Positron emission tomography

1216:. The sinograms are sorted by the angle of each view and tilt (for 3D images). The sinogram images are analogous to the projections captured by CT scanners, and can be reconstructed in a similar way. The statistics of data thereby obtained are much worse than those obtained through transmission tomography. A normal PET data set has millions of counts for the whole acquisition, while the CT can reach a few billion counts. This contributes to PET images appearing "noisier" than CT. Two major sources of noise in PET are scatter (a detected pair of photons, at least one of which was deflected from its original path by interaction with matter in the field of view, leading to the pair being assigned to an incorrect LOR) and random events (photons originating from two different annihilation events but incorrectly recorded as a coincidence pair because their arrival at their respective detectors occurred within a coincidence timing window). 1438:

radiotracer molecules that will contain a positron-emitting radioisotope cannot be synthesized first and then the radioisotope prepared within them, because bombardment with a cyclotron to prepare the radioisotope destroys any organic carrier for it. Instead, the isotope must be prepared first, then the chemistry to prepare any organic radiotracer (such as FDG) accomplished very quickly, in the short time before the isotope decays. Few hospitals and universities are capable of maintaining such systems, and most clinical PET is supported by third-party suppliers of radiotracers that can supply many sites simultaneously. This limitation restricts clinical PET primarily to the use of tracers labelled with fluorine-18, which has a half-life of 110 minutes and can be transported a reasonable distance before use, or to rubidium-82 (used as

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artifacts common with FBP, but the disadvantage is greater computer resource requirements. A further advantage of statistical image reconstruction techniques is that the physical effects that would need to be pre-corrected for when using an analytical reconstruction algorithm, such as scattered photons, random coincidences, attenuation and detector dead-time, can be incorporated into the likelihood model being used in the reconstruction, allowing for additional noise reduction. Iterative reconstruction has also been shown to result in improvements in the resolution of the reconstructed images, since more sophisticated models of the scanner physics can be incorporated into the likelihood model than those used by analytical reconstruction methods, allowing for improved quantification of the radioactivity distribution.

1058:. PET technology can be used to trace the biologic pathway of any compound in living humans (and many other species as well), provided it can be radiolabeled with a PET isotope. Thus, the specific processes that can be probed with PET are virtually limitless, and radiotracers for new target molecules and processes are continuing to be synthesized. As of this writing there are already dozens in clinical use and hundreds applied in research. In 2020 by far the most commonly used radiotracer in clinical PET scanning is the carbohydrate derivative FDG. This radiotracer is used in essentially all scans for oncology and most scans in neurology, thus makes up the large majority of radiotracer (>95%) used in PET and PET-CT scanning. 1365:: For modern systems with a higher time resolution (roughly 3 nanoseconds) a technique called "time-of-flight" is used to improve the overall performance. Time-of-flight PET makes use of very fast gamma-ray detectors and data processing system which can more precisely decide the difference in time between the detection of the two photons. It is impossible to localize the point of origin of the annihilation event exactly (currently within 10 cm). Therefore, image reconstruction is still needed. TOF technique gives a remarkable improvement in image quality, especially signal-to-noise ratio. 199:. PET is a valuable research tool to learn and enhance our knowledge of the normal human brain, heart function, and support drug development. PET is also used in pre-clinical studies using animals. It allows repeated investigations into the same subjects over time, where subjects can act as their own control and substantially reduces the numbers of animals required for a given study. This approach allows research studies to reduce the sample size needed while increasing the statistical quality of its results. 1403:) giving both anatomic and metabolic information (i.e., what the structure is, and what it is doing biochemically). Because PET imaging is most useful in combination with anatomical imaging, such as CT, modern PET scanners are now available with integrated high-end multi-detector-row CT scanners (PET-CT). Because the two scans can be performed in immediate sequence during the same session, with the patient not changing position between the two types of scans, the two sets of images are more precisely 1384: 1572: 42: 1467: 7824: 6874: 434:(AD) greatly decrease brain metabolism of both glucose and oxygen in tandem. Therefore FDG PET of the brain may also be used to successfully differentiate Alzheimer's disease from other dementing processes, and also to make early diagnoses of Alzheimer's disease. The advantage of FDG PET for these uses is its much wider availability. Some fluorine-18 based radioactive tracers used for Alzheimer's include 1392: 780:

and dissecting the animals. Commonly, drug occupancy at a purported site of action can be inferred indirectly by competition studies between unlabeled drug and radiolabeled compounds to bind with specificity to the site. A single radioligand can be used this way to test many potential drug candidates for the same target. A related technique involves scanning with radioligands that compete with an

4948: 934: 6862: 251: 6886: 1102: 407: 1532: 866:, which can be used only on superficial muscles directly under the skin. However, a disadvantage is that PET provides no timing information about muscle activation because it has to be measured after the exercise is completed. This is due to the time it takes for FDG to accumulate in the activated muscles. 1249:

such as the Shepp–Vardi algorithm are now the preferred method of reconstruction. These algorithms compute an estimate of the likely distribution of annihilation events that led to the measured data, based on statistical principles. The advantage is a better noise profile and resistance to the streak

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Young H, Baum R, Cremerius U, Herholz K, Hoekstra O, Lammertsma AA, et al. (December 1999). "Measurement of clinical and subclinical tumor response using -fluorodeoxyglucose and positron emission tomography: review and 1999 EORTC recommendations. European Organization for Research and Treatment

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beginning in the 1950s contributed significantly to the development of PET technology and included the first demonstration of annihilation radiation for medical imaging. Their innovations, including the use of light pipes and volumetric analysis, have been important in the deployment of PET imaging.

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3D techniques have better sensitivity (because more coincidences are detected and used) hence less noise, but are more sensitive to the effects of scatter and random coincidences, as well as requiring greater computer resources. The advent of sub-nanosecond timing resolution detectors affords better

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became the first veterinary center to employ a small clinical PET scanner as a scanner for clinical (rather than research) animal diagnosis. Because of cost as well as the marginal utility of detecting cancer metastases in companion animals (the primary use of this modality), veterinary PET scanning

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in the scanning device, creating a burst of light which is detected by photomultiplier tubes or silicon avalanche photodiodes (Si APD). The technique depends on simultaneous or coincident detection of the pair of photons moving in approximately opposite directions (they would be exactly opposite in

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with opposite charge. The emitted positron travels in tissue for a short distance (typically less than 1 mm, but dependent on the isotope), during which time it loses kinetic energy, until it decelerates to a point where it can interact with an electron. The encounter annihilates both electron

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Because the half-life of fluorine-18 is about two hours, the prepared dose of a radiopharmaceutical bearing this radionuclide will undergo multiple half-lives of decay during the working day. This necessitates frequent recalibration of the remaining dose (determination of activity per unit volume)

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The raw data collected by a PET scanner are a list of 'coincidence events' representing near-simultaneous detection (typically, within a window of 6 to 12 nanoseconds of each other) of annihilation photons by a pair of detectors. Each coincidence event represents a line in space connecting the two

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In pre-clinical trials, a new drug can be radiolabeled and injected into animals. Such scans are referred to as biodistribution studies. The information regarding drug uptake, retention and elimination over time can be obtained quickly and cost-effectively compare to the older technique of killing

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changes in the body. Since PET is capable of detecting biochemical processes as well as expression of some proteins, PET can provide molecular-level information much before any anatomic changes are visible. PET scanning does this by using radiolabelled molecular probes that have different rates of

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studies. In recent years a few on-site cyclotrons with integrated shielding and "hot labs" (automated chemistry labs that are able to work with radioisotopes) have begun to accompany PET units to remote hospitals. The presence of the small on-site cyclotron promises to expand in the future as the

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The minimization of radiation dose to the subject is an attractive feature of the use of short-lived radionuclides. Besides its established role as a diagnostic technique, PET has an expanding role as a method to assess the response to therapy, in particular, cancer therapy, where the risk to the

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The logical extension of positron instrumentation was a design using two 2-dimensional arrays. PC-I was the first instrument using this concept and was designed in 1968, completed in 1969 and reported in 1972. The first applications of PC-I in tomographic mode as distinguished from the computed

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is injected into the living subject (usually into blood circulation). Each tracer atom has been chemically incorporated into a biologically active molecule. There is a waiting period while the active molecule becomes concentrated in tissues of interest. Then the subject is placed in the imaging

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fitted with a coincidence detector. The quality of gamma-camera PET imaging is lower, and the scans take longer to acquire. However, this method allows a low-cost on-site solution to institutions with low PET scanning demand. An alternative would be to refer these patients to another center or

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Limitations to the widespread use of PET arise from the high costs of cyclotrons needed to produce the short-lived radionuclides for PET scanning and the need for specially adapted on-site chemical synthesis apparatus to produce the radiopharmaceuticals after radioisotope preparation. Organic

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Due to the short half-lives of most positron-emitting radioisotopes, the radiotracers have traditionally been produced using a cyclotron in close proximity to the PET imaging facility. The half-life of fluorine-18 is long enough that radiotracers labeled with fluorine-18 can be manufactured

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Mukherjee J, Christian BT, Dunigan KA, Shi B, Narayanan TK, Satter M, Mantil J (December 2002). "Brain imaging of F-fallypride in normal volunteers: blood analysis, distribution, test-retest studies, and preliminary assessment of sensitivity to aging effects on dopamine D-2/D-3 receptors".

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in the raw data is prominent in the reconstructed images, and areas of high tracer uptake tend to form streaks across the image. Also, FBP treats the data deterministically – it does not account for the inherent randomness associated with PET data, thus requiring all the pre-reconstruction

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emitted by the radiotracer inside the body are absorbed by intervening tissue between the detector and the emission of the photon. As different LORs must traverse different thicknesses of tissue, the photons are attenuated differentially. The result is that structures deep in the body are

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of the radioactive glucose molecule allows the PET scan to be utilized. The concentrations of imaged FDG tracer indicate tissue metabolic activity as it corresponds to the regional glucose uptake. FDG is used to explore the possibility of cancer spreading to other body sites

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tomographic mode were reported in 1970. It soon became clear to many of those involved in PET development that a circular or cylindrical array of detectors was the logical next step in PET instrumentation. Although many investigators took this approach, James Robertson and

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in August 1976 at the University of Pennsylvania. Brain images obtained with an ordinary (non-PET) nuclear scanner demonstrated the concentration of FDG in that organ. Later, the substance was used in dedicated positron tomographic scanners, to yield the modern procedure.

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sugars, due to their ionic charge, cannot exit from the cell. This results in intense radiolabeling of tissues with high glucose uptake, such as the normal brain, liver, kidneys, and most cancers, which have a higher glucose uptake than most normal tissue due to the

1407:, so that areas of abnormality on the PET imaging can be more perfectly correlated with anatomy on the CT images. This is very useful in showing detailed views of moving organs or structures with higher anatomical variation, which is more common outside the brain. 1163:

The most significant fraction of electron–positron annihilations results in two 511 keV gamma photons being emitted at almost 180 degrees to each other. Hence, it is possible to localize their source along a straight line of coincidence (also called the

1344:: Early PET scanners had only a single ring of detectors, hence the acquisition of data and subsequent reconstruction was restricted to a single transverse plane. More modern scanners now include multiple rings, essentially forming a cylinder of detectors. 1517:

One of the factors most responsible for the acceptance of positron imaging was the development of radiopharmaceuticals. In particular, the development of labeled 2-fluorodeoxy-D-glucose (FDG-firstly synthethized and described by two Czech scientists from

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Comparative images of the first X-ray (left) and the first total body FDG-PET scan (right), the latter pioneered by Abass Alavi. These diagnostic tools have revolutionized modern medicine, with the FDG-PET scan having an impact akin to that of the first

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While attenuation-corrected images are generally more faithful representations, the correction process is itself susceptible to significant artifacts. As a result, both corrected and uncorrected images are always reconstructed and read together.

588:. These probes permit the visualization of amyloid plaques in the brains of Alzheimer's patients and could assist clinicians in making a positive clinical diagnosis of AD pre-mortem and aid in the development of novel anti-amyloid therapies. 414:

PET imaging with oxygen-15 indirectly measures blood flow to the brain. In this method, increased radioactivity signal indicates increased blood flow which is assumed to correlate with increased brain activity. Because of its 2-minute

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Luster M, Karges W, Zeich K, Pauls S, Verburg FA, Dralle H, et al. (March 2010). "Clinical value of F-fluorodihydroxyphenylalanine positron emission tomography/computed tomography (F-DOPA PET/CT) for detecting pheochromocytoma".

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have been explored for this purpose. If the sclerosis is unilateral (right hippocampus or left hippocampus), FDG uptake can be compared with the healthy side. Even if the diagnosis is difficult with MRI, it may be diagnosed with PET.

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by way of example. To visualize and quantify the distribution of such antibodies in the body, the PET isotope Zr is well suited because its physical half-life matches the typical biological half-life of antibodies, see table above.

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PET imaging with FDG can also be used for localization of "seizure focus". A seizure focus will appear as hypometabolic during an interictal scan. Several radiotracers (i.e. radioligands) have been developed for PET that are

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patient from lack of knowledge about disease progress is much greater than the risk from the test radiation. Since the tracers are radioactive, the elderly and pregnant are unable to use it due to risks posed by radiation.

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in Prague in 1968) by the Brookhaven group under the direction of Al Wolf and Joanna Fowler was a major factor in expanding the scope of PET imaging. The compound was first administered to two normal human volunteers by

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and 6.5–8 mSv for a CT scan of the chest. Average civil aircrews are exposed to 3 mSv/year, and the whole body occupational dose limit for nuclear energy workers in the US is 50 mSv/year. For scale, see

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reports that the current average incremental cost to perform a PET scan in the province is CA$ 1,000–1,200 per scan. This includes the cost of the radiopharmaceutical and a stipend for the physician reading the scan.

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technologies can improve diagnosis and treatment follow-up. Clinically, PET has been widely used to image bacterial infections using FDG to identify the infection-associated inflammatory response. Three different PET

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uptake depending on the type and function of tissue involved. Regional tracer uptake in various anatomic structures can be visualized and relatively quantified in terms of injected positron emitter within a PET scan.

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correction (after the detection of a photon, the detector must "cool down" again) and detector-sensitivity correction (for both inherent detector sensitivity and changes in sensitivity due to angle of incidence).

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Ido T, Wan CN, Casella V, Fowler JS, Wolf AP, Reivich M, Kuhl DE (1978). "Labeled 2-deoxy-D-glucose analogs. F-labeled 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose, 2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-mannose and 14C-2-deoxy-2-fluoro-D-glucose".

1155:, but the scanner has no way to know this, and so has a built-in slight direction-error tolerance). Photons that do not arrive in temporal "pairs" (i.e. within a timing-window of a few nanoseconds) are ignored. 5637: 426:

PET imaging with FDG takes advantage of the fact that the brain is normally a rapid user of glucose. Standard FDG PET of the brain measures regional glucose use and can be used in neuropathological diagnosis.

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scanner. The molecule most commonly used for this purpose is FDG, a sugar, for which the waiting period is typically an hour. During the scan, a record of tissue concentration is made as the tracer decays.

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Mathis CA, Bacskai BJ, Kajdasz ST, McLellan ME, Frosch MP, Hyman BT, et al. (February 2002). "A lipophilic thioflavin-T derivative for positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of amyloid in brain".

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reconstructed as having falsely low tracer uptake. Contemporary scanners can estimate attenuation using integrated x-ray CT equipment, in place of earlier equipment that offered a crude form of CT using a

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has been in use for 60 years for measuring regional bone metabolism and blood flow using static and dynamic scans. Researchers have recently started using sodium fluoride to study bone metastasis as well.

1234:(FBP) has been frequently used to reconstruct images from the projections. This algorithm has the advantage of being simple while having a low requirement for computing resources. Disadvantages are that 3604:

van Rij, Catharina M.; Sharkey, Robert M.; Goldenberg, David M.; Frielink, Cathelijne; Molkenboer, Janneke D. M.; Franssen, Gerben M.; van Weerden, Wietske M.; Oyen, Wim J. G.; Boerman, Otto C. (2011).

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Ahn, Shin Hye; Cosby, Alexia G.; Koller, Angus J.; Martin, Kirsten E.; Pandey, Apurva; Vaughn, Brett A.; Boros, Eszter (2021). "Chapter 6. Radiometals for Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Imaging".

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Buchsbaum MS, Christian BT, Lehrer DS, Narayanan TK, Shi B, Mantil J, et al. (July 2006). "D2/D3 dopamine receptor binding with fallypride in thalamus and cortex of patients with schizophrenia".

297:). These FDG PET scans for detecting cancer metastasis are the most common in standard medical care (representing 90% of current scans). The same tracer may also be used for the diagnosis of types of 258:). The normal brain and kidneys are labeled, and radioactive urine from breakdown of the FDG is seen in the bladder. In addition, a large metastatic tumor mass from colon cancer is seen in the liver. 4076:

Miller MI, Snyder DL (1987). "The role of likelihood and entropy in incomplete data problems: Applications to estimating point-process intensites and toeplitz constrained covariance estimates".

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A Vital Legacy: Biological and Environmental Research in the Atomic Age (Report). U.S. Department of Energy, The Office of Biological and Environmental Research. September 2010. pp. 25–26.

677:) and other sites have been used successfully in studies with human subjects. Studies have been performed examining the state of these receptors in patients compared to healthy controls in 2605:"Binding characteristics of radiofluorinated 6-dialkylamino-2-naphthylethylidene derivatives as positron emission tomography imaging probes for beta-amyloid plaques in Alzheimer's disease" 3960: 2688:

Kuhl DE, Koeppe RA, Minoshima S, Snyder SE, Ficaro EP, Foster NL, et al. (March 1999). "In vivo mapping of cerebral acetylcholinesterase activity in aging and Alzheimer's disease".

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Heuveling, Derek A.; Visser, Gerard W. M.; Baclayon, Marian; Roos, Wouter H.; Wuite, Gijs J. L.; Hoekstra, Otto S.; Leemans, C. René; de Bree, Remco; van Dongen, Guus A. M. S. (2011).

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cyclotrons shrink in response to the high cost of isotope transportation to remote PET machines. In recent years the shortage of PET scans has been alleviated in the US, as rollout of

596:. Post-mortem examination of AD patients have shown decreased levels of acetylcholinesterase. PMP is used to map the acetylcholinesterase activity in the brain, which could allow for 3396:

Brix G, Lechel U, Glatting G, Ziegler SI, Münzing W, Müller SP, Beyer T (April 2005). "Radiation exposure of patients undergoing whole-body dual-modality F-FDG PET/CT examinations".

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were the first to propose a ring system that has become the prototype of the current shape of PET. The first multislice cylindrical array PET scanner was completed in 1974 at the

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Treat each ring as a separate entity, so that only coincidences within a ring are detected, the image from each ring can then be reconstructed individually (2D reconstruction), or

5825: 2887: 2885: 5352: 4324:

Navalpakkam BK, Braun H, Kuwert T, Quick HH (May 2013). "Magnetic resonance-based attenuation correction for PET/MR hybrid imaging using continuous valued attenuation maps".

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Pauls S, Buck AK, Hohl K, Halter G, Hetzel M, Blumstein NM, et al. (2007). "Improved non-invasive T-Staging in non-small cell lung cancer by integrated F-FDG PET/CT".

5647: 1312:'s roughness method may yield superior performance to expectation-maximization-based methods which involve a Poisson likelihood function but do not involve such a prior. 4573: 1421:

For brain imaging, registration of CT, MRI and PET scans may be accomplished without the need for an integrated PET-CT or PET-MRI scanner by using a device known as the

1294: 6528: 1188:(SNR) of the image will improve, requiring fewer events to achieve the same image quality. This technology is not yet common, but it is available on some new systems. 4289:

Huang SC, Hoffman EJ, Phelps ME, Kuhl DE (December 1979). "Quantitation in positron emission computed tomography: 2. Effects of inaccurate attenuation correction".

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Willett R, Harmany Z, Marcia R (2010). Bouman CA, Pollak I, Wolfe PJ (eds.). "SPIRAL out of Convexity: Sparsity-regularized Algorithms for Photon-limited Imaging".

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For PET-CT scanning, the radiation exposure may be substantial—around 23–26 mSv (for a 70 kg person—dose is likely to be higher for higher body weights).

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Numerous compounds that bind selectively to neuroreceptors of interest in biological psychiatry have been radiolabeled with C-11 or F-18. Radioligands that bind to

1318:: Quantitative PET Imaging requires attenuation correction. In these systems attenuation correction is based on a transmission scan using Ge rotating rod source. 1873:

McCarten KM, Nadel HR, Shulkin BL, Cho SY (October 2019). "Imaging for diagnosis, staging and response assessment of Hodgkin lymphoma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma".

592:(PMP) is a novel radiopharmaceutical used in PET imaging to determine the activity of the acetylcholinergic neurotransmitter system by acting as a substrate for 7498: 7182: 5332: 1172:). In practice, the LOR has a non-zero width as the emitted photons are not exactly 180 degrees apart. If the resolving time of the detectors is less than 500 7312: 5654: 5085: 7324: 1212:

collected in PET is much poorer than CT, so reconstruction techniques are more difficult. Coincidence events can be grouped into projection images, called

91:, regional chemical composition, and absorption. Different tracers are used for various imaging purposes, depending on the target process within the body. 7652: 5420: 1205: 731: 223: 6924: 5923: 3339: 7760: 1514:

In 1961, James Robertson and his associates at Brookhaven National Laboratory built the first single-plane PET scan, nicknamed the "head-shrinker."

1503: 1483: 7290: 4457:

Saleh H, Kassas B (2015). "Developing Stereotactic Frames for Cranial Treatment". In Benedict SH, Schlesinger DJ, Goetsch SJ, Kavanagh BD (eds.).

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Oi N, Iwaya T, Itoh M, Yamaguchi K, Tobimatsu Y, Fujimoto T (2003). "FDG-PET imaging of lower extremity muscular activity during level walking".

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magnetic resonance tomograph (MRT) combined with a PET. Presently, only the head and brain can be imaged at these high magnetic field strengths.

891:. FDG, which is now the standard radiotracer used for PET neuroimaging and cancer patient management, has an effective radiation dose of 14 348:

A 2020 review of research on the use of PET for Hodgkin lymphoma found evidence that negative findings in interim PET scans are linked to higher

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in all cells, no further reactions occur in FDG. Furthermore, most tissues (with the notable exception of liver and kidneys) cannot remove the

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Snyder DL, Miller MI, Thomas LJ, Politte DG (1987). "Noise and edge artifacts in maximum-likelihood reconstructions for emission tomography".

7848: 7295: 5347: 4550: 4197: 3746: 3712: 1976: 1690: 1482:, Luke Chapman and Roy Edwards in the late 1950s. Their work would lead to the design and construction of several tomographic instruments at 577: 231: 1081:

The isotope Zr has been applied to the tracking and quantification of molecular antibodies with PET cameras (a method called "immuno-PET").

543:). These agents permit the visualization of neuroreceptor pools in the context of a plurality of neuropsychiatric and neurologic illnesses. 6169: 4834: 4780:

Robertson JS, Marr RB, Rosenblum M, Radeka V, Yamamoto YL (1983). "32-Crystal positron transverse section detector". In Freedman GS (ed.).

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Ter-Pogossian MM, Phelps ME, Hoffman EJ, Mullani NA (January 1975). "A positron-emission transaxial tomograph for nuclear imaging (PETT)".

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The use of positron-emitting isotopes of metals in PET scans has been reviewed, including elements not listed above, such as lanthanides.

7853: 7136: 6162: 5632: 5597: 2894:"Use of stereotactic PET images in dosimetry planning of radiosurgery for brain tumors: clinical experience and proposed classification" 1546: 540: 2102:

Khan TS, Sundin A, Juhlin C, Långström B, Bergström M, Eriksson B (March 2003). "11C-metomidate PET imaging of adrenocortical cancer".

2053:"Interim PET-results for prognosis in adults with Hodgkin lymphoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prognostic factor studies" 1135: 7688: 7567: 7307: 7216: 6784: 6368: 1743: 1246: 396: 210:

PET imaging is best performed using a dedicated PET scanner. It is also possible to acquire PET images using a conventional dual-head

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Zaucha JM, Chauvie S, Zaucha R, Biggii A, Gallamini A (July 2019). "The role of PET/CT in the modern treatment of Hodgkin lymphoma".

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In practice, considerable pre-processing of the data is required – correction for random coincidences, estimation and subtraction of

7878: 7146: 5448: 5327: 4489: 2307: 674: 3554:"Zr-Nanocolloidal Albumin–Based PET/CT Lymphoscintigraphy for Sentinel Node Detection in Head and Neck Cancer: Preclinical Results" 2374:

Stanescu, Luana; Ishak, Gisele E.; Khanna, Paritosh C.; Biyyam, Deepa R.; Shaw, Dennis W.; Parisi, Marguerite T. (September 2013).

7131: 7126: 7009: 6678: 6543: 5078: 5059:—U.S. government source of radionuclides including those for PET—production, research, development, distribution, and information 528: 7211: 7194: 6621: 6455: 6293: 6057: 5935: 5592: 5453: 4974: 4815: 908: 4580: 3113: 808:, are marketed for academic and pharmaceutical research. The scanners are based on microminiature scintillators and amplified 7572: 7419: 7319: 7302: 6611: 6460: 5918: 4929: 4113:"Bayesian image reconstruction for emission tomography incorporating Good's roughness prior on massively parallel processors" 1820:

ARSAC – Notes for Guidance on the Clinical Administration of Radiopharmaceuticals and use of Sealed Sources (March 2018 p.35)

1510: 1262: 784:(naturally occurring) substance at a given receptor to demonstrate that a drug causes the release of the natural substance. 3504: 375:(FDOPA) PET/CT (also called F-18-DOPA PET/CT) has proven to be a more sensitive alternative to finding and also localizing 7698: 7552: 7151: 7026: 7018: 6917: 6385: 6218: 5642: 5570: 2178:"6-[F]fluorodopamine positron emission tomographic (PET) scanning for diagnostic localization of pheochromocytoma" 1354:

Allow coincidences to be detected between rings as well as within rings, then reconstruct the entire volume together (3D).

356:; however, the certainty of the available evidence was moderate for survival, and very low for progression-free survival. 6890: 2051:

Aldin A, Umlauff L, Estcourt LJ, Collins G, Moons KG, Engert A, et al. (Cochrane Haematology Group) (January 2020).

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PET is both a medical and research tool used in pre-clinical and clinical settings. It is used heavily in the imaging of

7883: 7858: 7809: 7743: 7665: 7643: 7414: 7382: 7013: 6728: 6465: 6174: 5928: 1414:

Institute of Neurosciences and Biophysics, the world's largest PET-MRI device began operation in April 2009. A 9.4-

3747:"Invitation to Cover: Advancements in "Time-of-Flight" Technology Make New PET/CT Scanner at Penn a First in the World" 838:

PET imaging has been used for imaging muscles and bones. FDG is the most commonly used tracer for imaging muscles, and

7473: 7441: 7424: 6878: 6791: 6763: 6720: 6685: 6523: 6350: 6288: 6113: 6017: 5903: 5371: 5071: 796:

to be scanned. This RatCAP (rat conscious animal PET) allows animals to be scanned without the confounding effects of

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PET SCAN PRIMER, A Guide to the Implementation of Positron Emission Tomography Imaging in Ontario, Executive Summary

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Ruggiero, A.; Holland, J. P.; Hudolin, T.; Shenker, L.; Koulova, A.; Bander, N. H.; Lewis, J. S.; Grimm, J. (2011).

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A few other isotopes and radiotracers are slowly being introduced into oncology for specific purposes. For example,

7873: 7547: 7282: 7022: 6571: 6250: 5768: 5725: 5577: 4795:

Cho ZH, Eriksson L, Chan JK (1975). "A circular ring transverse axial positron camera". In Ter-Pogossian MM (ed.).

2755:"Imaging cortical dopamine D1 receptors using [11C]NNC112 and ketanserin blockade of the 5-HT 2A receptors" 1487: 902:(12.4 mSv/year). For comparison, radiation dosage for other medical procedures range from 0.02 mSv for a 227: 6223: 7788: 7456: 7446: 6866: 6548: 6157: 5940: 4420: 3607:"Imaging of Prostate Cancer with Immuno-PET and Immuno-SPECT Using a Radiolabeled Anti-EGP-1 Monoclonal Antibody" 701:

for the treatment of intracranial tumors, arteriovenous malformations and other surgically treatable conditions.

601: 353: 330: 333:. As a result, FDG-PET can be used for diagnosis, staging, and monitoring treatment of cancers, particularly in 7863: 7827: 7778: 7557: 7436: 7409: 7170: 6955: 6910: 6796: 6638: 6538: 6450: 5659: 5545: 5505: 5317: 4416: 2458:"18 F-fluorodeoxyglucose and 18 F-flumazenil positron emission tomography in patients with refractory epilepsy" 1231: 1054:, or into molecules that bind to receptors or other sites of drug action. Such labelled compounds are known as 928: 585: 263: 98: 4877: 2925:"Imaging atherosclerotic plaque inflammation with [F]-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography" 6417: 4442:

Tse VC, Kalani MY, Adler JR (2015). "Techniques of Stereotactic Localization". In Chin LS, Regine WF (eds.).

898:

The amount of radiation in FDG is similar to the effective dose of spending one year in the American city of

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PET imaging of neuroaggregate in human brain has brought amyloid imaging close to clinical use. The earliest

316:. Because the hydroxy group that is replaced by fluorine-18 to generate FDG is required for the next step in 309:(F), are used to image the tissue concentration of different kinds of molecules of interest inside the body. 7726: 7562: 7503: 7488: 7377: 7199: 7175: 6668: 6643: 6257: 6034: 5840: 5763: 5720: 5703: 5664: 5587: 1645: 1614: 172:. PET scan images can be reconstructed using a CT scan performed using one scanner during the same session. 153:

is emitted, and when the positron interacts with an ordinary electron, the two particles annihilate and two

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added by hexokinase. This means that FDG is trapped in any cell that takes it up until it decays, since

4861: 1184:, whose length is determined by the detector timing resolution. As the timing resolution improves, the 242:

to detect molecules in the body. SPECT is less expensive and provides inferior image quality than PET.

4725: 3225:"Progress and promise of FDG-PET imaging for cancer patient management and oncologic drug development" 3025:"Imaging Enterobacteriaceae infection in vivo with F-fluorodeoxysorbitol positron emission tomography" 7804: 7493: 7431: 7253: 6738: 6712: 6513: 6498: 5815: 5773: 5609: 5515: 5443: 4245: 4124: 3925: 3878: 3869:

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during exercise. Also, PET can provide muscle activation data about deep-lying muscles (such as the

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Transmission scans directly measure attenuation values at 511 keV. Attenuation occurs when

175:

One of the disadvantages of a PET scanner is its high initial cost and ongoing operating costs.

1624:

for whole body FDG PET ranges from A$ 953 to A$ 999, depending on the indication for the scan.

1272: 742:

is also feasible. Also, it can help test the efficacy of novel anti-atherosclerosis therapies.

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A typical dose of FDG used in an oncological scan has an effective radiation dose of 7.6

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The overall performance of PET systems can be evaluated by quality control tools such as the

1442:) with a half-life of 1.27 minutes, which is created in a portable generator and is used for 7515: 7404: 7263: 7035: 6987: 6733: 5788: 5753: 5510: 5500: 5388: 5376: 5217: 5212: 5202: 5192: 5187: 5023: 5013: 4899: 4810: 4747: 4721: 4620: 4523: 4477: 4388: 4380: 4333: 4298: 4263: 4185: 4142: 4132: 4085: 4050: 4025: 3990: 3933: 3886: 3843: 3808: 3696: 3667: 3659: 3618: 3568: 3526: 3475: 3440: 3311: 3236: 3223:

Kelloff GJ, Hoffman JM, Johnson B, Scher HI, Siegel BA, Cheng EY, et al. (April 2005).

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has developed and commercialized a compound called florbetapir that uses the longer-lasting

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Minn H, Salonen A, Friberg J, Roivainen A, Viljanen T, Långsjö J, et al. (June 2004).

1066:

generators have become commercially available. These contain strontium-82, which decays by

616:

To examine links between specific psychological processes or disorders and brain activity.

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detectors along which the positron emission occurred (i.e., the line of response (LOR)).

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Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.

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Shepp LA, Vardi Y (1982). "Maximum likelihood reconstruction for emission tomography".

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Radionuclides are incorporated either into compounds normally used by the body such as

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A miniature animal PET has been constructed that is small enough for a fully conscious

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Harmany Z, Marcia R, Willett R (2010). "Sparsity-regularized Photon-limited Imaging".

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la Fougère, C.; Rominger, A.; Förster, S.; Geisler, J.; Bartenstein, P. (May 2009).

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Quantitative dynamic studies using short-lived radioisotopes and positron detection

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Pacak K, Eisenhofer G, Carrasquillo JA, Chen CC, Li ST, Goldstein DS (July 2001).

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moving in approximately opposite directions. These are detected when they reach a

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PET scans are increasingly read alongside CT or MRI scans, with the combination (

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Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

1886: 1843: 1552:

The PET-CT scanner, attributed to David Townsend and Ronald Nutt, was named by

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The biological half-life of antibodies is typically on the order of days, see

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commercially at offsite locations and shipped to imaging centers. Recently

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are emitted in opposite directions. These gamma rays are detected by two

150: 7708: 7111: 6801: 6753: 6616: 6596: 5995: 5970: 5410: 5299: 5241: 5229: 5207: 5172: 3479: 1378: 1297: 1110: 1101: 1051: 1043: 839: 805: 760: 573: 567: 500: 267: 203: 165: 4797:

Reconstruction Tomography in Diagnostic Radiology and Nuclear Medicine

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Hodolic, Marina; Topakian, Raffi; Pichler, Robert (1 September 2016).

2218:"Pheochromocytoma Imaging: Overview, Radiography, Computed Tomography" 1257:

methods that involve a Poisson likelihood function and an appropriate

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de Jong PA, Tiddens HA, Lequin MH, Robinson TE, Brody AS (May 2008).

1617:

reference cost (2015–2016) for an adult outpatient PET scan is £798.

1610:

In the United States, a PET scan is estimated to be US$ 1500-$ 5000.

1509:

Work by Gordon Brownell, Charles Burnham and their associates at the

1374: 1359:

random coincidence rejection, thus favoring 3D image reconstruction.

1347:

There are two approaches to reconstructing data from such a scanner:

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Phelps ME, Hoffman EJ, Mullani NA, Ter-Pogossian MM (March 1975).

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Stereotactic Radiosurgery and Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy

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Wagenknecht G, Kaiser HJ, Mottaghy FM, Herzog H (February 2013).

6303: 6192: 6002: 5960: 3350: 3285: 1653:(equipment used to produce the radiopharmaceuticals used in PET) 1531: 555: 504: 6906: 6698: 5870: 5857: 5067: 4369:"MRI for attenuation correction in PET: methods and challenges" 2325:"Amyloid Imaging: Poised for Integration into Medical Practice" 804:, often referred to as microPET, as well as scanners for small 6276: 6140: 4784:. New York: The Society of Nuclear Medicine. pp. 142–153. 4765:

Brownell GL, Burnham CA, Hoop Jr B, Bohning DE (August 1945).

1565: 887:

PET scanning is non-invasive, but it does involve exposure to

793: 767:(FDS). FDS has the added benefit of being able to target only 759:

have been developed to image bacterial infections in vivo are

273:

that is taken up by glucose-using cells and phosphorylated by

3300:"Estimation of the radiation dose from CT in cystic fibrosis" 937:

Schematic view of a detector block and ring of a PET scanner

824:

is expected to be rarely available in the immediate future.

722:

and vascular disease study: FDG PET can help in identifying

4811:"Michel Ter-Pogossian Honored as Nuclear Medicine Pioneer" 4718:

Journal of the Chemical Society D: Chemical Communications

3749:. University of Pennsylvania. 15 June 2006. Archived from 2255:

European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging

2104:

European Journal of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging

550:, which causes epilepsy. FDG, and the less common tracers 2548:"Neuroimaging in Investigation of Patients With Epilepsy" 2002:"PET/CT in the staging of the non-small-cell lung cancer" 1458:

and careful planning with respect to patient scheduling.

1180:, it is possible to localize the event to a segment of a 238:. SPECT is an imaging technique similar to PET that uses 5056: 4579:. Crump Institute for Molecular Imaging. Archived from 1200:

Analytical techniques, much like the reconstruction of

608:

fluorine-18 to detect amyloid plaques using PET scans.

4740:

Journal of Labelled Compounds and Radiopharmaceuticals

4476:. Vol. 116. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 28–30. 4172:

17th IEEE International Conference on Image Processing

1109:

To conduct the scan, a short-lived radioactive tracer

812:(APDs) through a system that uses single-chip silicon 1959:

Steinert HC (2011). "PET and PET-CT of Lung Cancer".

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Principles and Practice of Stereotactic Radiosurgery

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International Symposium on Biomedical Imaging (ISBI)

2302:(4th ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders. p. 60. 266:(FDG) is widely used in clinical oncology. FDG is a 141:

attached to a drug – is injected into the body as a

75:

technique that uses radioactive substances known as

7797: 7769: 7725: 7674: 7651: 7641: 7606: 7523: 7514: 7365: 7281: 7241: 7160: 7119: 7110: 6954: 6940: 6810: 6762: 6719: 6661: 6562: 6492: 6441: 6432: 6359: 6325: 6316: 6275: 6268: 6248: 6201: 6183: 6139: 6044: 6026: 5894: 5808: 5741: 5686: 5677: 5625: 5533: 5524: 5491: 5434: 5396: 5387: 5308: 5240: 5163: 5105: 600:diagnoses of AD and help to monitor AD treatments. 367:(11C-metomidate) has been used to detect tumors of 34: 5826:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 3265:"Institute for Science and International Security" 1679:Bailey DL, Townsend DW, Valk PE, Maisy MN (2005). 1288: 842:is the most widely used tracer for imaging bones. 419:, oxygen-15 must be piped directly from a medical 281:form is significantly elevated in rapidly growing 111:(NaF) is widely used for detecting bone formation; 4860:Ontario PET Steering Committee (31 August 2008), 4474:Brain Stimulation: Handbook of Clinical Neurology 800:. PET scanners designed specifically for imaging 562:The development of a number of novel probes for 3801:Journal of the American Statistical Association 2323:Anand, Keshav; Sabbagh, Marwan (January 2017). 1159:Localization of the positron annihilation event 576:imaging probes included FDDNP developed at the 3425:Clinical Physics and Physiological Measurement 3340:"Chapter 9 Occupational Exposure to Radiation" 2417:"PET and SPECT in epilepsy: A critical review" 1558:as the medical invention of the year in 2000. 1208:(SPECT) data, are commonly used, although the 6918: 6529:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 5079: 3078:Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 2759:Journal of Cerebral Blood Flow and Metabolism 2507:"Hippocampal sclerosis – origins and imaging" 1729: 1727: 8: 4902:. Australian Government Department of Health 3968:Proceedings Amererican Statistical Computing 2655:Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters 1682:Positron Emission Tomography: Basic Sciences 1454:to supply radioisotopes has grown 30%/year. 117:(O) is sometimes used to measure blood flow. 3699:PET: physics, instrumentation, and scanners 2735:"Promise Seen for Detection of Alzheimer's" 2057:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 1245:: Statistical, likelihood-based iterative 7648: 7530: 7520: 7116: 6960: 6951: 6925: 6911: 6903: 6695: 6506: 6438: 6322: 6272: 6265: 6041: 5867: 5854: 5683: 5530: 5393: 5102: 5086: 5072: 5064: 4461:. Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 156–159. 2006:Journal of Biomedicine & Biotechnology 1816: 1814: 1674: 1672: 1206:single-photon emission computed tomography 1070:to produce positron-emitting rubidium-82. 546:PET may also be used for the diagnosis of 224:single-photon emission computed tomography 40: 5027: 5017: 4392: 4257: 4179: 4146: 4136: 4044: 3671: 3622: 3572: 3315: 3240: 3199: 3089: 3048: 2999: 2989: 2940: 2778: 2628: 2571: 2522: 2481: 2432: 2391: 2350: 2340: 2193: 2078: 2068: 2027: 2017: 1794: 1784: 1474:The concept of emission and transmission 1280: 1274: 850:PET is a feasible technique for studying 612:Neuropsychology or cognitive neuroscience 145:. When the radiopharmaceutical undergoes 7761:Orthogonal polarization spectral imaging 4880:. Department of Health. 15 December 2016 3372:"NRC: Information for Radiation Workers" 2743:, June 23, 2010. Accessed June 23, 2010. 1530: 1504:Washington University School of Medicine 1484:Washington University School of Medicine 1334:emitting) source and the PET detectors. 1243:Statistical, likelihood-based approaches 940: 215:relying on a visit by a mobile scanner. 101:(FDG or FDG) is commonly used to detect 4782:Tomographic Imaging in Nuclear Medicine 4291:Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 3774:Journal of Computer Assisted Tomography 2505:Malmgren, K; Thom, M (September 2012). 2220:. 10 August 2017 – via eMedicine. 1668: 305:, usually but not always labelled with 6456:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 2234: 2223: 821:UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine 31: 6461:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 3347:Radiation, People and the Environment 693:Stereotactic surgery and radiosurgery 578:University of California, Los Angeles 232:functional magnetic resonance imaging 7: 6885: 5000:Hofman MS, Hicks RJ (October 2016). 4514:of Cancer (EORTC) PET Study Group". 4033:IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 3983:IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 3922:IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 3836:IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging 3523:Metal Ions in Bio-Imaging Techniques 1308:or via Bayes penalty methods or via 1261:(e.g., a smoothing prior leading to 79:to visualize and measure changes in 6466:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 5057:National Isotope Development Center 5045:PET-CT atlas Harvard Medical School 4924:. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 4799:. Baltimore: University Park Press. 3310:(5): 1289–91, author reply 1290–1. 1620:In Australia, as of July 2018, the 1549:by the group led by Ter-Pogossian. 1547:Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology 1247:expectation-maximization algorithms 1105:Schema of a PET acquisition process 423:for such uses, which is difficult. 226:(SPECT), computed tomography (CT), 161:to form a three-dimensional image. 50: 7568:Sestamibi parathyroid scintigraphy 5426:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 5002:"How We Read Oncologic FDG PET/CT" 4878:"NHS reference costs 2015 to 2016" 4482:10.1016/B978-0-444-53497-2.00003-6 4111:Miller MI, Roysam B (April 1991). 2942:10.1161/01.CIR.0000020548.60110.76 2621:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-24-j0004.2001 2564:10.1212/01.CON.0000431379.29065.d3 1134:and positron, producing a pair of 689:and other psychiatric conditions. 397:Brain positron emission tomography 262:PET scanning with the radiotracer 25: 5449:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 5348:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 4837:. Petscaninfo.com. Archived from 4446:. New York: Springer. p. 28. 1759:Bustamante E, Pedersen P (1977). 1685:. Secaucus, NJ: Springer-Verlag. 1387:Complete body PET-CT fusion image 1369:Combination of PET with CT or MRI 763:, maltohexaose, and 2-fluorodeoxy 529:nicotinic acetylcholine receptors 254:Whole-body PET scan using F-FDG ( 7823: 7822: 6884: 6873: 6872: 6860: 6549:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 4946: 4922:Nuclear Medicine Instrumentation 4303:10.1097/00004728-197903060-00018 3353:. pp. 39–42. Archived from 3091:10.1097/00004647-200003000-00001 2524:10.1111/j.1528-1167.2012.03610.x 1570: 202:Physiological processes lead to 7325:Cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) 5638:Historical stockpiles and tests 4816:The Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3871:Physics in Medicine and Biology 3731:. GE Healthcare. Archived from 3652:The Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3611:The Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3561:The Journal of Nuclear Medicine 909:Orders of magnitude (radiation) 734:is unclear. FDG PET imaging of 450:, which are all used to detect 164:PET scanners can incorporate a 7573:Radioactive iodine uptake test 6539:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 5421:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 4240:. Computational Imaging VIII. 3813:10.1080/01621459.1985.10477119 3525:. Springer. pp. 157–194. 3133:Journal of Orthopaedic Science 3029:Science Translational Medicine 2546:Cendes, Fernando (June 2013). 2070:10.1002/14651858.CD012643.pub3 1622:Medicare Benefits Schedule Fee 1511:Massachusetts General Hospital 1470:A PET scanner released in 2003 1300:or other domain), such as via 1263:total variation regularization 1121:decay (also known as positive 1117:As the radioisotope undergoes 923:Radionuclides and radiotracers 874:Together with sodium floride, 862:) compared to techniques like 738:to detect patients at risk of 458:for Alzheimer's in the brain. 1: 7553:Radionuclide ventriculography 7027:Lower gastrointestinal series 7019:Upper gastrointestinal series 6867:Nuclear technology portal 4528:10.1016/S0959-8049(99)00229-4 4417:"A Close Look Into the Brain" 3242:10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-04-2626 2667:10.1016/S0960-894X(01)00734-X 1734:Carlson N (22 January 2012). 1711:hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu 1239:corrections described above. 7849:Positron emission tomography 7744:Optical coherence tomography 7666:Myocardial perfusion imaging 7254:Dental panoramic radiography 6729:Field-reversed configuration 6339:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 4964:Positron emission tomography 4572:Phelps M (16 January 2013). 4338:10.1097/rli.0b013e318283292f 3959:Geman S, McClure DE (1985). 3041:10.1126/scitranslmed.3009815 2991:10.1371/journal.pone.0107951 2860:10.1016/j.schres.2006.03.042 1961:Positron Emission Tomography 730:of PET for this role versus 65:Positron emission tomography 35:Positron emission tomography 18:Positron-emission tomography 6686:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 5633:States with nuclear weapons 4920:Prekeges, Jennifer (2012). 4660:Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3924:. NS-32(5) (5): 3864–3872. 3891:10.1088/0031-9155/51/15/R01 3398:Journal of Nuclear Medicine 3180:Journal of Nuclear Medicine 2898:Journal of Nuclear Medicine 2609:The Journal of Neuroscience 2434:10.1016/j.yebeh.2009.02.025 2299:Physics in Nuclear Medicine 2151:Journal of Nuclear Medicine 1969:10.1007/978-1-61779-062-1_3 1296:-based regularization in a 1125:), it emits a positron, an 942:Isotopes used in PET scans 410:PET scan of the human brain 166:computed tomography scanner 7905: 7854:3D nuclear medical imaging 7548:Ventilation/perfusion scan 7023:Small-bowel follow-through 6524:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 5648:Tests in the United States 4835:"PET Scan: PET/CT History" 4574:"PET History and Overview" 4516:European Journal of Cancer 3114:"Rat Conscious Animal PET" 1887:10.1007/s00247-019-04529-8 1844:10.1016/j.ctrv.2019.06.002 1488:University of Pennsylvania 1395:Brain PET-MRI fusion image 1372: 926: 831: 708: 430:Brain pathologies such as 394: 228:magnetic resonance imaging 7818: 7789:Dynamic angiothermography 7533: 7457:Abdominal ultrasonography 6963: 6854: 6709: 6649:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 6544:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 6509: 6351:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 5881: 5866: 5853: 5101: 5019:10.1186/s40644-016-0091-3 4989:Resources in your library 4385:10.1007/s10334-012-0353-4 4190:10.1109/ICIP.2010.5649600 3664:10.2967/jnumed.111.092098 3624:10.2967/jnumed.110.086520 3574:10.2967/jnumed.111.089557 3531:10.1515/9783110685701-012 3445:10.1088/0143-0815/7/4/003 3192:10.2967/jnumed.118.208710 3072:Laruelle M (March 2000). 2342:10.1007/s13311-016-0474-y 2296:Cherry, Simon R. (2012). 2267:10.1007/s00259-009-1294-7 2116:10.1007/s00259-002-1025-9 1579:This section needs to be 1289:{\displaystyle \ell _{1}} 657:, reuptake transporter), 639:, reuptake transporter), 602:Avid Radiopharmaceuticals 354:progression-free survival 51: 39: 27:Medical imaging technique 7879:Medicinal radiochemistry 7779:Non-contact thermography 7558:Radionuclide angiography 7410:Doppler echocardiography 6554:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 6170:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 5506:Electron-beam processing 3995:10.1109/tmi.1987.4307831 3938:10.1109/TNS.1985.4334521 3848:10.1109/TMI.1982.4307558 3507:6 September 2011 at the 3468:Chemical Society Reviews 3229:Clinical Cancer Research 3176:"F-Fluoride PET/CT SUV?" 2000:Chao F, Zhang H (2012). 1832:Cancer Treatment Reviews 1363:Time-of-flight (TOF) PET 1253:Research has shown that 1232:Filtered back projection 1046:(or glucose analogues), 929:List of PET radiotracers 828:Musculo-skeletal imaging 775:Bio-distribution studies 750:Imaging infections with 697:PET can also be used in 586:University of Pittsburgh 7563:Radioisotope renography 6669:Organic nuclear reactor 5841:Nuclear power phase-out 5764:Nuclear decommissioning 5704:Reactor-grade plutonium 5454:Targeted alpha-particle 5333:Accidents and incidents 4752:10.1002/jlcr.2580140204 4326:Investigative Radiology 4238:SPIE Electronic Imaging 4090:10.1109/PROC.1987.13825 4078:Proceedings of the IEEE 2558:(3 Epilepsy): 623–642. 2421:Epilepsy & Behavior 1646:Diffuse optical imaging 1615:National Health Service 584:(PiB) developed at the 218:Alternative methods of 127:medical scintillography 7598:Gastric emptying study 4421:Jülich Research Centre 4174:. pp. 4177–4180. 4138:10.1073/pnas.88.8.3223 2848:Schizophrenia Research 2771:10.1038/jcbfm.2009.269 2474:10.1515/raon-2016-0032 2462:Radiology and Oncology 2233:Cite journal requires 1930:10.1055/s-0037-1616618 1786:10.1073/pnas.74.9.3735 1765:Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1736:Physiology of Behavior 1537: 1471: 1396: 1388: 1316:Attenuation correction 1290: 1267:Laplacian distribution 1106: 938: 724:hibernating myocardium 509:serotonin transporters 411: 259: 168:(CT) and are known as 7259:X-ray motion analysis 7142:X-ray microtomography 7061:Hysterosalpingography 6968:Pneumoencephalography 5831:Anti-nuclear movement 4549:Fratt L (July 2003). 3703:. Springer. pp. 3317:10.1378/chest.07-2840 3282:Managing Patient Does 3145:10.1007/s007760300009 2195:10.1161/01.HYP.38.1.6 1534: 1469: 1394: 1386: 1291: 1186:signal-to-noise ratio 1176:rather than about 10 1104: 936: 832:Further information: 810:avalanche photodiodes 671:cholinergic receptors 582:Pittsburgh compound B 548:hippocampal sclerosis 454:plaques, a potential 444:Pittsburgh compound B 409: 253: 87:activities including 7784:Contact thermography 7494:Emergency ultrasound 7432:Transcranial Doppler 7183:Abdominal and pelvis 6739:Reversed field pinch 6534:Traveling-wave (TWR) 6018:Supercritical (SCWR) 5516:Gemstone irradiation 4726:10.1039/C29690000077 4561:on 20 November 2008. 3500:Bracco Diagnostics, 2702:10.1212/wnl.52.4.691 2393:10.1148/rg.335125152 1492:Michel Ter-Pogossian 1440:rubidium-82 chloride 1342:2D/3D reconstruction 1273: 1192:Image reconstruction 1153:center of mass frame 876:PET for bone imaging 856:vastus intermedialis 834:PET for bone imaging 788:Small animal imaging 699:image guided surgery 594:acetylcholinesterase 480:desmethoxyfallypride 339:non-Hodgkin lymphoma 301:. Less often, other 191:within the field of 7884:Armenian inventions 7859:American inventions 7751:Confocal microscopy 7629:Indium-111 WBC scan 7452:Echoencephalography 7188:Virtual colonoscopy 5904:Aqueous homogeneous 5699:Reprocessed uranium 5372:Safety and security 5050:11 May 2019 at the 4823:(5): 449. May 1985. 4600:. 28 December 2010. 4250:2010SPIE.7533E..0RH 4129:1991PNAS...88.3223M 3930:1985ITNS...32.3864S 3883:2006PMB....51R.541Q 3437:1986CPPM....7..333W 2982:2014PLoSO...9j7951G 2019:10.1155/2012/783739 1875:Pediatric Radiology 1777:1977PNAS...74.3735B 1604:Cancer Care Ontario 1602:As of August 2008, 1202:computed tomography 943: 746:Infectious diseases 641:serotonin receptors 432:Alzheimer's disease 303:radioactive tracers 187:and the search for 135:radiopharmaceutical 81:metabolic processes 46:Cardiac PET scanner 7739:Optical tomography 7588:Dacryoscintigraphy 7583:Immunoscintigraphy 7222:Whole body imaging 6973:Dental radiography 6818:Dense plasma focus 5733:Actinide chemistry 5198:Isotope separation 5095:Nuclear technology 3695:Phelps ME (2006). 3480:10.1039/C7CS00014F 3288:, 30 October 2009. 2740:The New York Times 2517:(Suppl 4): 19–33. 1707:"Nuclear Medicine" 1538: 1520:Charles University 1478:was introduced by 1472: 1397: 1389: 1286: 1223:photons, detector 1107: 941: 939: 889:ionizing radiation 769:Enterobacteriaceae 728:cost-effectiveness 626:dopamine receptors 412: 318:glucose metabolism 287:Metabolic trapping 264:fluorodeoxyglucose 260: 256:fluorodeoxyglucose 129:technique used in 99:Fluorodeoxyglucose 73:functional imaging 7874:Radiation therapy 7836: 7835: 7798:Target conditions 7721: 7720: 7717: 7716: 7637: 7636: 7578:Bone scintigraphy 7543:Scintimammography 7538:Cholescintigraphy 7383:contrast-enhanced 7277: 7276: 7237: 7236: 7227:Full-body CT scan 7127:General operation 7106: 7105: 7076:Angiocardiography 6900: 6899: 6850: 6849: 6846: 6845: 6797:Magnetized-target 6694: 6693: 6657: 6656: 6488: 6487: 6484: 6483: 6428: 6427: 6312: 6311: 6244: 6243: 5849: 5848: 5804: 5803: 5673: 5672: 5660:Weapon-free zones 5487: 5486: 5479:Radiopharmacology 4975:Library resources 4522:(13): 1773–1782. 4268:10.1117/12.850771 4199:978-1-4244-7992-4 4024:Green PJ (1990). 3714:978-0-387-34946-6 3617:(10): 1601–1607. 3567:(10): 1580–1584. 3035:(259): 259ra146. 2817:10.1002/syn.10128 2329:Neurotherapeutics 1978:978-1-61779-061-4 1881:(11): 1545–1564. 1692:978-1-85233-798-8 1657:Molecular imaging 1600: 1599: 1500:Edward J. Hoffman 1496:Michael E. Phelps 1486:and later at the 1259:prior probability 1119:positron emission 1040: 1039: 752:molecular imaging 590:polymethylpentene 533:enzyme substrates 470:subtypes such as 193:clinical oncology 123:imaging technique 62: 61: 16:(Redirected from 7896: 7826: 7825: 7649: 7531: 7521: 7405:Echocardiography 7264:Hounsfield scale 7117: 7036:Cholecystography 6961: 6952: 6927: 6920: 6913: 6904: 6888: 6887: 6876: 6875: 6865: 6864: 6863: 6775: 6734:Levitated dipole 6704: 6696: 6644:Helium gas (GFR) 6507: 6502: 6439: 6323: 6273: 6266: 6261: 6260: 6042: 6038: 6037: 5876: 5868: 5860:Nuclear reactors 5855: 5754:High-level (HLW) 5684: 5531: 5511:Food irradiation 5501:Atomic gardening 5394: 5377:Nuclear meltdown 5203:Nuclear material 5193:Fissile material 5188:Fertile material 5103: 5088: 5081: 5074: 5065: 5041: 5031: 5021: 4950: 4949: 4933: 4918: 4912: 4911: 4909: 4907: 4896: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4885: 4874: 4868: 4867: 4857: 4851: 4850: 4848: 4846: 4841:on 14 April 2012 4831: 4825: 4824: 4807: 4801: 4800: 4792: 4786: 4785: 4777: 4771: 4770: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4734: 4728: 4714: 4708: 4707: 4703: 4697: 4696: 4682: 4676: 4675: 4651: 4645: 4644: 4625:10.1148/114.1.89 4608: 4602: 4601: 4594: 4588: 4587: 4585: 4578: 4569: 4563: 4562: 4557:. 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However, the 720:atherosclerosis 713: 707: 695: 683:substance abuse 673:(nicotinic and 655: 648: 638: 633: 622: 614: 520: 497: 490: 404: 399: 393: 248: 220:medical imaging 181: 170:PET-CT scanners 147:beta plus decay 109:Sodium fluoride 83:, and in other 58: 47: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7902: 7900: 7892: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7841: 7840: 7834: 7833: 7831: 7830: 7819: 7816: 7815: 7813: 7812: 7807: 7801: 7799: 7795: 7794: 7792: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7775: 7773: 7767: 7766: 7764: 7763: 7758: 7756:Endomicroscopy 7753: 7748: 7747: 7746: 7735: 7733: 7723: 7722: 7719: 7718: 7715: 7714: 7712: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7685: 7683: 7672: 7671: 7669: 7668: 7662: 7660: 7646: 7639: 7638: 7635: 7634: 7632: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7610: 7608: 7604: 7603: 7601: 7600: 7595: 7590: 7585: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7534: 7528: 7518: 7512: 7511: 7509: 7508: 7507: 7506: 7501: 7491: 7486: 7481: 7476: 7471: 7470: 7469: 7464: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7428: 7427: 7422: 7417: 7412: 7402: 7401: 7400: 7395: 7390: 7385: 7380: 7371: 7369: 7363: 7362: 7360: 7359: 7354: 7353: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7317: 7316: 7315: 7305: 7300: 7299: 7298: 7287: 7285: 7279: 7278: 7275: 7274: 7272: 7271: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7251: 7245: 7243: 7239: 7238: 7235: 7234: 7232: 7231: 7230: 7229: 7219: 7214: 7209: 7208: 7207: 7202: 7192: 7191: 7190: 7180: 7179: 7178: 7173: 7164: 7162: 7158: 7157: 7155: 7154: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7123: 7121: 7114: 7108: 7107: 7104: 7103: 7101: 7100: 7095: 7090: 7085: 7084: 7083: 7078: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7038: 7029: 7016: 7007: 7002: 6997: 6996: 6995: 6985: 6980: 6975: 6970: 6964: 6958: 6949: 6938: 6937: 6932: 6930: 6929: 6922: 6915: 6907: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6894: 6882: 6870: 6855: 6852: 6851: 6848: 6847: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6840: 6835: 6830: 6828:Muon-catalyzed 6825: 6820: 6814: 6812: 6808: 6807: 6805: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6788: 6787: 6777: 6768: 6766: 6760: 6759: 6757: 6756: 6751: 6746: 6741: 6736: 6731: 6725: 6723: 6717: 6716: 6710: 6707: 6706: 6699: 6692: 6691: 6689: 6688: 6683: 6682: 6681: 6676: 6665: 6663: 6659: 6658: 6655: 6654: 6652: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6636: 6635: 6634: 6629: 6624: 6619: 6614: 6609: 6604: 6599: 6594: 6589: 6584: 6579: 6568: 6566: 6560: 6559: 6557: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6521: 6519:Integral (IFR) 6516: 6510: 6504: 6493: 6490: 6489: 6486: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6479: 6478: 6473: 6468: 6463: 6458: 6453: 6447: 6445: 6436: 6430: 6429: 6426: 6425: 6423: 6422: 6421: 6420: 6415: 6414: 6413: 6408: 6403: 6398: 6383: 6378: 6377: 6376: 6365: 6363: 6357: 6356: 6354: 6353: 6348: 6343: 6334: 6332: 6328: 6320: 6314: 6313: 6310: 6309: 6307: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6285: 6283: 6278: 6270: 6263: 6249: 6246: 6245: 6242: 6241: 6239: 6238: 6237: 6236: 6231: 6226: 6221: 6210: 6208: 6204: 6199: 6198: 6196: 6195: 6189: 6187: 6181: 6180: 6178: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6166: 6165: 6160: 6149: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6136: 6134: 6133: 6132: 6131: 6126: 6121: 6116: 6111: 6110: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6089: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6077: 6074: 6071: 6068: 6054: 6052: 6047: 6039: 6024: 6023: 6021: 6020: 6015: 6014: 6013: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5999: 5998: 5993: 5983: 5978: 5973: 5968: 5963: 5958: 5953: 5948: 5938: 5933: 5932: 5931: 5926: 5921: 5916: 5906: 5900: 5898: 5892: 5891: 5883: 5882: 5879: 5878: 5871: 5864: 5863: 5858: 5851: 5850: 5847: 5846: 5844: 5843: 5838: 5836:Uranium mining 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5812: 5810: 5806: 5805: 5802: 5801: 5799: 5798: 5793: 5792: 5791: 5786: 5776: 5771: 5766: 5761: 5756: 5751: 5745: 5743: 5739: 5738: 5736: 5735: 5730: 5729: 5728: 5718: 5713: 5712: 5711: 5709:Minor actinide 5706: 5701: 5690: 5688: 5681: 5675: 5674: 5671: 5670: 5668: 5667: 5662: 5657: 5652: 5651: 5650: 5645: 5635: 5629: 5627: 5623: 5622: 5620: 5619: 5618: 5617: 5607: 5602: 5601: 5600: 5595: 5585: 5580: 5575: 5574: 5573: 5563: 5558: 5553: 5548: 5543: 5537: 5535: 5528: 5522: 5521: 5519: 5518: 5513: 5508: 5503: 5497: 5495: 5489: 5488: 5485: 5484: 5482: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5446: 5440: 5438: 5432: 5431: 5429: 5428: 5423: 5418: 5413: 5408: 5406:Autoradiograph 5402: 5400: 5391: 5385: 5384: 5382: 5381: 5380: 5379: 5369: 5368: 5367: 5357: 5356: 5355: 5345: 5340: 5335: 5330: 5325: 5320: 5314: 5312: 5306: 5305: 5303: 5302: 5297: 5292: 5287: 5282: 5277: 5272: 5267: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5246: 5244: 5238: 5237: 5235: 5234: 5233: 5232: 5227: 5222: 5221: 5220: 5215: 5200: 5195: 5190: 5185: 5180: 5175: 5169: 5167: 5161: 5160: 5158: 5157: 5156: 5155: 5150: 5140: 5135: 5130: 5128:Atomic nucleus 5125: 5120: 5115: 5109: 5107: 5099: 5098: 5093: 5091: 5090: 5083: 5076: 5068: 5061: 5060: 5054: 5042: 5006:Cancer Imaging 4996: 4992: 4991: 4985: 4984: 4973: 4972: 4952: 4945: 4944: 4943: 4941: 4940:External links 4938: 4935: 4934: 4913: 4891: 4869: 4866:, pp. iii 4852: 4826: 4802: 4787: 4772: 4757: 4746:(2): 175–183. 4729: 4709: 4698: 4677: 4646: 4603: 4589: 4564: 4541: 4505: 4490: 4464: 4449: 4434: 4423:. 7 March 2014 4408: 4359: 4332:(5): 323–332. 4316: 4281: 4228: 4213: 4198: 4162: 4103: 4084:(7): 892–907. 4068: 4016: 3973: 3951: 3912: 3861: 3842:(2): 113–122. 3826: 3791: 3764: 3738: 3735:on 4 May 2012. 3720: 3713: 3687: 3638: 3596: 3544: 3513: 3493: 3458: 3415: 3388: 3363: 3331: 3290: 3274: 3256: 3215: 3186:(3): 322–327. 3166: 3123: 3105: 3064: 3015: 2976:(9): e107951. 2956: 2915: 2904:(7): 1146–54. 2881: 2838: 2794: 2745: 2723: 2680: 2644: 2595: 2538: 2497: 2468:(3): 247–253. 2448: 2407: 2366: 2315: 2308: 2288: 2244: 2235:|journal= 2209: 2168: 2137: 2094: 2043: 1992: 1977: 1951: 1918:Nuklearmedizin 1908: 1865: 1822: 1810: 1751: 1745:978-0205239399 1744: 1723: 1698: 1691: 1667: 1666: 1664: 1661: 1660: 1659: 1654: 1648: 1641: 1638: 1629: 1626: 1598: 1597: 1578: 1576: 1569: 1563: 1560: 1502:and others at 1463: 1460: 1430: 1427: 1370: 1367: 1356: 1355: 1352: 1283: 1279: 1193: 1190: 1160: 1157: 1098: 1095: 1078: 1075: 1038: 1037: 1034: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1010: 1007: 1001: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 960: 955: 950: 927:Main article: 924: 921: 919: 916: 884: 881: 871: 868: 847: 844: 829: 826: 789: 786: 776: 773: 747: 744: 709:Main article: 706: 703: 694: 691: 687:mood disorders 653: 646: 636: 631: 621: 618: 613: 610: 518: 515:for serotonin 495: 488: 403: 400: 395:Main article: 392: 389: 371:origin. Also, 369:adrenocortical 331:Warburg effect 326:phosphorylated 247: 244: 180: 177: 119: 118: 112: 106: 60: 59: 52: 49: 48: 45: 37: 36: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7901: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7846: 7844: 7829: 7821: 7820: 7817: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7802: 7800: 7796: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7776: 7774: 7772: 7768: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7749: 7745: 7742: 7741: 7740: 7737: 7736: 7734: 7732: 7728: 7724: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7686: 7684: 7681: 7677: 7673: 7667: 7664: 7663: 7661: 7658: 7654: 7650: 7647: 7645: 7640: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7624:Ga-68-DOTATOC 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7611: 7609: 7605: 7599: 7596: 7594: 7591: 7589: 7586: 7584: 7581: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7535: 7532: 7529: 7527: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7513: 7505: 7502: 7500: 7497: 7496: 7495: 7492: 7490: 7487: 7485: 7482: 7480: 7477: 7475: 7472: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7459: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7437:Intravascular 7435: 7433: 7430: 7426: 7423: 7421: 7418: 7416: 7413: 7411: 7408: 7407: 7406: 7403: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7375: 7373: 7372: 7370: 7368: 7364: 7358: 7357:Synthetic MRI 7355: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7337: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7314: 7311: 7310: 7309: 7306: 7304: 7301: 7297: 7294: 7293: 7292: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7284: 7280: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7250: 7247: 7246: 7244: 7240: 7228: 7225: 7224: 7223: 7220: 7218: 7215: 7213: 7210: 7206: 7203: 7201: 7198: 7197: 7196: 7193: 7189: 7186: 7185: 7184: 7181: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7168: 7166: 7165: 7163: 7159: 7153: 7150: 7148: 7147:Electron beam 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7124: 7122: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7109: 7099: 7098:Orbital x-ray 7096: 7094: 7091: 7089: 7086: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7073: 7072: 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7042: 7039: 7037: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7011: 7008: 7006: 7003: 7001: 6998: 6994: 6993:Bronchography 6991: 6990: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6974: 6971: 6969: 6966: 6965: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6943: 6939: 6935: 6928: 6923: 6921: 6916: 6914: 6909: 6908: 6905: 6893: 6892: 6883: 6881: 6880: 6871: 6869: 6868: 6857: 6856: 6853: 6839: 6836: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6819: 6816: 6815: 6813: 6809: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6786: 6785:electrostatic 6783: 6782: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6770: 6769: 6767: 6765: 6761: 6755: 6752: 6750: 6747: 6745: 6742: 6740: 6737: 6735: 6732: 6730: 6727: 6726: 6724: 6722: 6718: 6714: 6708: 6703: 6697: 6687: 6684: 6680: 6677: 6675: 6672: 6671: 6670: 6667: 6666: 6664: 6660: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6640: 6637: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6613: 6610: 6608: 6605: 6603: 6600: 6598: 6595: 6593: 6590: 6588: 6585: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6574: 6573: 6570: 6569: 6567: 6565: 6564:Generation IV 6561: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6514:Breeder (FBR) 6512: 6511: 6508: 6505: 6500: 6491: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6467: 6464: 6462: 6459: 6457: 6454: 6452: 6449: 6448: 6446: 6444: 6440: 6437: 6435: 6431: 6419: 6416: 6412: 6409: 6407: 6404: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6393: 6392: 6389: 6388: 6387: 6384: 6382: 6379: 6375: 6372: 6371: 6370: 6367: 6366: 6364: 6362: 6358: 6352: 6349: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6340: 6336: 6335: 6333: 6331: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6315: 6305: 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6286: 6284: 6282: 6274: 6271: 6267: 6264: 6259: 6252: 6247: 6235: 6232: 6230: 6227: 6225: 6222: 6220: 6217: 6216: 6215: 6212: 6211: 6209: 6207: 6200: 6194: 6191: 6190: 6188: 6186: 6182: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6164: 6161: 6159: 6156: 6155: 6154: 6151: 6150: 6148: 6146: 6138: 6130: 6127: 6125: 6122: 6120: 6117: 6115: 6112: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6094: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6081: 6078: 6075: 6072: 6069: 6066: 6065: 6064: 6061: 6060: 6059: 6056: 6055: 6053: 6051: 6043: 6040: 6036: 6029: 6025: 6019: 6016: 6011: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5997: 5994: 5992: 5989: 5988: 5987: 5984: 5982: 5979: 5977: 5974: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5964: 5962: 5959: 5957: 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5943: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5920: 5917: 5915: 5912: 5911: 5910: 5907: 5905: 5902: 5901: 5899: 5897: 5893: 5888: 5887: 5880: 5875: 5869: 5865: 5861: 5856: 5852: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5816:Nuclear power 5814: 5813: 5811: 5807: 5797: 5796:Transmutation 5794: 5790: 5787: 5785: 5782: 5781: 5780: 5777: 5775: 5772: 5770: 5767: 5765: 5762: 5760: 5757: 5755: 5752: 5750: 5747: 5746: 5744: 5740: 5734: 5731: 5727: 5724: 5723: 5722: 5719: 5717: 5714: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5696: 5695: 5692: 5691: 5689: 5685: 5682: 5680: 5676: 5666: 5663: 5661: 5658: 5656: 5653: 5649: 5646: 5644: 5641: 5640: 5639: 5636: 5634: 5631: 5630: 5628: 5624: 5616: 5613: 5612: 5611: 5608: 5606: 5603: 5599: 5596: 5594: 5593:high-altitude 5591: 5590: 5589: 5586: 5584: 5583:Proliferation 5581: 5579: 5576: 5572: 5569: 5568: 5567: 5564: 5562: 5559: 5557: 5554: 5552: 5549: 5547: 5544: 5542: 5539: 5538: 5536: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5523: 5517: 5514: 5512: 5509: 5507: 5504: 5502: 5499: 5498: 5496: 5494: 5490: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5469:Brachytherapy 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5452: 5450: 5447: 5445: 5442: 5441: 5439: 5437: 5433: 5427: 5424: 5422: 5419: 5417: 5414: 5412: 5409: 5407: 5404: 5403: 5401: 5399: 5395: 5392: 5390: 5386: 5378: 5375: 5374: 5373: 5370: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5361: 5358: 5354: 5351: 5350: 5349: 5346: 5344: 5341: 5339: 5336: 5334: 5331: 5329: 5326: 5324: 5321: 5319: 5316: 5315: 5313: 5311: 5307: 5301: 5298: 5296: 5293: 5291: 5288: 5286: 5283: 5281: 5278: 5276: 5273: 5271: 5268: 5266: 5265:Cross section 5263: 5261: 5258: 5256: 5253: 5251: 5248: 5247: 5245: 5243: 5239: 5231: 5228: 5226: 5223: 5219: 5216: 5214: 5211: 5210: 5209: 5206: 5205: 5204: 5201: 5199: 5196: 5194: 5191: 5189: 5186: 5184: 5181: 5179: 5176: 5174: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5166: 5162: 5154: 5151: 5149: 5146: 5145: 5144: 5141: 5139: 5136: 5134: 5131: 5129: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5116: 5114: 5111: 5110: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5089: 5084: 5082: 5077: 5075: 5070: 5069: 5066: 5058: 5055: 5053: 5049: 5046: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5030: 5025: 5020: 5015: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4998: 4997: 4990: 4987: 4986: 4981: 4976: 4967: 4966: 4965: 4959: 4955: 4939: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4917: 4914: 4901: 4895: 4892: 4879: 4873: 4870: 4865: 4864: 4856: 4853: 4840: 4836: 4830: 4827: 4822: 4818: 4817: 4812: 4806: 4803: 4798: 4791: 4788: 4783: 4776: 4773: 4768: 4761: 4758: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4733: 4730: 4727: 4723: 4719: 4713: 4710: 4702: 4699: 4694: 4690: 4689: 4681: 4678: 4673: 4669: 4666:(3): 210–24. 4665: 4661: 4657: 4650: 4647: 4642: 4638: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4607: 4604: 4599: 4593: 4590: 4582: 4575: 4568: 4565: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4545: 4542: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4509: 4506: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4491:9780444534972 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4468: 4465: 4460: 4453: 4450: 4445: 4438: 4435: 4422: 4418: 4412: 4409: 4404: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4379:(1): 99–113. 4378: 4374: 4370: 4363: 4360: 4355: 4351: 4347: 4343: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4320: 4317: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4297:(6): 804–14. 4296: 4292: 4285: 4282: 4277: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4232: 4229: 4224: 4217: 4214: 4209: 4205: 4201: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4173: 4166: 4163: 4158: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4139: 4134: 4130: 4126: 4123:(8): 3223–7. 4122: 4118: 4114: 4107: 4104: 4099: 4095: 4091: 4087: 4083: 4079: 4072: 4069: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4047: 4042: 4038: 4034: 4027: 4020: 4017: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3989:(3): 228–38. 3988: 3984: 3977: 3974: 3969: 3962: 3955: 3952: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3916: 3913: 3908: 3904: 3900: 3896: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3880: 3876: 3872: 3865: 3862: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3830: 3827: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3810: 3807:(389): 8–37. 3806: 3802: 3795: 3792: 3787: 3783: 3780:(2): 306–16. 3779: 3775: 3768: 3765: 3752: 3748: 3742: 3739: 3734: 3730: 3729:"PET Imaging" 3724: 3721: 3716: 3710: 3706: 3701: 3700: 3691: 3688: 3683: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3642: 3639: 3634: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3616: 3612: 3608: 3600: 3597: 3592: 3588: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3555: 3548: 3545: 3540: 3536: 3532: 3528: 3524: 3517: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3503: 3497: 3494: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3462: 3459: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3431:(4): 333–43. 3430: 3426: 3419: 3416: 3411: 3407: 3404:(4): 608–13. 3403: 3399: 3392: 3389: 3377: 3373: 3367: 3364: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3341: 3335: 3332: 3327: 3323: 3318: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3294: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3278: 3275: 3270: 3266: 3260: 3257: 3252: 3248: 3243: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3219: 3216: 3211: 3207: 3202: 3197: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3181: 3177: 3170: 3167: 3162: 3158: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3134: 3127: 3124: 3119: 3115: 3109: 3106: 3101: 3097: 3092: 3087: 3084:(3): 423–51. 3083: 3079: 3075: 3068: 3065: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3019: 3016: 3011: 3007: 3002: 2997: 2992: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2967: 2960: 2957: 2952: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2919: 2916: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2888: 2886: 2882: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2861: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2842: 2839: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2811:(3): 170–88. 2810: 2806: 2798: 2795: 2790: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2772: 2768: 2765:(5): 985–93. 2764: 2760: 2756: 2749: 2746: 2742: 2741: 2736: 2732: 2727: 2724: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2684: 2681: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2648: 2645: 2640: 2636: 2631: 2626: 2622: 2618: 2615:(24): RC189. 2614: 2610: 2606: 2599: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2569: 2565: 2561: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2542: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2525: 2520: 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Kuhl 1477: 1468: 1461: 1459: 1455: 1453: 1448: 1445: 1441: 1435: 1428: 1426: 1424: 1419: 1417: 1413: 1408: 1406: 1402: 1393: 1385: 1380: 1376: 1368: 1366: 1364: 1360: 1353: 1350: 1349: 1348: 1345: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1324: 1319: 1317: 1313: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1302:Ulf Grenander 1299: 1281: 1277: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1251: 1248: 1244: 1240: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1226: 1222: 1217: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1198: 1191: 1189: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1158: 1156: 1154: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1137: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1115: 1112: 1103: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1087: 1082: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1065: 1059: 1057: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1006: 1003: 1002: 999: 996: 994: 991: 989: 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 971: 969: 966: 964: 961: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 945: 935: 930: 922: 917: 915: 912: 910: 905: 901: 896: 894: 890: 882: 880: 877: 869: 867: 865: 861: 857: 853: 845: 843: 841: 835: 827: 825: 822: 817: 815: 811: 807: 803: 799: 795: 787: 785: 783: 774: 772: 770: 766: 762: 758: 753: 745: 743: 741: 737: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 712: 704: 702: 700: 692: 690: 688: 684: 680: 679:schizophrenia 676: 672: 668: 664: 660: 656: 649: 642: 634: 627: 619: 617: 611: 609: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 587: 583: 579: 575: 571: 570: 565: 560: 557: 553: 549: 544: 542: 538: 534: 530: 526: 522: 514: 510: 506: 502: 498: 491: 485: 481: 477: 473: 469: 468:neuroreceptor 466:for specific 465: 459: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 437: 433: 428: 424: 422: 418: 408: 401: 398: 390: 388: 386: 382: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 357: 355: 351: 346: 344: 340: 336: 332: 327: 323: 319: 315: 310: 308: 304: 300: 296: 293: 288: 284: 280: 279:mitochondrial 276: 272: 269: 265: 257: 252: 245: 243: 241: 237: 233: 229: 225: 221: 216: 213: 208: 205: 200: 198: 194: 190: 186: 178: 176: 173: 171: 167: 162: 160: 159:gamma cameras 156: 152: 148: 144: 140: 136: 132: 128: 124: 116: 113: 110: 107: 104: 100: 97: 96: 95: 94:For example: 92: 90: 86: 85:physiological 82: 78: 74: 70: 66: 56: 43: 38: 33: 30: 19: 7869:Neuroimaging 7805:Acute stroke 7771:Thermography 7675: 7526:scintigraphy 7516:Radionuclide 7504:pre-hospital 7350:Tractography 7269:Radiodensity 7171:calcium scan 7132:Quantitative 6889: 6877: 6858: 6838:Pyroelectric 6792:Laser-driven 6572:Sodium (SFR) 6499:fast-neutron 6338: 5884: 5774:Reprocessing 5655:WMD treaties 5474:Radiosurgery 5444:Fast-neutron 5425: 5416:Scintigraphy 5009: 5005: 4979: 4962: 4961: 4960:profile for 4957: 4921: 4916: 4904:. 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Retrieved 1710: 1701: 1681: 1631: 1619: 1612: 1609: 1601: 1588: 1580: 1553: 1551: 1543:Zang-Hee Cho 1539: 1516: 1508: 1473: 1456: 1436: 1432: 1420: 1409: 1398: 1362: 1361: 1357: 1346: 1341: 1340: 1336: 1320: 1315: 1314: 1252: 1242: 1241: 1230: 1218: 1199: 1195: 1169: 1165: 1162: 1148:scintillator 1136:annihilation 1127:antiparticle 1116: 1108: 1083: 1080: 1072: 1060: 1056:radiotracers 1041: 1004: 947: 913: 897: 886: 873: 849: 837: 819:In 2018 the 818: 791: 778: 749: 714: 696: 623: 615: 606:radionuclide 568: 564:non-invasive 561: 545: 460: 452:amyloid-beta 440:flutemetamol 429: 425: 413: 391:Neuroimaging 358: 347: 311: 261: 240:radioligands 234:(fMRI), and 217: 212:gamma camera 209: 201: 182: 174: 163: 139:radioisotope 120: 93: 77:radiotracers 68: 64: 63: 29: 7694:Cardiac PET 7467:renal tract 7442:Gynecologic 7374:Techniques 7345:restriction 7320:Angiography 7303:Neurography 7249:Fluoroscopy 7195:Angiography 7176:angiography 7120:Techniques: 7081:Aortography 7071:Angiography 7051:Cystography 7041:Mammography 6983:Myelography 6978:Sialography 6947:radiography 6749:Stellarator 6713:confinement 6607:Superphénix 6434:Molten-salt 6386:VHTR (HTGR) 6163:HW BLWR 250 6129:R4 Marviken 6058:Pressurized 6028:Heavy water 6012:many others 5941:Pressurized 5896:Light water 5598:underground 5556:Disarmament 5464:Tomotherapy 5459:Proton-beam 5323:Power plant 5285:Temperature 5118:Engineering 4884:22 December 3757:22 February 3376:www.nrc.gov 2929:Circulation 1716:11 December 1525:Abass Alavi 1429:Limitations 1423:N-localizer 1269:leading to 1178:nanoseconds 1174:picoseconds 1064:rubidium-82 904:chest X-ray 711:Cardiac PET 541:AADC enzyme 499:receptors; 448:florbetaben 436:florbetapir 343:lung cancer 307:fluorine-18 7843:Categories 7607:Full body: 7393:endoscopic 7367:Ultrasound 7296:functional 7093:Lymphogram 7088:Venography 7056:Arthrogram 6774:(acoustic) 6391:PBR (PBMR) 5779:Spent fuel 5769:Repository 5749:Fuel cycle 5716:Activation 5493:Processing 5360:Propulsion 5318:by country 5250:Activation 4930:1449645372 4906:16 October 4688:Nucleonics 4244:: 75330R. 2188:(1): 6–8. 2012:: 783739. 1663:References 1476:tomography 1444:myocardial 1405:registered 1236:shot noise 1123:beta decay 1086:daclizumab 1077:Immuno-PET 798:anesthesia 782:endogenous 716:Cardiology 705:Cardiology 675:muscarinic 620:Psychiatry 552:flumazenil 476:fallypride 472:raclopride 446:(PiB) and 381:Iobenguane 373:fluorodopa 365:metomidate 363:-labelled 295:metastasis 275:hexokinase 236:ultrasound 230:(MRI) and 204:anatomical 189:metastases 155:gamma rays 89:blood flow 7810:Pregnancy 7689:Brain PET 7657:gamma ray 7593:DMSA scan 7447:Obstetric 7340:diffusion 7335:Sequences 7313:perfusion 7205:Pulmonary 7152:Cone beam 7046:Pyelogram 6744:Spheromak 6443:Fluorides 6107:IPHWR-700 6102:IPHWR-540 6097:IPHWR-220 5886:Moderator 5566:Explosion 5541:Arms race 5328:Economics 5280:Reflector 5275:Radiation 5270:Generator 5225:Plutonium 5178:Deuterium 5143:Radiation 5113:Chemistry 5012:(1): 35. 4932:. p. 189. 4845:13 August 4720:(2): 77. 4613:Radiology 4254:CiteSeerX 4176:CiteSeerX 4041:CiteSeerX 3539:233679785 2690:Neurology 2552:Continuum 2511:Epilepsia 1938:0029-5566 1903:204707264 1860:195772317 1838:: 44–56. 1447:perfusion 1328:gamma ray 1310:I.J. 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