applications in the dermatological studies.
1597:
194:
3654:
552:
PLA which has been found to show crystallinity. The degree of crystallinity, and hence many important properties, is largely controlled by the ratio of
1735:
Jung YK, Kim TY, Park SJ, Lee SY (January 2010). "Metabolic engineering of
Escherichia coli for the production of polylactic acid and its copolymers".
2836:
Theoretical
Strength Comparison of Bioabsorbable (PLLA) Plates and Conventional Stainless Steel and Titanium Plates Used in Internal Fracture Fixation
2421:
Nunes RW, Martin JR, Johnson JF (March 1982). "Influence of molecular weight and molecular weight distribution on mechanical properties of polymers".
701:
is widely used because of its ease of access and low risk. It is useful in 3D printers for cleaning the extruder heads and for removing PLA supports.
396:
standard nomenclature, which is "poly(lactic acid)". The name "polylactic acid" is potentially ambiguous or confusing, because PLA is not a polyacid (
967:
4332:
1555:
Södergård A, Stolt M (2010). "3. Industrial
Production of High Molecular Weight Poly(Lactic Acid)". In Auras R, Lim LT, Selke SE, Tsuji H (eds.).
1058:: A complex phenomenon leading to the appearance of different compounds such as lighter molecules and linear and cyclic oligomers with different
385:, due to its low melting point, high strength, low thermal expansion, and good layer adhesion, although it possesses poor heat resistance unless
208:
1878:
Fiore GL, Jing F, Young Jr VG, Cramer CJ, Hillmyer MA (2010). "High Tg
Aliphatic Polyesters by the Polymerization of Spirolactide Derivatives".
3757:
Sun C, Wei S, Tan H, Huang Y, Zhang Y (October 2022). "Progress in upcycling polylactic acid waste as an alternative carbon source: A review".
3680:
4215:
3581:
2843:
2818:
1572:
1388:
854:
PLA is used for automotive parts such as floor mats, panels, and covers. Its heat resistance and durability are inferior to the widely used
4674:
4625:
4594:
2266:
Li BH, Yang MC (2006). "Improvement of thermal and mechanical properties of poly(L-lactic acid) with 4,4-methylene diphenyl diisocyanate".
1245:: the least preferable option is landfilling because PLA degrades very slowly in ambient temperatures, often as slowly as other plastics.
4748:
1097:
3032:
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3832:
595:
2.7–16 GPa. Heat-resistant PLA can withstand temperatures of 110 °C. The basic mechanical properties of PLA are between those of
201:
1231:
2309:
Di Y, Iannace S, Di Maio E, Nicolais L (4 November 2005). "Reactively
Modified Poly(lactic acid): Properties and Foam Processing".
1412:"Perspective on Polylactic Acid (PLA) based Sustainable Materials for Durable Applications: Focus on Toughness and Heat Resistance"
482:
2982:"Investigating the Effect of Biomaterials Such as Poly-(l-Lactic Acid) Particles on Collagen Synthesis In Vitro: Method Is Matter"
1163:
1104:(FBS) (a solution mimicking body fluid). After 30 days of submersion in DMEM+FBS, a PLLA scaffold lost about 20% of its weight.
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3857:
1255:
916:
848:
2769:
4738:
4610:
4589:
4486:
4240:
2456:
Dorgan JR, Lehermeier H, Mang M (January 2000). "Thermal and Rheological Properties of Commercial-Grade Poly(Lactic Acid)s".
1122:
878:
Thanks to its bio-compatibility and biodegradability, PLA found interest as a polymeric scaffold for drug delivery purposes.
561:
377:. Its widespread application has been hindered by numerous physical and processing shortcomings. PLA is the most widely used
2927:
Ray S, Adelnia H, Ta HT (September 2021). "Collagen and the effect of poly-l-lactic acid based materials on its synthesis".
3342:
386:
2641:
2399:
1816:
Södergård A, Stolt M (February 2002). "Properties of lactic acid based polymers and their correlation with composition".
228:
4664:
4584:
3564:
Gorrasi G, Pantani R (2017). "Hydrolysis and Biodegradation of Poly(lactic acid)". In Di Lorenzo ML, Androsch R (eds.).
3057:
Guo SZ, Yang X, Heuzey MC, Therriault D (2015). "3D printing of a multifunctional nanocomposite helical liquid sensor".
1443:
640:
636:
3681:"End of Life Options for Bioplastics – Recycling, Energy, Composting, Landfill - Bioplastics Guide | Bioplastics Guide"
2231:
Hu X, Xu HS, Li ZM (4 May 2007). "Morphology and Properties of Poly(L-Lactide) (PLLA) Filled with Hollow Glass Beads".
1781:
Lunt J (3 January 1998). "Large-scale production, properties and commercial applications of polylactic acid polymers".
1678:
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standards. However, certain isomers of PLA such as PLLA or PDLA have been shown to have varying rates of degradation.
851:. Such blends have good form stability and visual transparency, making them useful in low-end packaging applications.
345:
91:
2716:
1525:
Martin O, Avérous L (2001). "Poly(lactic acid): plasticization and properties of biodegradable multiphase systems".
1329:
1068:: UV radiation induces degradation. This is a factor mainly where PLA is exposed to sunlight in its applications in
847:
PLA has applications in engineering plastics, where the stereocomplex is blended with a rubber-like polymer such as
3922:
3897:
3550:
1351:
752:
600:
382:
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4697:
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4501:
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4353:
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3877:
1907:"Relationship between the Stereocomplex Crystallization Behavior and Mechanical Properties of PLLA/PDLA Blends"
449:
1589:
1208:
slow decomposition akin to that of non-bioplastics, not fully decomposing for hundreds or thousands of years.
955:
778:
also softens the surface of PLA, making it sticky without dissolving it, for welding to another PLA surface.
712:
can be used, but it has a distinct fish odor and is less safe than ethyl acetate. PLA is also soluble in hot
4753:
4743:
4091:
3982:
3967:
3947:
1186:
473:
453:
2048:
Nugroho P, Mitomo H, Yoshii F, Kume T (1 May 2001). "Degradation of poly(l-lactic acid) by γ-irradiation".
1185:
purified, the monomer can be used for the manufacturing of virgin PLA with no loss of original properties (
583:
PLA polymers range from amorphous glassy polymer to semi-crystalline and highly crystalline polymer with a
560:
enantiomers used, and to a lesser extent on the type of catalyst used. Apart from lactic acid and lactide,
4506:
4384:
4139:
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3825:
3247:
2681:
2493:"Recent Progress in Enhancing Poly(Lactic Acid) Stereocomplex Formation for Material Property Improvement"
2346:"Thermal Insulation and Mechanical Properties of Polylactic Acid (PLA) at Different Processing Conditions"
1273:
648:
572:
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region of the solid polymer, and so they can react. Molecular weights of 128–152 kDa are obtainable thus.
457:
3568:. Advances in Polymer Science. Vol. 279. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 119–151.
897:-lactide) (PLDLLA) with tricalcium phosphate (TCP) is used as PLDLLA/TCP scaffolds for bone engineering.
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4390:
4035:
1204:
1146:
1055:
1031:
498:
325:
858:(PP), but its properties are improved by means such as capping of the end groups to reduce hydrolysis.
1133:
432:
Several industrial routes afford usable (i.e. high molecular weight) PLA. Two main monomers are used:
4723:
4406:
4401:
4374:
4292:
3766:
3715:
3514:
3503:"Comparative property analysis of fused filament fabrication PLA using fresh and recycled feedstocks"
3354:
3201:
3113:
3066:
2504:
2004:
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521:-lactide). Progress in biotechnology has resulted in the development of commercial production of the
378:
267:
108:
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4536:
4297:
4220:
4134:
4086:
3684:
2659:
1993:"Increase the elongation at break of poly (lactic acid) composites for use in food packaging films"
1843:
Middleton JC, Tipton AJ (December 2000). "Synthetic biodegradable polymers as orthopedic devices".
1194:
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705:
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of the PLA, reducing its stereoregularity compared to the starting material (usually corn starch).
53:
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Dash A, Kabra S, Misra S, Hrishikeshan G, Singh RP, Patterson AE, et al. (1 November 2022).
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800:
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3102:"Properties of crosslinked polylactides (PLLA & PDLA) by radiation and its biodegradability"
592:
3401:"Chemical Degradation of End-of-Life Poly(lactic acid) into Methyl Lactate by a Zn(II) Complex"
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4647:
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3310:"Poly(lactic acid) Degradation into Methyl Lactate Catalyzed by a Well-Defined Zn(II) Complex"
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828:. In the form of fibers, it is used for monofilament fishing line and netting. In the form of
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63:
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1480:
1001:
829:
771:
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717:
623:
529:
397:
3149:"Poly(lactic acid)-Mass production, processing, industrial applications, and end of life"
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without producing chlorine-containing chemicals or heavy metals because it contains only
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3205:
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2008:
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3382:
3343:"Zinc Complexes for PLA Formation and Chemical Recycling: Towards a Circular Economy"
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Poly(Lactic Acid): Synthesis, Structures, Properties, Processing, and Applications
1557:
Poly(Lactic Acid): Synthesis, Structures, Properties, Processing, and Applications
1428:
1411:
3147:
Castro-Aguirre E, Iñiguez-Franco F, Samsudin H, Fang X, Auras R (December 2016).
2912:
2895:
1052:: The ester groups of the main chain are cleaved, thus reducing molecular weight.
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conditions but not in home compost, based off of the results of tests done using
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909:
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329:
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3502:
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2613:
1969:
1621:"GREEN CHEMISTRY. Shape-selective zeolite catalysis for bioplastics production"
708:, which is safer than ethyl acetate but is difficult to purchase commercially.
4531:
4159:
4149:
4013:
3778:
3399:
Román-Ramírez LA, McKeown P, Shah C, Abraham J, Jones MD, Wood J (June 2020).
2872:
2739:
2629:
2469:
2201:
1564:
1261:
1049:
1039:
922:
PLLA is under investigation as a scaffold that can generate a small amount of
833:
652:
631:
PLLA with poly (3-hydroxy butyrate) (PHB), cellulose nano crystal (CNC) and a
370:
74:
3417:
3326:
3309:
3133:
2517:
2477:
2442:
2330:
2287:
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2209:
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PLA has become a popular material due to it being economically produced from
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4366:
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3912:
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2563:
1674:
1644:
1177:
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Although the name "polylactic acid" is widely used, it does not comply with
263:
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3436:
3374:
3366:
3294:
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3214:
3174:
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3017:
2958:
2536:
2381:
2322:
2244:
2166:
2034:
1977:
1942:
1864:
1756:
1675:"Bioengineers succeed in producing plastic without the use of fossil fuels"
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polymer, but has a significantly lower maximum continuous use temperature.
17:
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1923:
1511:
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nature of lactic acid, several distinct forms of polylactide exist: poly-
445:
207:
200:
193:
166:
3341:
McKeown P, Román-Ramírez LA, Bates S, Wood J, Jones MD (November 2019).
3286:
2998:
2949:
2740:"Does Acetone also work for welding and smoothing PLA 3D printed parts?"
1362:
635:(TBC), a drastic improvement of mechanical properties were shown. Using
4669:
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4518:
4447:
4349:
4071:
3841:
3573:
3100:
Quynh TM, Mitomo H, Nagasawa N, Wada Y, Yoshii F, Tamada M (May 2007).
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The monomer is typically made from fermented plant starch such as from
349:
129:
2598:
2016:
1748:
3190:"Fate of So-Called Biodegradable Polymers in Seawater and Freshwater"
1619:
Dusselier M, Van Wouwe P, Dewaele A, Jacobs PA, Sels BF (July 2015).
1223:
1219:
837:
760:
571:
The direct biosynthesis of PLA, in a manner similar to production of
2279:
618:
Although PLA performs mechanically similar to PET for properties of
221:
Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their
1322:"Material Properties of Polylactic Acid (PLA), Agro Based Polymers"
794:
A corn form 3D printed using corn-derivative PLA (polylactic acid).
548:), which is amorphous. Use of stereospecific catalysts can lead to
3033:"Electric knee implants could help millions of arthritis patients"
946:
780:
742:
664:
393:
3394:
3392:
1180:: which can be either chemical or mechanical. Currently, the SPI
3907:
3308:
Román-Ramírez LA, Mckeown P, Jones MD, Wood J (4 January 2019).
2344:
Barkhad MS, Abu-Jdayil B, Mourad AH, Iqbal MZ (September 2020).
1289:
672:
344:
with loss of water (hence its name). It can also be prepared by
4321:
3814:
3551:"Chemical recycling closes the LOOPLA for cradle-to-cradle PLA"
2685:
1230:
atoms. Since it does not contain chlorine it does not produce
671:
processes) and film. PLA has similar mechanical properties to
1444:"Worldwide most used 3D printing materials, as of July 2018"
1107:
PLA samples of various molecular weights were degraded into
816:
PLA is used in a large variety of consumer products such as
96:
3810:
144:
150 to 160 °C (302 to 320 °F; 423 to 433 K)
3188:
Bagheri AR, Laforsch C, Greiner A, Agarwal S (July 2017).
1700:
Kricheldorf HR, Jonté JM (1983). "New polymer syntheses".
1381:"Bioplastics - Study: Market, Analysis, Trends - Ceresana"
1173:
Four possible end-of-life scenarios are the most common:
930:
effect that stimulates the growth of mechanically robust
369:. In 2021, PLA had the highest consumption volume of any
178:
3566:
Synthesis, Structure and Properties of Poly(lactic acid)
2655:
2491:
Luo F, Fortenberry A, Ren J, Qiang Z (20 August 2020).
732:
PLA objects can be fabricated by 3D printing, casting,
3708:
Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association
3450:
Tokiwa Y, Calabia BP, Ugwu CU, Aiba S (August 2009).
1111:(a green solvent) by using a metal complex catalyst.
4640:
4603:
4560:
4517:
4479:
4446:
4415:
4361:
4310:
4255:
4200:
4193:
4105:
4064:
4021:
3848:
3655:"How long does it take for plastics to biodegrade?"
2834:Nazre A, Lin S (1994). Harvey JP, Games RF (eds.).
1114:PLA can also be degraded by some bacteria, such as
440:. The most common route to PLA is the ring-opening
509:) is the product resulting from polymerization of
2801:Auras R, Lim LT, Selke SE, Tsuji H, eds. (2010).
1189:). End-of-life PLA can be chemically recycled to
1045:PLA is degraded abiotically by three mechanisms:
1030:PLA is generally considered to be compostable in
540:-lactides usually leads to the synthesis of poly-
3275:Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. Part A
2552:Journal of Biomaterials Science. Polymer Edition
362:, the cyclic dimer of the basic repeating unit.
3405:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
751:PLA is used as a feedstock material in desktop
697:PLA is soluble in a range of organic solvents.
611:, thereby increasing the crystallization rate.
182:
62:
2894:Bose S, Vahabzadeh S, Bandyopadhyay A (2013).
1462:
1460:
1000:using a conductive mixture of polylactide and
904:-lactic acid (PLLA) is the main ingredient in
460:. The metal-catalyzed reaction tends to cause
4333:
3826:
1352:"Polylactic Acid. Material Safety Data Sheet"
1096:Pure PLA foams are selectively hydrolysed in
908:, a facial volume enhancer used for treating
8:
3456:International Journal of Molecular Sciences
2896:"Bone tissue engineering using 3D printing"
1550:
1548:
1416:ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering
4340:
4326:
4318:
4197:
3833:
3819:
3811:
2709:"Dichloromethane Vapor Treating PLA parts"
2614:"A Literature Review of Poly(Lactic Acid)"
655:agents, forming composites with fibers or
639:(POM), the PLLA biocomposites had smaller
111:
31:
3526:
3477:
3467:
3426:
3416:
3325:
3223:
3213:
3164:
3007:
2997:
2948:
2911:
2526:
2516:
2371:
2361:
2024:
1932:
1922:
1427:
1410:Nagarajan V, Mohanty AK, Misra M (2016).
1316:
1314:
373:of the world, although it is still not a
2796:
2794:
2792:
2790:
2311:Macromolecular Materials and Engineering
2233:Macromolecular Materials and Engineering
2155:Macromolecular Materials and Engineering
1296:– biologically derived coating materials
1157:
1136:, can also degrade PLA. Enzymes such as
976:made of PLA. Peppermint tea is enclosed.
2774:Make: DIY Projects and Ideas for Makers
2618:Journal of Polymers and the Environment
2458:Journal of Polymers and the Environment
1590:"Cheaper, greener, route to bioplastic"
1310:
936:
107:
3923:Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, PETE)
1326:Matbase - Material Properties Database
1016:3D printed human skull with data from
3863:Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX, XLPE)
3858:Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
3649:
3647:
3638:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2013.01.005
3611:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.10.011
2750:from the original on 21 December 2021
2684:. MakerBot Industries. Archived from
1776:
1774:
1481:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2019.06.001
7:
4675:List of environmental health hazards
4595:List of environmental health hazards
2770:"Metal Casting with Your 3D Printer"
2719:from the original on 1 December 2017
1600:from the original on 1 December 2017
1391:from the original on 4 November 2017
3248:"Is PLA Biodegradable? – The Truth"
747:PLA filament for use in 3D printing
682:Racemic PLA and pure PLLA have low
4480:Miscellaneous additives incl. PHCs
2986:Journal of Functional Biomaterials
2838:. ASTM International. p. 53.
2587:Journal of Applied Polymer Science
2268:Polymers for Advanced Technologies
1098:Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium
740:, machining, and solvent welding.
25:
3626:Polymer Degradation and Stability
2662:from the original on 16 July 2011
2644:from the original on 26 May 2013.
2423:Polymer Engineering & Science
2396:"Compare Materials: PLA and PETE"
2050:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1783:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1469:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1258:(ABS) - also used for 3D printing
1072:, packaging containers and films.
840:, feminine hygiene products, and
667:(for example, using conventional
4012:
4006:
3898:Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
3873:Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
3599:Polymer Degradation and Stabilit
2861:Virtual and Physical Prototyping
2738:Sanladerer T (9 December 2016).
1737:Biotechnology and Bioengineering
1681:from the original on 6 June 2011
1009:
981:
966:
954:
939:
481:
38:
3878:Poly(ethyl methacrylate) (PEMA)
3126:10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2007.03.007
2402:from the original on 1 May 2011
1276:– biologically derived polymers
1256:Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
225:(at 25 °C , 100 kPa).
4241:Category:Plastics applications
3988:Styrene maleic anhydride (SMA)
3983:Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)
3968:Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
3452:"Biodegradability of plastics"
3153:Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
3031:Petersen M (18 January 2022).
1958:Advanced Drug Delivery Reviews
1905:Park HS, Hong CK (June 2021).
444:of lactide with various metal
1:
3948:Poly(p-phenylene oxide) (PPO)
2658:. Reprap Wiki. 4 April 2011.
2097:10.1016/S0032-3861(03)00583-4
2062:10.1016/S0141-3910(01)00030-1
1857:10.1016/S0142-9612(00)00101-0
1830:10.1016/S0079-6700(02)00012-6
1795:10.1016/S0141-3910(97)00148-1
1539:10.1016/S0032-3861(01)00086-6
1429:10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b00321
647:Several technologies such as
4665:Persistent organic pollutant
4626:Toxic Substances Control Act
4585:Persistent organic pollutant
3868:Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
3759:Chemical Engineering Journal
2913:10.1016/j.mattod.2013.11.017
2132:10.1016/0032-3861(95)93647-5
1588:Drury J (15 February 2016).
1076:The hydrolytic reaction is:
949:made of PLA-blend "bio-flex"
881:The composite blend of poly(
704:Other safe solvents include
637:polarized optical microscopy
4658:Great Pacific garbage patch
4580:Great Pacific garbage patch
3993:Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)
3908:Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
2190:Colloid and Polymer Science
1818:Progress in Polymer Science
1126:. A purified protease from
934:in multiple animal models.
436:, and the cyclic di-ester,
400:), but rather a polyester.
346:ring-opening polymerization
4770:
4749:Fused filament fabrication
4621:Japan Toxic Substances Law
4416:Miscellaneous plasticizers
3728:10.3155/1047-3289.60.7.849
3507:Materials Research Express
3166:10.1016/j.addr.2016.03.010
2980:Ray S, Ta HT (July 2020).
1970:10.1016/j.addr.2016.06.012
1187:cradle-to-cradle recycling
753:fused filament fabrication
4695:
4616:European REACH regulation
4611:California Proposition 65
4354:polyhalogenated compounds
4231:High-performance plastics
4056:High-performance plastics
4004:
3779:10.1016/j.cej.2022.136881
2873:10.1080/17452750802551298
2707:Coysh A (12 April 2013).
2202:10.1007/s00396-003-0894-1
1565:10.1002/9780470649848.ch3
1300:Poly(methyl methacrylate)
1182:resin identification code
1100:(DMEM) supplemented with
219:
160:
123:
46:
37:
4041:Fibre-reinforced plastic
3978:Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
3528:10.1088/2053-1591/ac96d4
3418:10.1021/acs.iecr.0c01122
3327:10.1021/acscatal.8b04863
3106:European Polymer Journal
2518:10.3389/fchem.2020.00688
517:-lactide (also known as
270:) with backbone formula
4092:Biodegradable additives
2630:10.1023/A:1020200822435
2564:10.1163/156856297x00588
2470:10.1023/A:1010185910301
1991:El-Hadi AM (May 2017).
1645:10.1126/science.aaa7169
836:, disposable garments,
591:130-180 °C, and a
573:poly(hydroxyalkanoate)s
474:azeotropic distillation
324:, formally obtained by
4719:Biodegradable plastics
4507:Perfluorooctanoic acid
3943:Polyphenyl ether (PPE)
3938:Polyoxymethylene (POM)
3883:Polyacrylic acid (PAA)
3367:10.1002/cssc.201902755
3215:10.1002/gch2.201700048
2497:Frontiers in Chemistry
2323:10.1002/mame.200500115
2245:10.1002/mame.200600504
2167:10.1002/mame.200350004
1504:IUPAC Standards Online
1274:poly-3-hydroxybutyrate
1170:
961:Biodegradable PLA cups
795:
748:
189:
4739:Transparent materials
4687:Biodegradable plastic
4036:Thermosetting polymer
3933:Polylactic acid (PLA)
3803:"Your plastic pal" |
2811:10.1002/9780470649848
2435:10.1002/pen.760220402
2363:10.3390/polym12092091
1924:10.3390/polym13111851
1512:10.1515/iupac.92.0001
1205:industrial composting
1161:
1140:and most effectively
1056:Thermal decomposition
1032:industrial composting
793:
746:
575:, has been reported.
188:
27:Biodegradable polymer
4698:Identification codes
4298:Foam food containers
4221:Engineering plastics
3469:10.3390/ijms10093722
2929:Biomaterials Science
818:disposable tableware
528:Polymerization of a
268:polyhydroxyalkanoate
171:(fire diamond)
4537:Endocrine disruptor
4135:Compression molding
4087:Polymer stabilizers
3771:2022ChEnJ.44636881S
3720:2010JAWMA..60..849C
3687:on 25 February 2021
3553:. 20 November 2015.
3519:2022MRE.....9k5303D
3411:(24): 11149–11156.
3359:2019ChSCh..12.5233M
3287:10.1002/jbm.a.31621
3206:2017GloCh...100048B
3118:2007EurPJ..43.1779Q
3071:2015Nanos...7.6451G
2999:10.3390/jfb11030051
2612:Garlotta D (2001).
2509:2020FrCh....8..688L
2009:2017NatSR...746767E
1637:2015Sci...349...78D
1332:on 10 February 2012
1195:transesterification
1018:computed tomography
706:propylene carbonate
628:plastic deformation
589:melting temperature
579:Physical properties
404:Chemical properties
367:renewable resources
151:Solubility in water
34:
4552:Polymer fume fever
4211:Commodity plastics
4185:Rotational molding
4155:Fiberglass molding
4115:Injection moulding
4097:Filler (materials)
4046:Corrugated plastic
3998:Tritan copolyester
3953:Polypropylene (PP)
3903:Polycarbonate (PC)
3661:. 15 December 2010
3574:10.1007/12_2016_12
3254:. 10 December 2019
3079:10.1039/C5NR00278H
2941:10.1039/d1bm00516b
2398:. Makeitfrom.com.
1997:Scientific Reports
1892:10.1039/C0PY00029A
1714:10.1007/BF00262719
1559:. pp. 27–41.
1368:on 6 January 2009.
1270:plastarch material
1171:
1147:Tritirachium album
1102:fetal bovine serum
1020:. Transparent PLA.
801:investment casting
796:
749:
734:injection moulding
644:biodegradability.
450:tin ethylhexanoate
229:Infobox references
190:
32:
4704:
4703:
4682:Plastic recycling
4648:Plastic pollution
4634:
4633:
4568:Plastic pollution
4348:Health issues of
4306:
4305:
4202:Plastics industry
4120:Plastic extrusion
3973:Polyurethane (PU)
3963:Polysulfone (PES)
3918:Polyethylene (PE)
3893:Polybutylene (PB)
3583:978-3-319-64229-1
3353:(24): 5233–5238.
3194:Global Challenges
2935:(17): 5714–5731.
2845:978-0-8031-1897-3
2820:978-0-470-29366-9
2599:10.1002/app.38833
2317:(11): 1083–1090.
2196:(12): 1184–1190.
2126:(14): 2709–2716.
2091:(19): 5635–5641.
2017:10.1038/srep46767
1880:Polymer Chemistry
1851:(23): 2335–2346.
1749:10.1002/bit.22548
1574:978-0-470-64984-8
1533:(14): 6209–6219.
1236:hydrochloric acid
996:3D printing of a
991:
903:
896:
892:
884:
832:, it is used for
791:
606:
587:60–65 °C, a
566:-carboxyanhydride
559:
555:
543:
539:
535:
525:enantiomer form.
524:
520:
516:
512:
504:
375:commodity polymer
237:Chemical compound
235:
234:
92:CompTox Dashboard
16:(Redirected from
4761:
4734:Synthetic fibers
4573:Rubber pollution
4423:Organophosphates
4342:
4335:
4328:
4319:
4198:
4170:Filament winding
4145:Transfer molding
4072:Polymer additive
4016:
4010:
3958:Polystyrene (PS)
3835:
3828:
3821:
3812:
3791:
3790:
3754:
3748:
3747:
3703:
3697:
3696:
3694:
3692:
3683:. Archived from
3677:
3671:
3670:
3668:
3666:
3651:
3642:
3641:
3621:
3615:
3614:
3594:
3588:
3587:
3561:
3555:
3554:
3547:
3541:
3540:
3530:
3498:
3492:
3491:
3481:
3471:
3462:(9): 3722–3742.
3447:
3441:
3440:
3430:
3420:
3396:
3387:
3386:
3338:
3332:
3331:
3329:
3305:
3299:
3298:
3270:
3264:
3263:
3261:
3259:
3244:
3238:
3237:
3227:
3217:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3168:
3144:
3138:
3137:
3112:(5): 1779–1785.
3097:
3091:
3090:
3054:
3048:
3047:
3045:
3043:
3028:
3022:
3021:
3011:
3001:
2977:
2971:
2970:
2952:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2915:
2891:
2885:
2884:
2856:
2850:
2849:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2798:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2780:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2755:
2735:
2729:
2728:
2726:
2724:
2704:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2693:
2688:on 23 April 2011
2678:
2672:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2652:
2646:
2645:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2593:(3): 1607–1617.
2582:
2576:
2575:
2547:
2541:
2540:
2530:
2520:
2488:
2482:
2481:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2418:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2407:
2392:
2386:
2385:
2375:
2365:
2341:
2335:
2334:
2306:
2300:
2299:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2228:
2222:
2221:
2185:
2179:
2178:
2150:
2144:
2143:
2115:
2109:
2108:
2080:
2074:
2073:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2028:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1936:
1926:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1824:(6): 1123–1163.
1813:
1807:
1806:
1789:(1–3): 145–152.
1778:
1769:
1768:
1732:
1726:
1725:
1702:Polymer Bulletin
1697:
1691:
1690:
1688:
1686:
1671:
1665:
1664:
1616:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1605:
1585:
1579:
1578:
1552:
1543:
1542:
1522:
1516:
1515:
1499:
1493:
1492:
1464:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1440:
1434:
1433:
1431:
1422:(6): 2899–2916.
1407:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1385:www.ceresana.com
1376:
1370:
1369:
1367:
1361:. Archived from
1356:
1348:
1342:
1341:
1339:
1337:
1328:. Archived from
1318:
1285:Polycaprolactone
1134:PLA depolymerase
1066:Photodegradation
1013:
1002:carbon nanotubes
993:
992:
970:
958:
943:
924:electric current
901:
894:
890:
882:
830:nonwoven fabrics
792:
684:glass transition
661:flexural modulus
620:tensile strength
609:nucleating agent
604:
585:glass transition
557:
553:
541:
537:
533:
522:
518:
514:
510:
502:
485:
379:plastic filament
361:
360:
359:
343:
341:
340:
323:
322:
321:
310:
309:
308:
298:
297:
289:
288:
280:
279:
243:, also known as
210:
203:
196:
181:
116:
115:
100:
98:
66:
42:
35:
33:Polylactic acid
21:
4769:
4768:
4764:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4759:
4758:
4709:
4708:
4705:
4700:
4691:
4636:
4635:
4630:
4599:
4556:
4513:
4475:
4442:
4411:
4357:
4346:
4312:
4302:
4251:
4189:
4175:Solvent bonding
4165:Plastic welding
4107:
4101:
4060:
4023:
4017:
4011:
4002:
3913:Polyester (PEs)
3850:
3844:
3839:
3799:
3794:
3756:
3755:
3751:
3705:
3704:
3700:
3690:
3688:
3679:
3678:
3674:
3664:
3662:
3653:
3652:
3645:
3623:
3622:
3618:
3596:
3595:
3591:
3584:
3563:
3562:
3558:
3549:
3548:
3544:
3500:
3499:
3495:
3449:
3448:
3444:
3398:
3397:
3390:
3340:
3339:
3335:
3307:
3306:
3302:
3272:
3271:
3267:
3257:
3255:
3246:
3245:
3241:
3187:
3186:
3182:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3099:
3098:
3094:
3056:
3055:
3051:
3041:
3039:
3030:
3029:
3025:
2979:
2978:
2974:
2926:
2925:
2921:
2906:(12): 496–504.
2900:Materials Today
2893:
2892:
2888:
2858:
2857:
2853:
2846:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2821:
2800:
2799:
2788:
2778:
2776:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2753:
2751:
2737:
2736:
2732:
2722:
2720:
2713:Thingiverse.com
2706:
2705:
2701:
2691:
2689:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2665:
2663:
2654:
2653:
2649:
2611:
2610:
2606:
2584:
2583:
2579:
2549:
2548:
2544:
2490:
2489:
2485:
2455:
2454:
2450:
2420:
2419:
2415:
2405:
2403:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2343:
2342:
2338:
2308:
2307:
2303:
2280:10.1002/pat.731
2265:
2264:
2260:
2230:
2229:
2225:
2187:
2186:
2182:
2152:
2151:
2147:
2117:
2116:
2112:
2082:
2081:
2077:
2047:
2046:
2042:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1842:
1841:
1837:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1780:
1779:
1772:
1734:
1733:
1729:
1699:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1682:
1677:. Physorg.com.
1673:
1672:
1668:
1631:(6243): 78–80.
1618:
1617:
1613:
1603:
1601:
1587:
1586:
1582:
1575:
1554:
1553:
1546:
1524:
1523:
1519:
1501:
1500:
1496:
1466:
1465:
1458:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1441:
1437:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1394:
1392:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1365:
1354:
1350:
1349:
1345:
1335:
1333:
1320:
1319:
1312:
1308:
1252:
1156:
1084:O → -COOH + -OH
1083:
1028:
1021:
1014:
1005:
994:
982:
977:
971:
962:
959:
950:
944:
912:of the cheeks.
872:
864:
814:
809:
781:
772:dichloromethane
730:
718:tetrahydrofuran
695:
624:elastic modulus
593:Young's modulus
581:
530:racemic mixture
495:
427:sugar beet pulp
411:
406:
398:polyelectrolyte
383:FDM 3D printing
358:
355:
354:
353:
352:
339:
336:
335:
334:
332:
320:
315:
314:
313:
312:
307:
302:
301:
300:
296:
293:
292:
291:
287:
284:
283:
282:
278:
275:
274:
273:
271:
241:Polylactic acid
238:
231:
226:
215:
214:
213:
212:
205:
198:
191:
187:
179:
153:
134:1210–1430 kg/m
119:
101:
94:
85:
69:
56:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4767:
4765:
4757:
4756:
4754:Food packaging
4751:
4746:
4744:Thermoplastics
4741:
4736:
4731:
4726:
4721:
4711:
4710:
4702:
4701:
4696:
4693:
4692:
4690:
4689:
4684:
4679:
4678:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4661:
4660:
4644:
4642:
4638:
4637:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
4607:
4605:
4601:
4600:
4598:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4576:
4575:
4564:
4562:
4558:
4557:
4555:
4554:
4549:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4523:
4521:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4511:
4510:
4509:
4499:
4494:
4489:
4483:
4481:
4477:
4476:
4474:
4473:
4466:Vinyl chloride
4463:
4460:Polycarbonates
4452:
4450:
4444:
4443:
4441:
4440:
4434:
4425:
4419:
4417:
4413:
4412:
4410:
4409:
4404:
4399:
4393:
4388:
4382:
4377:
4371:
4369:
4359:
4358:
4347:
4345:
4344:
4337:
4330:
4322:
4316:
4314:
4308:
4307:
4304:
4303:
4301:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4275:
4273:Packaging film
4270:
4265:
4259:
4257:
4256:Specific goods
4253:
4252:
4250:
4249:
4243:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4207:
4205:
4195:
4191:
4190:
4188:
4187:
4182:
4180:Vacuum forming
4177:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4157:
4152:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4111:
4109:
4103:
4102:
4100:
4099:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4068:
4066:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4053:
4051:Polymeric foam
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4027:
4025:
4019:
4018:
4005:
4003:
4001:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3928:Polyimide (PI)
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3888:Polyamide (PA)
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3865:
3860:
3854:
3852:
3846:
3845:
3840:
3838:
3837:
3830:
3823:
3815:
3809:
3808:
3798:
3797:External links
3795:
3793:
3792:
3749:
3714:(7): 849–855.
3698:
3672:
3643:
3616:
3589:
3582:
3556:
3542:
3513:(11): 115303.
3493:
3442:
3388:
3333:
3320:(1): 409–416.
3300:
3281:(2): 459–466.
3265:
3239:
3200:(4): 1700048.
3180:
3139:
3092:
3065:(15): 6451–6.
3049:
3023:
2972:
2919:
2886:
2867:(4): 193–197.
2851:
2844:
2826:
2819:
2786:
2761:
2730:
2699:
2673:
2647:
2604:
2577:
2542:
2483:
2448:
2429:(4): 205–228.
2413:
2387:
2336:
2301:
2274:(6): 439–443.
2258:
2239:(5): 646–654.
2223:
2180:
2161:(7): 562–568.
2145:
2110:
2075:
2056:(2): 337–343.
2040:
1983:
1948:
1897:
1886:(6): 870–877.
1870:
1835:
1808:
1770:
1743:(1): 161–171.
1727:
1692:
1666:
1611:
1580:
1573:
1544:
1517:
1494:
1456:
1435:
1402:
1371:
1343:
1309:
1307:
1304:
1303:
1302:
1297:
1287:
1282:
1277:
1259:
1251:
1248:
1247:
1246:
1240:
1209:
1198:
1191:methyl lactate
1155:
1152:
1109:methyl lactate
1086:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1073:
1063:
1062:, and lactide.
1053:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1015:
1008:
1006:
995:
980:
978:
972:
965:
963:
960:
953:
951:
945:
938:
871:
868:
863:
860:
826:shrink tunnels
813:
812:Consumer goods
810:
808:
805:
768:solvent welded
729:
726:
694:
691:
657:nano-particles
613:Biodegradation
580:
577:
494:
491:
487:
486:
470:esterification
442:polymerization
410:
407:
405:
402:
356:
337:
316:
303:
294:
285:
276:
236:
233:
232:
227:
223:standard state
220:
217:
216:
206:
199:
192:
177:
176:
175:
174:
172:
163:
162:
158:
157:
154:
149:
146:
145:
142:
136:
135:
132:
126:
125:
121:
120:
118:
117:
109:DTXSID20904011
104:
102:
90:
87:
86:
84:
83:
79:
77:
71:
70:
68:
67:
59:
57:
52:
49:
48:
44:
43:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4766:
4755:
4752:
4750:
4747:
4745:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4732:
4730:
4727:
4725:
4722:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4714:
4707:
4699:
4694:
4688:
4685:
4683:
4680:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4659:
4656:
4655:
4654:
4653:Garbage patch
4651:
4650:
4649:
4646:
4645:
4643:
4639:
4627:
4624:
4622:
4619:
4617:
4614:
4612:
4609:
4608:
4606:
4602:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4574:
4571:
4570:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4563:
4559:
4553:
4550:
4548:
4545:
4543:
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4524:
4522:
4520:
4519:Health issues
4516:
4508:
4505:
4504:
4503:
4500:
4498:
4495:
4493:
4490:
4488:
4485:
4484:
4482:
4478:
4471:
4467:
4464:
4461:
4457:
4454:
4453:
4451:
4449:
4445:
4438:
4435:
4433:
4429:
4426:
4424:
4421:
4420:
4418:
4414:
4408:
4405:
4403:
4400:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4372:
4370:
4368:
4364:
4360:
4355:
4351:
4343:
4338:
4336:
4331:
4329:
4324:
4323:
4320:
4315:
4309:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4293:Shopping bags
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4266:
4264:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4254:
4248:(Agriculture)
4247:
4246:Plasticulture
4244:
4242:
4239:
4237:
4234:
4232:
4229:
4227:
4226:Geosynthetics
4224:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4199:
4196:
4192:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4161:
4158:
4156:
4153:
4151:
4148:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4130:Thermoforming
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4112:
4110:
4104:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4069:
4067:
4063:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4031:Thermoplastic
4029:
4028:
4026:
4020:
4015:
4009:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3861:
3859:
3856:
3855:
3853:
3847:
3843:
3836:
3831:
3829:
3824:
3822:
3817:
3816:
3813:
3807:
3806:
3805:The Economist
3801:
3800:
3796:
3788:
3784:
3780:
3776:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3760:
3753:
3750:
3745:
3741:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3702:
3699:
3686:
3682:
3676:
3673:
3660:
3659:HowStuffWorks
3656:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3639:
3635:
3631:
3627:
3620:
3617:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3590:
3585:
3579:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3560:
3557:
3552:
3546:
3543:
3538:
3534:
3529:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3497:
3494:
3489:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3453:
3446:
3443:
3438:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3419:
3414:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3372:
3368:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3348:
3344:
3337:
3334:
3328:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3314:ACS Catalysis
3311:
3304:
3301:
3296:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3269:
3266:
3253:
3249:
3243:
3240:
3235:
3231:
3226:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3184:
3181:
3176:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3143:
3140:
3135:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3096:
3093:
3088:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3053:
3050:
3038:
3034:
3027:
3024:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3000:
2995:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2976:
2973:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2951:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2923:
2920:
2914:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2890:
2887:
2882:
2878:
2874:
2870:
2866:
2862:
2855:
2852:
2847:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2827:
2822:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2787:
2775:
2771:
2765:
2762:
2749:
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2741:
2734:
2731:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2703:
2700:
2687:
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2651:
2648:
2643:
2639:
2635:
2631:
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2623:
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2608:
2605:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2581:
2578:
2573:
2569:
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2561:
2557:
2553:
2546:
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2538:
2534:
2529:
2524:
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2514:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2498:
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2487:
2484:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
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2432:
2428:
2424:
2417:
2414:
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2397:
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2374:
2369:
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2328:
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2320:
2316:
2312:
2305:
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2297:
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2269:
2262:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2227:
2224:
2219:
2215:
2211:
2207:
2203:
2199:
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2184:
2181:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2149:
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2129:
2125:
2121:
2114:
2111:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
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2079:
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2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2044:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
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1952:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1935:
1930:
1925:
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1518:
1513:
1509:
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1445:
1439:
1436:
1430:
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1421:
1417:
1413:
1406:
1403:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1375:
1372:
1364:
1360:
1359:ampolymer.com
1353:
1347:
1344:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1317:
1315:
1311:
1305:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1286:
1283:
1281:
1280:Polilactofate
1278:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1266:polyglycolide
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1244:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1214:: PLA can be
1213:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1183:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1168:
1167:resin ID code
1165:
1160:
1153:
1151:
1150:degrade PLA.
1149:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1130:
1129:Amycolatopsis
1125:
1124:
1123:Saccharothrix
1119:
1118:
1117:Amycolatopsis
1112:
1110:
1105:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1092:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1071:
1070:plasticulture
1067:
1064:
1061:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1046:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1025:
1019:
1012:
1007:
1003:
999:
979:
975:
969:
964:
957:
952:
948:
942:
937:
935:
933:
929:
928:piezoelectric
925:
920:
918:
913:
911:
907:
898:
888:
879:
876:
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4311:Environment
4263:Blister pack
4216:Construction
4125:Blow molding
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2686:the original
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1845:Biomaterials
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1374:
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1330:the original
1325:
1212:Incineration
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1145:
1142:proteinase K
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431:
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381:material in
364:
326:condensation
317:
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167:
47:Identifiers
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4724:Bioplastics
4604:Regulations
4456:Bisphenol A
4140:Calendering
4082:Plasticizer
4022:Mechanical
3632:(5): 1089.
3347:ChemSusChem
3159:: 333–366.
3037:ZME Science
2779:30 November
2744:youtube.com
2356:(9): 2091.
1964:: 367–392.
1594:reuters.com
1475:: 248–257.
1395:22 November
1216:incinerated
1154:End of life
1026:Degradation
910:lipoatrophy
766:PLA can be
757:3D printers
728:Fabrication
641:spherulites
633:plasticizer
597:polystyrene
497:Due to the
454:in solution
448:(typically
434:lactic acid
330:lactic acid
253:polylactide
249:lactic acid
124:Properties
18:Polylactide
4729:Polyesters
4713:Categories
4532:Carcinogen
4497:Organotins
4367:Phthalates
4313:and health
4160:Pultrusion
4150:Laminating
4108:processing
3042:19 January
2464:(1): 1–9.
1449:19 January
1379:Ceresana.
1336:6 February
1306:References
1262:Cellophane
1201:Composting
1050:Hydrolysis
1040:ASTM D6400
947:Mulch film
834:upholstery
763:printers.
759:, such as
653:nucleating
544:-lactide (
505:-lactide (
458:suspension
371:bioplastic
342:)(OH)HCOOH
75:ChemSpider
64:26100-51-6
54:CAS Number
4561:Pollution
4527:Teratogen
4458:(BPA, in
4106:Plastics
4077:Colorants
4065:Additives
3849:Chemical
3787:248715252
3537:252665567
3383:207941305
3134:0014-3057
3059:Nanoscale
2992:(3): 51.
2967:236199608
2881:135582844
2754:9 January
2478:1572-8900
2443:0032-3888
2331:1438-7492
2288:1042-7147
2253:1438-7492
2210:0303-402X
2175:1438-7492
2140:0032-3861
2105:0032-3861
2070:0141-3910
1803:0141-3910
1765:205499487
1661:206635718
1489:195550926
1178:Recycling
1091:landfills
1080:-COO- + H
998:microcoil
932:cartilage
885:-lactide-
738:extrusion
651:, adding
649:annealing
446:catalysts
423:sugarcane
409:Synthesis
264:polyester
156:0 mg/ml
4542:Diabetes
4448:Monomers
4428:Adipates
4350:plastics
4204:segments
4194:Products
3842:Plastics
3744:34100178
3736:20681432
3488:19865515
3437:32581423
3375:31714680
3295:17975822
3234:31565274
3175:27046295
3087:25793923
3018:32722074
2959:34296717
2748:Archived
2717:Archived
2692:11 April
2666:11 April
2660:Archived
2642:Archived
2537:32974273
2406:11 April
2400:Archived
2382:32938000
2350:Polymers
2296:98536537
2218:98078359
2035:28466854
1978:27356150
1943:34199577
1911:Polymers
1865:11055281
1757:19937727
1722:95429767
1685:11 April
1679:Archived
1653:26138977
1598:Archived
1389:Archived
1250:See also
1243:Landfill
1239:dioxide.
1228:hydrogen
1162:PLA has
1036:EN 13432
974:Tea bags
926:via the
906:Sculptra
710:Pyridine
693:Solvents
456:or as a
387:annealed
259:), is a
168:NFPA 704
161:Hazards
4670:Dioxins
4590:Dioxins
4547:Obesity
4288:Cutlery
4278:Bottles
3767:Bibcode
3716:Bibcode
3691:9 March
3665:9 March
3605:: 147.
3515:Bibcode
3479:2769161
3428:7304880
3355:Bibcode
3258:26 June
3225:6607129
3202:Bibcode
3114:Bibcode
3067:Bibcode
3009:7564527
2638:8630569
2572:8933291
2528:7468453
2505:Bibcode
2503:: 688.
2373:7570036
2120:Polymer
2085:Polymer
2026:5413939
2005:Bibcode
1934:8199684
1708:(6–7).
1633:Bibcode
1625:Science
1527:Polymer
1294:shellac
1232:dioxins
1138:pronase
870:Medical
842:diapers
838:awnings
822:cutlery
776:Acetone
722:dioxane
714:benzene
438:lactide
419:cassava
350:lactide
130:Density
4387:(BBzP)
4356:(PHCs)
4268:Chairs
4236:Nurdle
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1224:oxygen
1220:carbon
770:using
761:RepRap
720:, and
536:- and
499:chiral
4641:Waste
4487:PBDEs
4398:(DOP)
4024:types
3851:types
3783:S2CID
3740:S2CID
3533:S2CID
3379:S2CID
2963:S2CID
2877:S2CID
2723:9 May
2682:"PLA"
2656:"PLA"
2634:S2CID
2292:S2CID
2214:S2CID
1761:S2CID
1718:S2CID
1657:S2CID
1604:9 May
1485:S2CID
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4283:Bags
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2815:ISBN
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