1126:
2229:
269:
594:
98:, causing it to remain in the environment for longer. Many different types of plastic exist and each may be vulnerable to several types of degradation, which usually results in several different stabilisers being used in combination. Even for objects made from the same type of plastic, different applications may have different stabilisation requirements. Regulatory considerations, such as
2235:
373:
438:
543:
152:
130:. As such, even though efforts are usually made to reduce oxygen levels, total exclusion is often not achievable and even exceedingly low concentrations of oxygen can be sufficient to initiate degradation. Sensitivity to oxidation varies significantly depending on the polymer in question; without stabilizers
142:
can be stable even at high temperatures. Antioxidants are of great importance during the process stage, with long-term stability at ambient temperature increasingly being supplied by hindered amine light stabilizers (HALs). Antioxidants are often referred to as being primary or secondary depending on
714:, can accelerate the degradation of polymers. This is of particular concern where polymers are in direct contact with metal, such as in wiring and cable. More generally, the metal catalysts used to form the polymer may simply become encapsulated within it during production, this is typically true of
1593:
Cataldo, Franco; Faucette, Brad; Huang, Semone; Ebenezer, Warren (January 2015). "On the early reaction stages of ozone with N,Nâ˛-substituted p-phenylenediamines (6PPD, 77PD) and N,Nâ˛,N"-substituted-1,3,5-triazine "DurazoneÂŽ": An electron spin resonance (ESR) and electronic absorption spectroscopy
212:
Due to its rapid reaction with oxygen the scavenging of the initial alkyl radical (Râ˘) is difficult and can only be achieved using specialised antioxidants the majority of primary antioxidants react instead with the longer lasting peroxy radicals (ROOâ˘). Hydrogen abstraction is usually the
533:
is difficult to stabilize. Even antioxidants fail in this electron-rich polymer. The acids or bases in the PPS matrix can disrupt the performance of the conventional UV absorbers such as HPBT. PTHPBT, which is a modification of HPBT are shown to be effective, even in these conditions.
1979:
Wutzel, Harald; Jarvid, Markus; Bjuggren, Jonas M.; Johansson, Anette; Englund, Villgot; Gubanski, Stanislaw; Andersson, Mats R. (February 2015). "Thioxanthone derivatives as stabilizers against electrical breakdown in cross-linked polyethylene for high voltage cable applications".
117:
that occurs when polymers reacts with atmospheric oxygen. Aerobic degradation occurs gradually at room temperature, but almost all polymers are at risk of thermal-oxidation when they are processed at high temperatures. The molding or casting of plastics (e.g.
1290:
Yachigo, Shin'ichi; Sasaki, Manji; Ida, Kanako; Inoue, Kikumitsu; Tanaka, Shin'ya; Yoshiaki, Honda; Emiko, Fukuyo; Kazunori, Yanagi (January 1993). "Studies on polymer stabilizers: Part VIâRelationship between performance and molecular conformation".
93:
Stabilizers are used at all stages of the polymer life-cycle. They allow plastic items to be produced faster and with fewer defects, extend their useful lifespan, and facilitate their recycling. However they also continue to stabilise
490:. UV stabilisers absorb and dissipate the energy from UV rays as heat, typically by reversible intramolecular proton transfer. This reduces the absorption of UV rays by the polymer matrix and hence reduces the rate of weathering.
570:
mechanism and then dissipate it harmlessly as either heat or lower frequency fluorescent light. Singlet oxygen can be quenched by metal chelates, with nickel phenolates being a common example. Nickel quenchers tend to be used in
462:
this is a free radical process, hence the antioxidants described above are effective inhibiting agents, however additional classes of additives are also beneficial, such as UV absorbers, quenchers of excited states and HALS.
252:, which may also impart unwanted colour. Modern phenolic antioxidants have complex molecular structures, often including a propionate-group at the para position of the phenol (i.e. they are ortho-alkylated analogues of
260:, regenerating the phenolic antioxidant group and allowing further radicals to be scavenged. Ultimately however, primary antioxidants are sacrificial and once they are fully consumed the polymer will begin to degrade.
2007:
Jarvid, Markus; Johansson, Anette; Englund, Villgot; Lundin, Angelica; Gubanski, Stanislaw; MĂźller, Christian; Andersson, Mats R. (2015). "High electron affinity: a guiding criterion for voltage stabilizer design".
2836:
155:
343:
This exchange further stabilizes the polymer by releasing a primary antioxidant, because of this phosphites are sometimes considered multi-functional antioxidants as they can combine both types of activity.
1405:
PospĂĹĄil, Jan; NeĹĄpĹŻrek, Stanislav; Zweifel, Hans (October 1996). "The role of quinone methides in thermostabilization of hydrocarbon polymersâI. Formation and reactivity of quinone methides".
237:. Amines are typically more effective, but cause pronounced discoloration, which is often undesirable (i.e., in food packaging, clothing). The overall reaction with phenols is shown below:
1139:
Geuskens, G.; Bastin, P.; Lu Vinh, Q.; Rens, M. (July 1981). "Photo-oxidation of polymers: Part IVâInfluence of the processing conditions on the photo-oxidative stability of polystyrene".
217:
in the polymer degradation and the peroxy radicals can be scavenged by hydrogen donation from an alternative source, namely the primary antioxidant. This converts them into an organic
2560:
1228:
Vulic, Ivan; Vitarelli, Giacomo; Zenner, John M. (January 2002). "Structureâproperty relationships: phenolic antioxidants with high efficiency and low colour contribution".
1071:
393:. This is naturally present in the air at very low concentrations but is exceedingly reactive, particularly towards unsaturated polymers such as rubber, where it causes
1318:
PospÄąĚĹĄil, J.; Habicher, W.-D.; PilaĹ, J.; NeĹĄpĹŻrek, S.; Kuthan, J.; Piringer, G.-O.; Zweifel, H. (January 2002). "Discoloration of polymers by phenolic antioxidants".
105:
The market for antioxidant stabilisers was estimated at US$ 1.69 billion for 2017, with the total market for all stabilizers expected to reach US$ 5.5 billion by 2025.
194:
step to give new alkyl radicals. The overall process is exceedingly complex and will vary between polymers but the first few steps are shown below in general:
634:(HCl) that is released by photooxidation of PVC. The exception is the recently developed NOR HALS, which is not a strong base and is not deactivated by HCl.
889:
750:. At temperatures above 70 °C the unstabilized material is susceptible to degradation with loss of HCl. Once this dehydrochlorination starts it is
1621:
Cataldo, Franco (January 2018). "Early stages of p-phenylenediamine antiozonants reaction with ozone: Radical cation and nitroxyl radical formation".
287:(ROOH) formed by the action of primary antioxidants. Hydroperoxides are less reactive than radical species but can initiate fresh radical reactions:
1950:
BjurstrĂśm, Anton; Edin, Hans; Hillborg, Henrik; Nilsson, Fritjof; Olsson, Richard T.; Pierre, Max; Unge, Mikael; Hedenqvist, Mikael S. (July 2024).
2553:
1714:
Das, P.K.; DesLauriers, P.J.; Fahey, Darryl R.; Wood, F.K.; Cornforth, F.J. (January 1995). "Photostabilization of poly (p-phenylene sulfide)".
601:
The ability of hindered amine light stabilizers (HALS or HAS) to scavenge radicals produced by weathering, may be explained by the formation of
304:
272:
1506:
Schwetlick, K.; KĂśnig, T.; RĂźger, C.; Pionteck, J.; Habicher, W.D. (January 1986). "Chain-breaking antioxidant activity of phosphite esters".
2436:
1832:
1577:
1449:
1389:
961:
754:, with rising acidity accelerating degradation. A wide range of agents have been used to prevent this, with many of the early agents such as
2895:
2846:
2815:
401:
is different from other forms of oxidation and hence requires its own class of antioxidant stabilizers. These are primarily derivatives of
174:(HOâ˘) and alkyl radicals (Râ˘). Oxidation begins with the formation of alkyl radicals, which are formed when the high temperatures and high
567:
2546:
2053:
1088:
458:
Light stabilizer are used to inhibit polymer photo-oxidation, which is the combined result of the action of light and oxygen. Like
1741:
Zweig, A.; Henderson, W. A. (March 1975). "Singlet oxygen and polymer photooxidations. I. Sensitizers, quenchers, and reactants".
588:
1649:
2078:
63:
126:(~200-300 °C). Under these conditions reactions with oxygen occur much more rapidly. Once initiated, autoxidation can be
2831:
2810:
2707:
2461:
630:(PVC). It is thought that their ability to form nitroxyl radicals is disrupted. HALS act as a base and become neutralized by
417:
which allows them to react with ozone via electron transfer, this converts them into radical cations that are stabilized by
1193:
Lucarini, Marco; Pedulli, Gian Franco (2010). "Free radical intermediates in the inhibition of the autoxidation reaction".
883:
879:
2942:
2885:
2805:
1952:"A Review of PolyolefinâInsulation Materials in High Voltage Transmission; From Electronic Structures to Final Products"
123:
1533:
Schwetlick, Klaus; Habicher, Wolf D. (October 1995). "Organophosphorus antioxidants action mechanisms and new trends".
2937:
2878:
2800:
2616:
2213:
893:
453:
71:
1776:
Capocci, Gerald; Hubbard, Mike (September 2005). "A radically new UV stabilizer for flexible PVC roofing membranes".
1255:
Gryn'ova, Ganna; Hodgson, Jennifer L.; Coote, Michelle L. (2011). "Revising the mechanism of polymer autooxidation".
774:, as well as barium and zinc compounds, along with various synergists. Addition levels vary typically from 2% to 4%.
659:
2143:
2118:
789:
605:
through a process known as the
Denisov Cycle. The aminoxyl radical (N-Oâ˘) combines with free radicals in polymers:
299:
As they are less chemically active they require a more reactive antioxidant. The most commonly employed class are
2918:
2652:
2538:
2451:
2276:
2093:
2083:
530:
487:
187:
1923:
Pfaendner, Rudolf (December 2013). "(Photo)oxidative degradation and stabilization of flame retarded polymers".
2722:
2712:
2574:
2261:
2208:
2098:
563:
226:
611:
Although they are traditionally considered as light stabilizers, they can also stabilize thermal degradation.
2312:
2203:
2188:
2168:
1896:
Camino, G.; Costa, L. (January 1988). "Performance and mechanisms of fire retardants in polymersâA review".
899:
788:
Flame retardants are a broad range of compounds that improve fire resistance of polymers. Examples include
715:
491:
1125:
650:
Acid scavengers, also referred to as antacids, neutralize acidic impurities, especially those that release
2727:
2605:
2360:
2088:
2046:
345:
99:
2907:
2611:
2256:
284:
214:
179:
327:
Transesterification can then take place, in which the hydroxylated polymer is exchanged for a phenol:
2627:
2622:
2595:
2513:
1750:
853:
731:
1107:
2757:
2518:
2441:
2355:
2307:
875:
793:
679:
51:
1345:
PospĂĹĄil, Jan (January 1988). "Mechanistic action of phenolic antioxidants in polymersâA review".
2772:
2690:
2431:
2405:
2375:
2335:
2317:
2266:
2218:
2198:
1793:
1669:
1488:
1048:
927:
917:
627:
402:
662:
and halogenated flame retardants also serve as sources of acids. Common acid scavengers include
356:
being particularly effective against long-term thermal aging, they are ultimately oxidise up to
1848:
Osawa, Zenjiro (January 1988). "Role of metals and metal-deactivators in polymer degradation".
2902:
2868:
2788:
2600:
2422:
2340:
2039:
1828:
1573:
1445:
1385:
1272:
1210:
1084:
977:
Singh, Baljit; Sharma, Nisha (March 2008). "Mechanistic implications of plastic degradation".
957:
797:
723:
631:
414:
191:
167:
119:
848:
derivatives. These possess high electron affinities, which allow them to trap and neutralize
658:
is susceptible to acid-catalyzed degradation, the HCl being derived from the polymer itself.
2793:
2488:
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2158:
2103:
2017:
1989:
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1993:
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821:
801:
783:
691:
642:
Polymers are susceptible to degradation by a variety of pathways beyond oxygen and light.
308:
276:
249:
78:
residues, dyes, or impurities. All of these degrade the polymer at a chemical level, via
31:
2228:
1754:
1687:
Crawford, J (April 1999). "2(2-hydroxyphenyl)2H-benzotriazole ultraviolet stabilizers".
182:
manner. These alkyl radicals react very rapidly with molecular oxygen (rate constants â
170:
and remove peroxy radicals (ROOâ˘), as well as to a lesser extent alkoxy radicals (ROâ˘),
2686:
2498:
2400:
2271:
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719:
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faster than it can react with vulnerable functional groups in the polymer (typically
349:
234:
218:
131:
127:
95:
1797:
1673:
1492:
2493:
2483:
2345:
2193:
2138:
2113:
872:
often include antioxidant stabilizers related to the ones discussed in this article
865:
845:
735:
675:
623:
619:
519:
503:
483:
459:
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230:
175:
114:
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17:
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2178:
1824:
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912:
551:
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139:
1762:
593:
421:. Such species remain reactive and will react further, giving products such as
2752:
2380:
2370:
2234:
1069:
Pelzl, Bernhard; Wolf, Rainer; Kaul, Bansi Lal (2018). "Plastics, Additives".
687:
615:
558:. This can then react with ambient oxygen, converting it into highly reactive
398:
307:. These will convert polymer hydroperoxides to alcohols, becoming oxidized to
159:
83:
67:
1883:
2841:
2747:
2717:
2587:
2148:
2133:
2108:
1483:
1466:
759:
727:
707:
515:
479:
357:
353:
300:
158:: A primary antioxidant consisting of sterically hindered phenols with para-
55:
1964:
1951:
1276:
1214:
1004:"Plastic antioxidants market projected to reach US$ 2.11 billion by 2022".
554:
within the polymer (which may be a dye or impurity) causing it to enter an
372:
804:. Flame retardants are known to reduce the effectiveness of antioxidants.
437:
2762:
703:
75:
1179:
542:
474:
susceptibility varies significantly between different polymers. Certain
389:
Antiozonants prevent or slow down the degradation of material caused by
221:(ROOH). The most important commercial stabilizers for this are hindered
166:
Primary antioxidants (also known as chain-breaking antioxidants) act as
2890:
2767:
2739:
2668:
2570:
2292:
2062:
2021:
1268:
817:
763:
361:
222:
43:
39:
1789:
151:
1206:
841:
711:
499:
495:
410:
135:
47:
102:
are also present. A wide range of stabilizers is therefore needed.
156:
Pentaerythritol tetrakis(3,5-di-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyhydrocinnamate)
1467:"Mechanisms of antioxidant action of organic phosphorus compounds"
592:
541:
436:
406:
390:
371:
267:
150:
2128:
766:
complexes being highly toxic. Safer modern alternatives include
429:. Some of these products can then be scavenged by antioxidants.
376:
86:, which adversely affects many key properties such as strength,
2542:
2035:
1562:
Reference Module in
Materials Science and Materials Engineering
837:
747:
655:
651:
523:
379:
is a p-phenylenediamine based antiozonant widely used in tires
256:). The quinone methides of these can rearrange once to give a
746:
Thermal (or heat) stabilizers are used almost exclusively in
1811:
ThĂźrmer, Andreas (1998). "Acid scavengers for polyolefins".
1432:
Wypych, George (2013). "Effect of
Additives on Weathering".
832:
These additives are added to polymers used as sheathing for
550:
Photo-oxidation can begin with the absorption of light by a
178:
experienced during processing snaps the polymer chains in a
2031:
902:- are additives that enhance the biodegradation of polymers
471:
952:
Zweifel, Hans; Maier, Ralph D.; Schiller, Michael (2009).
1031:"Ceresana analyses the market for polymer stabilizers".
816:) involves its own class of special bio-stabilizers and
726:
may be added to improve stability. Deactivators work by
566:
are able to absorb energy from excited molecules via a
1874:
M. W. Allsopp, G. Vianello, "Poly(Vinyl
Chloride)" in
1743:
Journal of
Polymer Science: Polymer Chemistry Edition
1650:"Photostabilisation mechanisms in polymers: A review"
2861:
2824:
2781:
2738:
2700:
2667:
2636:
2582:
2531:
2476:
2421:
2414:
2326:
2285:
2242:
2069:
546:
A nickel-phenoxide quencher. CAS number: 14516-71-3
279:
widely used as a secondary antioxidant in polymers.
1374:Handbook of Environmental Degradation of Materials
264:Secondary antioxidants (hydroperoxides scavengers)
248:The end products of these reactions are typically
122:) require them to be above their melting point or
50:, to inhibit or retard their degradation. Common
1372:Gijsman, Pieter (2018). "Polymer Stabilization".
896:- discuss the accelerated degradation of polymers
138:will slowly degrade at room temperature where as
1166:Ingold, Keith U. (May 2002). "Peroxy radicals".
233:and secondary aromatic amines such as alkylated-
38:) are chemical additives which may be added to
1876:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
1072:Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry
2554:
2047:
1648:Wiles, D.M.; Carlsson, D.J. (November 1980).
1560:KrĂśhnke, C. (2016). "Polymer Stabilization".
886:- discuss the natural degradation of polymers
8:
614:Even though HALS are extremely effective in
890:Chemically Assisted Degradation of Polymers
812:Degradation resulting from microorganisms (
413:groups). They achieve this by having a low
2561:
2547:
2539:
2418:
2054:
2040:
2032:
947:
945:
943:
1963:
1815:. Polymer Science and Technology Series.
1482:
1064:
1062:
147:Primary antioxidants (radical scavengers)
1778:Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology
1108:"Auto-Accelerated Oxidation of Plastics"
486:are highly susceptible, degrading via a
939:
303:esters, often of hindered phenols e.g.
186:to give peroxy radicals, which in turn
2144:Polyethylene terephthalate (PET, PETE)
1102:
1100:
1075:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 1â57.
305:Tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl)phosphite
273:Tris(2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl)phosphite
2084:Cross-linked polyethylene (PEX, XLPE)
2079:Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
1994:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2014.12.002
1937:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2013.07.005
1635:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2017.11.020
1608:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2014.11.011
991:10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.11.008
283:Secondary antioxidants act to remove
190:from a fresh section of polymer in a
7:
2896:List of environmental health hazards
2816:List of environmental health hazards
502:) and hydroxyphenyl-triazines (e.g.
2701:Miscellaneous additives incl. PHCs
1570:10.1016/B978-0-12-803581-8.01487-9
1442:10.1016/B978-1-895198-62-1.50018-4
1382:10.1016/B978-0-323-52472-8.00018-6
682:, and basic metal oxides, such as
25:
1982:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1925:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1898:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1850:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1716:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1654:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1623:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1596:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1535:Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie
1508:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1465:Schwetlick, K. (1 January 1983).
1407:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1347:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1320:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1293:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1230:Polymer Degradation and Stability
1141:Polymer Degradation and Stability
979:Polymer Degradation and Stability
134:and unsaturated polymers such as
82:, uncontrolled recombination and
2233:
2227:
2119:Polybutylene terephthalate (PBT)
2094:Poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)
2010:Journal of Materials Chemistry A
1124:
956:(6th ed.). Munich: Hanser.
589:hindered amine light stabilizers
583:Hindered amine light stabilizers
405:(PPD) and work by reacting with
2099:Poly(ethyl methacrylate) (PEMA)
1434:Handbook of Material Weathering
70:, combinations thereof such as
2462:Category:Plastics applications
2209:Styrene maleic anhydride (SMA)
2204:Polyvinylidene chloride (PVDC)
2189:Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
425:, phenylenediamine-dimers and
1:
2169:Poly(p-phenylene oxide) (PPO)
1878:, 2012, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim.
1701:10.1016/S0079-6700(98)00012-4
1332:10.1016/S0141-3910(02)00112-X
1242:10.1016/S0141-3910(02)00115-5
1168:Accounts of Chemical Research
1081:10.1002/14356007.a20_459.pub2
1045:10.1016/S0306-3747(19)30105-8
1018:10.1016/S0306-3747(18)30046-0
884:environmental stress cracking
702:Metal ions, such as those of
2886:Persistent organic pollutant
2847:Toxic Substances Control Act
2806:Persistent organic pollutant
2089:Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)
1910:10.1016/0141-3910(88)90073-0
1862:10.1016/0141-3910(88)90070-5
1728:10.1016/0141-3910(95)00032-H
1666:10.1016/0141-3910(80)90008-7
1520:10.1016/0141-3910(86)90065-0
1419:10.1016/0141-3910(96)00107-3
1359:10.1016/0141-3910(88)90069-9
1305:10.1016/0141-3910(93)90009-8
1153:10.1016/0141-3910(81)90025-2
244:ArO⢠â nonradical products
124:glass transition temperature
74:, as well as reactions with
2879:Great Pacific garbage patch
2801:Great Pacific garbage patch
2214:Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN)
2129:Polyetheretherketone (PEEK)
1825:10.1007/978-94-011-5862-6_6
1689:Progress in Polymer Science
1547:10.1002/apmc.1995.052320115
1112:Polymer Properties Database
954:Plastics additives handbook
894:weather testing of polymers
454:Photo-oxidation of polymers
143:their mechanism of action.
2959:
2842:Japan Toxic Substances Law
2637:Miscellaneous plasticizers
1763:10.1002/pol.1975.170130314
1471:Pure and Applied Chemistry
781:
674:, mineral agents, such as
626:, they are ineffective in
597:Example structure of a HAL
586:
514:, oxanilides are used for
451:
382:
241:ROO⢠+ ArOH â ROOH + ArOâ˘
208:ROO⢠+ RH â ROOH + Râ˘
2916:
2837:European REACH regulation
2832:California Proposition 65
2575:polyhalogenated compounds
2452:High-performance plastics
2277:High-performance plastics
2225:
529:Strongly light-absorbing
518:and polyurethanes, while
488:Photo-Fries rearrangement
448:-phenol based UV absorber
90:, appearance and colour.
2262:Fibre-reinforced plastic
2199:Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
1884:10.1002/14356007.a21_717
1195:Chemical Society Reviews
1012:(2): 10. February 2018.
506:) are used to stabilise
291:ROOH + RH â RO⢠+ R⢠+ H
2313:Biodegradable additives
1484:10.1351/pac198355101629
900:Biodegradable additives
716:Ziegler-Natta catalysts
660:ZieglerâNatta catalysts
492:Phenolic benzotriazoles
2728:Perfluorooctanoic acid
2164:Polyphenyl ether (PPE)
2159:Polyoxymethylene (POM)
2104:Polyacrylic acid (PAA)
1965:10.1002/adma.202401464
1033:Additives for Polymers
1006:Additives for Polymers
738:compounds are common.
598:
547:
449:
380:
346:Organosulfur compounds
285:organic hydroperoxides
280:
163:
2908:Biodegradable plastic
2257:Thermosetting polymer
2154:Polylactic acid (PLA)
1039:(4): 11. April 2019.
722:. In these instances
596:
573:agricultural plastics
545:
440:
375:
271:
215:rate determining step
154:
113:Antioxidants inhibit
100:food contact approval
2919:Identification codes
2519:Foam food containers
2442:Engineering plastics
1436:. pp. 547â579.
1376:. pp. 369â395.
854:dielectric breakdown
840:. Compounds include
790:brominated compounds
734:with the metal ion.
732:coordination complex
730:to form an inactive
2943:Material protection
2758:Endocrine disruptor
2356:Compression molding
2308:Polymer stabilizers
1755:1975JPoSA..13..717Z
1180:10.1021/ar50013a001
928:Mold release agents
876:Polymer degradation
856:of the insulation.
828:Voltage stabilizers
794:aluminium hydroxide
742:Thermal stabilizers
397:. The mechanism of
348:are also efficient
64:thermal degradation
52:polymer degradation
42:materials, such as
36:polymer stabilisers
28:Polymer stabilizers
18:Polymer stabilizers
2938:Plastics additives
2773:Polymer fume fever
2432:Commodity plastics
2406:Rotational molding
2376:Fiberglass molding
2336:Injection moulding
2318:Filler (materials)
2267:Corrugated plastic
2219:Tritan copolyester
2174:Polypropylene (PP)
2124:Polycarbonate (PC)
2022:10.1039/C4TA04956J
1956:Advanced Materials
1813:Plastics Additives
1269:10.1039/C0OB00596G
918:Filler (materials)
880:polymer weathering
724:metal deactivators
698:Metal deactivators
628:polyvinyl chloride
608:N-O⢠+ R⢠â N-O-R
599:
548:
450:
403:p-phenylenediamine
381:
352:decomposers, with
335:â R'OH + OP(OR')
281:
168:radical scavengers
164:
54:processes include
2925:
2924:
2903:Plastic recycling
2869:Plastic pollution
2855:
2854:
2789:Plastic pollution
2569:Health issues of
2527:
2526:
2423:Plastics industry
2341:Plastic extrusion
2194:Polyurethane (PU)
2184:Polysulfone (PES)
2139:Polyethylene (PE)
2114:Polybutylene (PB)
2016:(14): 7273â7286.
1931:(12): 2430â2435.
1834:978-94-010-6477-4
1790:10.1002/vnl.20044
1579:978-0-12-803581-8
1477:(10): 1629â1636.
1451:978-1-895198-62-1
1391:978-0-323-52472-8
1257:Org. Biomol. Chem
963:978-3-446-40801-2
923:Plastic colorants
834:electrical cables
798:antimony trioxide
632:hydrochloric acid
603:aminoxyl radicals
433:Light stabilizers
427:aminoxyl radicals
415:ionization energy
231:analogues thereof
192:chain propagation
188:abstract hydrogen
172:hydroxyl radicals
120:injection molding
16:(Redirected from
2950:
2794:Rubber pollution
2644:Organophosphates
2563:
2556:
2549:
2540:
2419:
2391:Filament winding
2366:Transfer molding
2293:Polymer additive
2237:
2231:
2179:Polystyrene (PS)
2056:
2049:
2042:
2033:
2026:
2025:
2004:
1998:
1997:
1976:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1920:
1914:
1913:
1904:(3â4): 271â294.
1893:
1887:
1872:
1866:
1865:
1856:(3â4): 203â236.
1845:
1839:
1838:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1738:
1732:
1731:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1645:
1639:
1638:
1618:
1612:
1611:
1590:
1584:
1583:
1557:
1551:
1550:
1530:
1524:
1523:
1503:
1497:
1496:
1486:
1462:
1456:
1455:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1402:
1396:
1395:
1369:
1363:
1362:
1353:(3â4): 181â202.
1342:
1336:
1335:
1315:
1309:
1308:
1287:
1281:
1280:
1252:
1246:
1245:
1225:
1219:
1218:
1207:10.1039/B901838G
1190:
1184:
1183:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1136:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1122:
1120:
1118:
1104:
1095:
1094:
1066:
1057:
1056:
1028:
1022:
1021:
1001:
995:
994:
974:
968:
967:
949:
836:, most commonly
822:isothiazolinones
802:organophosphates
778:Flame retardants
772:calcium stearate
668:calcium stearate
423:1,4-benzoquinone
311:in the process:
309:organophosphates
258:hydroxycinnamate
250:quinone methides
185:
21:
2958:
2957:
2953:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2947:
2928:
2927:
2926:
2921:
2912:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2820:
2777:
2734:
2696:
2663:
2632:
2578:
2567:
2533:
2523:
2472:
2410:
2396:Solvent bonding
2386:Plastic welding
2328:
2322:
2281:
2244:
2238:
2232:
2223:
2134:Polyester (PEs)
2071:
2065:
2060:
2030:
2029:
2006:
2005:
2001:
1978:
1977:
1973:
1949:
1948:
1944:
1922:
1921:
1917:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1873:
1869:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1835:
1810:
1809:
1805:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1740:
1739:
1735:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1686:
1685:
1681:
1647:
1646:
1642:
1620:
1619:
1615:
1592:
1591:
1587:
1580:
1559:
1558:
1554:
1532:
1531:
1527:
1505:
1504:
1500:
1464:
1463:
1459:
1452:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1404:
1403:
1399:
1392:
1371:
1370:
1366:
1344:
1343:
1339:
1317:
1316:
1312:
1289:
1288:
1284:
1254:
1253:
1249:
1227:
1226:
1222:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1165:
1164:
1160:
1138:
1137:
1133:
1123:
1116:
1114:
1106:
1105:
1098:
1091:
1068:
1067:
1060:
1030:
1029:
1025:
1003:
1002:
998:
976:
975:
971:
964:
951:
950:
941:
936:
907:Other additives
862:
852:that can cause
850:charge carriers
830:
810:
786:
784:Flame retardant
780:
744:
700:
692:magnesium oxide
648:
646:Acid Scavengers
640:
591:
585:
540:
469:
456:
435:
387:
370:
338:
334:
322:
318:
315:ROOH + P(OR')
294:
266:
204:
183:
149:
111:
72:photo-oxidation
32:British English
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2956:
2954:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2930:
2929:
2923:
2922:
2917:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2899:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2865:
2863:
2859:
2858:
2853:
2852:
2850:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2828:
2826:
2822:
2821:
2819:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2785:
2783:
2779:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2744:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2732:
2731:
2730:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2704:
2702:
2698:
2697:
2695:
2694:
2687:Vinyl chloride
2684:
2681:Polycarbonates
2673:
2671:
2665:
2664:
2662:
2661:
2655:
2646:
2640:
2638:
2634:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2614:
2609:
2603:
2598:
2592:
2590:
2580:
2579:
2568:
2566:
2565:
2558:
2551:
2543:
2537:
2535:
2529:
2528:
2525:
2524:
2522:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2494:Packaging film
2491:
2486:
2480:
2478:
2477:Specific goods
2474:
2473:
2471:
2470:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2428:
2426:
2416:
2412:
2411:
2409:
2408:
2403:
2401:Vacuum forming
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2332:
2330:
2324:
2323:
2321:
2320:
2315:
2310:
2305:
2300:
2295:
2289:
2287:
2283:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2274:
2272:Polymeric foam
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2248:
2246:
2240:
2239:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2149:Polyimide (PI)
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2109:Polyamide (PA)
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2086:
2081:
2075:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2061:
2059:
2058:
2051:
2044:
2036:
2028:
2027:
1999:
1971:
1942:
1915:
1888:
1867:
1840:
1833:
1803:
1768:
1749:(3): 717â736.
1733:
1706:
1679:
1640:
1613:
1585:
1578:
1552:
1541:(1): 239â246.
1525:
1498:
1457:
1450:
1424:
1397:
1390:
1364:
1337:
1326:(3): 531â538.
1310:
1299:(3): 329â343.
1282:
1263:(2): 480â490.
1247:
1220:
1201:(6): 2106â19.
1185:
1158:
1147:(4): 295â306.
1131:
1096:
1089:
1058:
1023:
996:
985:(3): 561â584.
969:
962:
938:
937:
935:
932:
931:
930:
925:
920:
915:
909:
908:
904:
903:
897:
887:
873:
870:fuel additives
861:
858:
829:
826:
814:biodegradation
809:
806:
800:, and various
782:Main article:
779:
776:
768:metallic soaps
743:
740:
699:
696:
664:metallic soaps
647:
644:
639:
636:
587:Main article:
584:
581:
560:singlet oxygen
539:
536:
508:polycarbonates
476:polycarbonates
468:
465:
434:
431:
395:ozone cracking
383:Main article:
369:
366:
341:
340:
336:
332:
325:
324:
320:
316:
297:
296:
292:
265:
262:
254:phloretic acid
246:
245:
242:
210:
209:
206:
202:
199:
148:
145:
110:
107:
80:chain scission
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2955:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2920:
2915:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2897:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2880:
2877:
2876:
2875:
2874:Garbage patch
2872:
2871:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2864:
2860:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2829:
2827:
2823:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2795:
2792:
2791:
2790:
2787:
2786:
2784:
2780:
2774:
2771:
2769:
2766:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2745:
2743:
2741:
2740:Health issues
2737:
2729:
2726:
2725:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2699:
2692:
2688:
2685:
2682:
2678:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2656:
2654:
2650:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2635:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2593:
2591:
2589:
2585:
2581:
2576:
2572:
2564:
2559:
2557:
2552:
2550:
2545:
2544:
2541:
2536:
2530:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2514:Shopping bags
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2481:
2479:
2475:
2469:(Agriculture)
2468:
2467:Plasticulture
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2447:Geosynthetics
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2429:
2427:
2424:
2420:
2417:
2413:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2351:Thermoforming
2349:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2333:
2331:
2325:
2319:
2316:
2314:
2311:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2299:
2296:
2294:
2291:
2290:
2288:
2284:
2278:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2258:
2255:
2253:
2252:Thermoplastic
2250:
2249:
2247:
2241:
2236:
2230:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2068:
2064:
2057:
2052:
2050:
2045:
2043:
2038:
2037:
2034:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2011:
2003:
2000:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1975:
1972:
1966:
1961:
1957:
1953:
1946:
1943:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1919:
1916:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1871:
1868:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1844:
1841:
1836:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1818:
1814:
1807:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1772:
1769:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1737:
1734:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1710:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1683:
1680:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1641:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1617:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1589:
1586:
1581:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1553:
1548:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1529:
1526:
1521:
1517:
1514:(2): 97â108.
1513:
1509:
1502:
1499:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1461:
1458:
1453:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1428:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1401:
1398:
1393:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1368:
1365:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1341:
1338:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1314:
1311:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1286:
1283:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1248:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1224:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:
1186:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1135:
1132:
1127:
1113:
1109:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1092:
1090:9783527306732
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1073:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1027:
1024:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1000:
997:
992:
988:
984:
980:
973:
970:
965:
959:
955:
948:
946:
944:
940:
933:
929:
926:
924:
921:
919:
916:
914:
911:
910:
906:
905:
901:
898:
895:
891:
888:
885:
881:
877:
874:
871:
867:
866:Oil additives
864:
863:
859:
857:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
827:
825:
823:
819:
815:
807:
805:
803:
799:
795:
791:
785:
777:
775:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
756:lead stearate
753:
752:autocatalytic
749:
741:
739:
737:
733:
729:
725:
721:
720:polypropylene
717:
713:
709:
705:
697:
695:
693:
689:
685:
684:calcium oxide
681:
680:hydrocalumite
677:
673:
672:zinc stearate
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
645:
643:
638:Other Classes
637:
635:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
612:
609:
606:
604:
595:
590:
582:
580:
578:
577:plastic mulch
574:
569:
565:
561:
557:
556:excited state
553:
544:
537:
535:
532:
527:
525:
522:are used for
521:
520:benzophenones
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
484:polyurethanes
481:
477:
473:
466:
464:
461:
455:
447:
446:benzotriazole
443:
439:
432:
430:
428:
424:
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416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
386:
378:
374:
367:
365:
363:
359:
355:
351:
350:hydroperoxide
347:
331:ROH + OP(OR')
330:
329:
328:
314:
313:
312:
310:
306:
302:
290:
289:
288:
286:
278:
274:
270:
263:
261:
259:
255:
251:
243:
240:
239:
238:
236:
235:diphenylamine
232:
228:
224:
220:
219:hydroperoxide
216:
207:
200:
197:
196:
195:
193:
189:
181:
177:
173:
169:
161:
157:
153:
146:
144:
141:
137:
133:
132:polypropylene
129:
128:autocatalytic
125:
121:
116:
108:
106:
103:
101:
97:
96:waste plastic
91:
89:
85:
84:cross-linking
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
19:
2584:Plasticizers
2532:Environment
2484:Blister pack
2437:Construction
2346:Blow molding
2013:
2009:
2002:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1955:
1945:
1928:
1924:
1918:
1901:
1897:
1891:
1875:
1870:
1853:
1849:
1843:
1816:
1812:
1806:
1784:(3): 91â94.
1781:
1777:
1771:
1746:
1742:
1736:
1719:
1715:
1709:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1660:(1): 61â72.
1657:
1653:
1643:
1626:
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1595:
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1538:
1534:
1528:
1511:
1507:
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1319:
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1256:
1250:
1236:(1): 27â34.
1233:
1229:
1223:
1198:
1194:
1188:
1171:
1167:
1161:
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1134:
1115:. Retrieved
1111:
1070:
1036:
1032:
1026:
1009:
1005:
999:
982:
978:
972:
953:
846:thioxanthone
831:
811:
787:
745:
701:
676:hydrotalcite
649:
641:
624:polyurethane
620:polyethylene
613:
610:
607:
600:
549:
528:
504:Bemotrizinol
470:
467:UV absorbers
460:autoxidation
457:
442:Bisoctrizole
388:
342:
326:
298:
282:
247:
211:
184:10â10 mol s)
176:shear stress
165:
115:autoxidation
112:
109:Antioxidants
104:
92:
88:malleability
35:
27:
26:
2825:Regulations
2677:Bisphenol A
2361:Calendering
2303:Plasticizer
2243:Mechanical
1722:(1): 1â10.
1695:(1): 7â43.
1629:: 132â141.
1602:: 223â231.
1413:(1): 7â14.
913:Plasticizer
792:along with
616:polyolefins
552:chromophore
419:aromaticity
385:Antiozonant
368:Antiozonant
319:â OP(OR')
140:polystyrene
2932:Categories
2753:Carcinogen
2718:Organotins
2588:Phthalates
2534:and health
2381:Pultrusion
2371:Laminating
2329:processing
1174:(1): 1â9.
1117:22 January
934:References
760:organotins
736:Salen-type
688:zinc oxide
666:, such as
516:polyamides
480:polyesters
452:See also:
399:ozonolysis
358:sulfoxides
354:thioethers
198:R-R â 2 Râ˘
160:propionate
68:ozonolysis
2782:Pollution
2748:Teratogen
2679:(BPA, in
2327:Plastics
2298:Colorants
2286:Additives
2070:Chemical
1988:: 63â69.
1819:: 43â48.
1053:241307234
728:chelation
564:Quenchers
538:Quenchers
301:phosphite
277:phosphite
180:homolytic
60:UV-damage
56:oxidation
40:polymeric
2763:Diabetes
2669:Monomers
2649:Adipates
2571:plastics
2425:segments
2415:Products
2063:Plastics
1798:95768859
1674:96033161
1594:study".
1493:98808880
1277:21072412
1215:20514720
860:See also
818:biocides
808:Biocides
770:such as
575:such as
512:acrylics
362:sulfones
225:such as
76:catalyst
44:plastics
2891:Dioxins
2811:Dioxins
2768:Obesity
2509:Cutlery
2499:Bottles
1751:Bibcode
764:cadmium
568:FĂśrster
223:phenols
162:groups.
48:rubbers
2608:(BBzP)
2577:(PHCs)
2489:Chairs
2457:Nurdle
1831:
1796:
1672:
1576:
1491:
1448:
1388:
1275:
1213:
1087:
1051:
960:
842:benzil
820:(e.g.
500:UV-328
496:UV-360
494:(e.g.
411:alkene
323:+ ROH
205:â ROOâ˘
201:R⢠+ O
136:rubber
2862:Waste
2708:PBDEs
2619:(DOP)
2245:types
2072:types
1794:S2CID
1670:S2CID
1489:S2CID
1049:S2CID
407:ozone
391:ozone
2723:PFCs
2713:PCBs
2689:(in
2653:DEHA
2628:DINP
2623:DIDP
2617:DEHP
2612:DIHP
2596:DIBP
2573:and
2504:Bags
1829:ISBN
1574:ISBN
1446:ISBN
1386:ISBN
1273:PMID
1211:PMID
1119:2019
1085:ISBN
1037:2019
1010:2018
958:ISBN
892:and
882:and
868:and
844:and
762:and
710:and
678:and
670:and
622:and
510:and
482:and
444:: A
377:6PPD
360:and
275:, a
46:and
2691:PVC
2658:DOA
2606:BBP
2601:DBP
2018:doi
1990:doi
1986:112
1960:doi
1933:doi
1906:doi
1880:doi
1858:doi
1821:doi
1786:doi
1759:doi
1724:doi
1697:doi
1662:doi
1631:doi
1627:147
1604:doi
1600:111
1566:doi
1543:doi
1539:232
1516:doi
1479:doi
1438:doi
1415:doi
1378:doi
1355:doi
1328:doi
1301:doi
1265:doi
1238:doi
1203:doi
1176:doi
1149:doi
1077:doi
1041:doi
1014:doi
987:doi
838:PEX
824:).
748:PVC
718:in
690:or
656:PVC
652:HCl
531:PPS
524:PVC
229:or
227:BHT
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