2259:. In Giles' idealization, the speaker consistently makes various phonetic distinctions not made in Beijing dialect (or in the dialect of any other specific city). Giles created the system to encompass a range of dialects. For the French-led post office, an additional advantage of the system was that it allowed "the romanization of non-English speaking people to be met as far as possible," as Piry put it. That is to say, Piry considered the Wade–Giles system to be specific to English.
4349:
136:
1357:
2316:, co-director of the Post Office, quietly ordered a return to Nanking syllabary "until such time as uniformity is possible." Although the Soothill-Wade period was brief, it was a time when 13,000 offices were created, a rapid and unprecedented expansion. At the time the policy was reversed, one third of all postal establishments used Soothill-Wade spelling. The Ministry published a revised pronunciation standard based strictly on
4999:
2331:
Mapmakers of the time followed various approaches. Private atlas makers generally used postal romanization in the 1940s, but they later shifted to Wade–Giles. The U.S. Central
Intelligence Agency used a mix of postal romanization and Wade–Giles. The U.S. Army Map Service used Wade–Giles exclusively.
2243:
Nanking syllabary is one of several transliteration systems presented by Giles to represent various local dialects. Nanjing had once been the capital and its dialect was, like that of
Beijing, a pronunciation standard. But the decision to use Nanking syllabary was not intended to suggest that the
2218:
Théophile Piry, a long-time customs manager, was appointed postal secretary in 1901. Appointing a French national to the top position fulfilled an 1898 commitment by China to "take into account the recommendations of the French government" when selecting staff for the post office. Until 1911, the
1439:
in 1867. It is based on pronunciation in
Beijing. Giles's dictionary also gives pronunciation in the dialects of various other cities, allowing the reader to create locally based transliteration. From January 1893 to September 1896, local postal services issued postage stamps that featured the
2327:
In 1958, Communist China announced that it was adopting the pinyin romanization system. Implementing the new system was a gradual process. The government did not get around to abolishing postal romanization until 1964. Even then, the post office did not adopt pinyin, but merely withdrew Latin
2214:
The post office published a draft romanization map in 1903. Disappointed with the Wade-based map, Hart issued another directive in 1905. This one told postmasters to submit romanizations "not as directed by Wade, but according to accepted or usual local spellings." Local missionaries could be
1450:
In 1899, Hart, as inspector general of posts, asked postmasters to submit romanizations for their districts. Although Hart asked for transliterations "according to the local pronunciation", most postmasters were reluctant to play lexicographer and simply looked up the relevant characters in a
2231:
To resolve the romanization issue, Piry organized an
Imperial Postal Joint-Session Conference in Shanghai in the spring of 1906. This was a joint postal and telegraphic conference. The conference resolved that existing spellings would be retained for names already transliterated. Accents,
439:, a pronunciation standard since the 1850s. The use of Nanking syllabary did not suggest that the post office considered Nanjing pronunciation to be standard. Rather, it was an attempt to accommodate a variety of Mandarin pronunciations with a single romanization system.
2267:
What they have criticized is actually the very strength of postal romanization. That is, postal romanization accommodated local dialects and regional pronunciations by recognizing local identity and language as vital to a true representation of the varieties of
Chinese
396:
developed by postal authorities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. For many cities, the corresponding postal romanization was the most common
English-language form of the city's name from the 1890s until the 1980s, when postal romanization was replaced by
1447:. The local post offices in the Treaty Ports were incorporated into the new service. The Customs Post was smaller than other postal services in China, such as the British. As the Imperial Post, it grew rapidly and soon became the dominant player in the market.
2232:
apostrophes, and hyphens would be dropped to facilitate telegraphic transmission. The requirement for addresses to be given in
Chinese characters was dropped. For new transliterations, local pronunciation would be followed in Guangdong as well as in parts of
2262:
Atlases explaining postal romanization were issued in 1907, 1919, 1933, and 1936. The ambiguous result of the 1906 conference led critics to complain that postal romanization was idiosyncratic. According to modern scholar Lane J. Harris:
2312:, as a mishmash of dialects, bookish, and reminiscent of previous dynasties. While drawing phonetic features from Beijing dialect, many phonological features of Southern Mandarin had been retained. In December 1921,
2323:
In 1943, the
Japanese ousted A. M. Chapelain, the last French head of the Chinese post. The post office had been under French administration almost continuously since Piry's appointment as postal secretary in 1901.
435:. Instead, the conference formally adopted Nanking syllabary. This decision allowed the post office to continue to use various romanizations that it had already selected. Wade–Giles romanization is based on the
420:
would cancel postage with a stamp that gave the city of origin in Latin letters, often romanized using Giles's system. In 1896, the
Customs Post was combined with other postal services and renamed the
1427:. Local offices had postmarking equipment so mail was marked with a romanized form of the city's name. In addition, there were companies that provided local postal service in each of these cities.
2248:
dialect spoken in
Nanjing makes more phonetic distinctions than other dialects. A romanization system geared to this dialect can be used to reflect pronunciation in a wider variety of dialects.
4474:
1533:
2201:
1348:(KMT) party came to power in 1927, the capital was moved from Peking ('northern capital') to Nanking ('southern capital'). Peking was renamed to "Peiping" ('northern peace').
2336:
2282:
1728:
4357:
1683:
2984:
2376:
2168:
1451:
dictionary. The spellings that they submitted generally followed the Wade–Giles system, which was the standard method of transliteration at this time.
1367:
The Customs Post, China's first government-run post office, opened to the public and began issuing postage stamps in 1878. This office was part of the
2194:
2842:
3063:
2347:
2173:
1688:
4655:
2954:
1547:
1322:
2285:
in 1913, the idea of a national language with a standardized trans-regional phonology was approved. A period of turmoil followed as President
3894:
2145:
1798:
417:
4705:
2033:
1787:
2565:
Atlas général de la Chine, de la Tartarie chinoise, et du Tibet : pour servir aux différentes descriptions et histoires de cet empire
2430:
shows where the various dialects of Chinese are spoken. Both Wade-Giles and pinyin are based on Northern Mandarin, which is shown in red.
4547:
2187:
2272:
as evinced by the Post Office's repeated desire to transcribe according to "local pronunciation" or "provincial sound-equivalents".
1718:
1368:
431:
system became widespread, some argued that the post office should adopt it. This idea was rejected at a conference held in 1906 in
5031:
2305:
as a reference. The Soothill-Wade system was used for newly created offices. Existing post offices retained their romanizations.
2220:
1919:
5026:
4627:
112:
94:
3334:
2977:
1673:
311:
146:
1435:
by Herbert Giles, published in 1892, popularized the Wade–Giles method of transliteration. This system had been created by
4943:
4397:
1869:
1849:
1792:
1703:
1517:
164:
5002:
4913:
4437:
1502:
1431:
1372:
5021:
4790:
4715:
4372:
1490:
1285:
2487:
The only break in French control of the post office was 1928 to 1931, when Norwegian Erik Tollefsen was foreign head.
1777:
4960:
4933:
4810:
4722:
4469:
4449:
2371:
2309:
2294:
2140:
1621:
1605:
1594:
1569:
1457:
1361:
4512:
3210:
2970:
1708:
2681:
2645:
Harris, Lane J. (2009). "A "Lasting Boon to All": A Note on the Postal Romanization of Place Names, 1896–1949".
4886:
4871:
4861:
4575:
2115:
1762:
1641:
1473:
3227:
4898:
3772:
3734:
3137:
2302:
1698:
1554:
1277:. "Peking" is carried over from the d'Anville map which also came from older texts, such as Italian Jesuit
4832:
4675:
3273:
2245:
1782:
1678:
1443:
An imperial edict issued in 1896 designated the Customs Post a national postal service and renamed it the
108:
104:
90:
2053:
4827:
4750:
4464:
4442:
3197:
3030:
2313:
2215:
consulted, Hart suggested. However, Wade's system did reflect pronunciation in Mandarin-speaking areas.
1444:
421:
4281:
4271:
2397:
3256:
4595:
4563:
4392:
4276:
4035:
3583:
3517:
3012:
2297:
for Guoyu in 1918. The post office reverted to Wade's system in 1920 and 1921. It was the era of the
1824:
1313:
in northern Jiangsu. The other postal romanizations are based on "Southern Mandarin", the historical
1295:
393:
4190:
3699:
4839:
4805:
4640:
4607:
4454:
4382:
4299:
4140:
4135:
3889:
3205:
2298:
2125:
1436:
4670:
4003:
2293:. Yuan died in 1916 and the Ministry of Education published a pronunciation standard now known as
2028:
1937:
1757:
366:
4955:
4822:
4785:
4568:
4502:
4497:
4387:
4377:
3874:
3682:
3677:
3076:
2662:
1582:
1559:
1253:
347:
339:
4226:
3981:
3595:
4866:
4856:
4735:
4700:
4555:
4507:
4459:
4348:
4079:
4013:
3869:
3854:
3525:
3502:
3456:
3381:
3307:
3187:
3155:
3109:
3048:
3038:
3003:
2516:
2362:, presently use a number of romanizations, including Tongyong Pinyin and postal romanization.
2346:
was adopted. In 2009, Hanyu Pinyin replaced Tongyong Pinyin as the official romanization (see
1889:
1844:
1772:
1589:
1497:
1412:
272:
264:
135:
4231:
4221:
4206:
3620:
1723:
4972:
4492:
4367:
4152:
4074:
4025:
3986:
3935:
3849:
3801:
3785:
3665:
3625:
3559:
3547:
3507:
3461:
3407:
3402:
3392:
3386:
3215:
3160:
3145:
3021:
2993:
2737:
Boston 2008, "The Conference for the Unification of Reading Pronunciations", pp. 405 and ff.
2654:
2290:
1969:
1944:
1923:
1909:
1713:
1464:
1334:
199:
80:
3998:
3694:
3642:
3637:
3571:
1693:
4923:
4903:
4891:
4800:
4760:
4745:
4740:
4484:
4334:
4324:
4304:
4261:
4256:
4122:
4086:
4069:
4059:
3816:
3752:
3539:
3435:
3430:
3339:
3286:
3281:
3261:
3246:
3241:
3182:
3177:
3167:
3150:
3122:
3094:
3071:
2858:"ISO 7098:1982 – Documentation – Romanization of Chinese". Retrieved 2009-03-01.
2343:
2110:
2087:
2080:
1996:
1812:
1767:
1527:
1507:
1485:
1356:
1338:
1318:
1278:
436:
413:
250:
4928:
4216:
3632:
1512:
428:
234:
2891:
China Postal Album: Showing the Postal Establishments and Postal Routes in Each Province
2881:
China Postal Album: Showing the Postal Establishments and Postal Routes in Each Province
4977:
4967:
4938:
4645:
4617:
4329:
4314:
4167:
4162:
4147:
4091:
4030:
3912:
3884:
3864:
3811:
3780:
3757:
3747:
3742:
3704:
3687:
3600:
3588:
3576:
3564:
3552:
3497:
3479:
3397:
3371:
3312:
3232:
3220:
3172:
3127:
3117:
3043:
2163:
2135:
2120:
2021:
1948:
1913:
1522:
17:
3489:
5015:
4778:
4590:
4585:
4157:
4101:
4096:
4064:
4051:
3927:
3879:
3806:
3762:
3652:
3412:
3251:
3099:
3086:
2317:
2044:
1987:
1314:
409:
2787:
2783:
2666:
2580:
2415:
4650:
4600:
3976:
3859:
3832:
3376:
3366:
2427:
2008:
1862:
1376:
1330:
1326:
1270:
424:. As a national agency, the Imperial Post was an authority on Chinese place names.
356:
288:
206:
2938:
4795:
4769:
4665:
4635:
4612:
4580:
4319:
4309:
4113:
4008:
3993:
3956:
3904:
3725:
3716:
3612:
3451:
3326:
3053:
2354:
have been romanized via Hanyu Pinyin, municipalities throughout Taiwan, such as
2286:
1960:
1882:
1837:
1741:
1652:
1634:
2817:
4211:
4185:
3951:
3917:
3422:
3349:
2804:
1819:
1614:
1345:
281:
2562:
2418:," 1947. p. 6. This map uses postal romanization, but with some misspellings.
2301:, when language reform was the rage. The post office adopted a dictionary by
4660:
4411:
4402:
4130:
4020:
3672:
3660:
3471:
3302:
2520:
2355:
2071:
1902:
1661:
1420:
1396:
1392:
304:
2398:
L. Richard's Comprehensive geography of the Chinese empire and dependencies
4982:
4950:
4536:
4177:
3358:
2269:
2130:
1668:
1380:
432:
325:
220:
100:
58:
2570:(1790). This is an expanded edition of an atlas first published in 1737.
4849:
4529:
4416:
4245:
3841:
2658:
2335:
The U.S. government and the American press adopted pinyin in 1979. The
2328:
characters from official use, such as in postal cancellation markings.
2252:
2233:
1750:
1416:
1400:
1257:
363:
4908:
4710:
2461:
2359:
2351:
2237:
1480:
1408:
1404:
1388:
1310:
1274:
1249:
402:
398:
2962:
2240:. In other areas, a system called Nanking syllabary would be used.
4421:
2794:, Pergamon Press, Ltd, 1967). The latter is a pure Wade–Giles map.
2256:
2060:
2003:
1976:
1440:
romanized name of the city they served using local pronunciation.
1355:
2342:
Postal romanization remained official in Taiwan until 2002, when
2597:
1424:
1384:
2966:
1269:, which historically contributed to the formation of the local
2748:
The student's four thousand tzu and general pocket dictionary
2244:
post office recognized any specific dialect as standard. The
371:
2883:(1st ed.), Shanghai: Directorate General of Posts, 1907
2943:, Washington, DC: United States Board on Geographic Names
2401:
Shanghai: Tusewei press, 1908, pp. 590 and ff. Cites the
2289:
reversed course and attempted to restore the teaching of
344:
330:
316:
2919:
The Cities and Towns of China: A Geographical Dictionary
2766:
2764:
2735:
The Politics of Language in Chinese Education, 1895–1919
295:
2544:
2542:
2710:
Cambridge History of China: Republican China 1912-1949
2308:
Critics described the Ministry's standard, now called
2893:(2nd ed.), Beijing: Directorate General of Posts
2458:
Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use
269:
255:
239:
225:
211:
2807:," United States. Central Intelligence Agency, 1969.
2600:," United States. Central Intelligence Agency, 1969.
99:. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see
4879:
4848:
4777:
4768:
4759:
4693:
4684:
4626:
4546:
4521:
4483:
4430:
4356:
4292:
4244:
4199:
4176:
4121:
4112:
4050:
3969:
3944:
3926:
3903:
3840:
3831:
3794:
3771:
3733:
3724:
3715:
3651:
3611:
3538:
3516:
3488:
3470:
3444:
3421:
3357:
3348:
3325:
3295:
3272:
3196:
3136:
3108:
3085:
3062:
3029:
3020:
3011:
2937:Stoneman, Elvyn A.; et al., eds. (July 1979),
362:
355:
338:
324:
310:
303:
287:
280:
263:
249:
233:
219:
205:
198:
193:
181:
163:
145:
140:
A map of China with romanizations published in 1947
124:
76:
66:
53:
34:
1375:. By 1882, the Customs Post had offices in twelve
1248:The spelling "Amoy" is based on pronunciation of
2609:
1341:that is taught in the Chinese education system.
113:IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters
2696:
2515:. Taipei: Directorate General of Posts. 1961.
2337:International Organization for Standardization
2283:Commission on the Unification of Pronunciation
1309:in "Soochow" is to distinguish this city from
2978:
2911:, Nanjing: Directorate General of Posts, 1936
2902:, Nanjing: Directorate General of Posts, 1933
2195:
1238:
1231:
1221:
1214:
1204:
1197:
1183:
1176:
1169:
1162:
1152:
1145:
1122:
1115:
1108:
1101:
1094:
1080:
1073:
1066:
1056:
1049:
1039:
1022:
1015:
1008:
1001:
994:
980:
973:
966:
959:
938:
931:
924:
917:
903:
896:
889:
882:
865:
858:
851:
844:
827:
820:
813:
806:
792:
785:
778:
771:
757:
750:
740:
733:
723:
713:
706:
686:
679:
672:
665:
658:
641:
634:
627:
620:
613:
596:
589:
582:
575:
568:
554:
547:
539:
522:
515:
507:
497:
490:
480:
171:
169:
153:
151:
44:
38:
27:System of romanization of Chinese place names
8:
2931:(2nd ed.), London: China Inland Mission
2820:," 1954, Series L500, U.S. Army Map Service.
2563:
2940:Gazetteer of the People's Republic of China
2921:(2nd ed.), Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh
2251:Southern Mandarin is widely spoken in both
1293:
1283:
4998:
4774:
4765:
4690:
4118:
3837:
3730:
3721:
3354:
3026:
3017:
2985:
2971:
2963:
2786:," Hammond, C.S. 1948) to Pergamon 1967 ("
2377:Postage stamps and postal history of China
2202:
2188:
1453:
1301:(1655). In Nanking syllabary, the city is
455:
446:
190:
134:
2708:Twitchett, Denis, and Fairbank, John K.,
2640:
2638:
2636:
2223:, which meant that Hart was Piry's boss.
412:created a romanization system called the
2843:Times due to revise its Chinese spelling
2889:Jacot-Guillarmod, Charles, ed. (1919),
2504:
2388:
2348:Chinese language romanization in Taiwan
2097:
2070:
2043:
1986:
1959:
1740:
1651:
1604:
1463:
1456:
1232:
1177:
1116:
1074:
1016:
974:
932:
897:
859:
821:
786:
751:
680:
635:
590:
548:
516:
2955:Encyclopedia of China Publishing House
2770:
2721:
2548:
2533:
401:, but the system remained in place on
346:
271:
121:
31:
2829:
1333:court. Pinyin spellings are based on
1239:
1184:
1123:
1081:
1023:
981:
939:
904:
866:
828:
793:
758:
687:
642:
597:
555:
523:
461:
458:
452:
449:
418:Imperial Maritime Customs Post Office
7:
2560:Anville, Jean Baptiste Bourguignon,
103:. For the distinction between ,
2872:China Postal Working Map 大清郵政公署備用輿圖
2712:, Volume 12, part 1, 1983, p. 189.
25:
2219:post office remained part of the
1369:Imperial Maritime Customs Service
4997:
4475:Literary and colloquial readings
4347:
2874:, Shanghai: Oriental Press, 1903
2746:William Edward Soothill (1908).
2416:Chinese Republic, Outer Mongolia
2221:Chinese Maritime Customs Service
1920:Hainanese Transliteration Scheme
392:was a system of transliterating
185:Postal-style romanization system
2949:"邮政式拼音 Postal-Style Spelling",
2805:China, administrative divisions
2111:Character-based General Chinese
1265:
372:
345:
331:
317:
296:
95:International Phonetic Alphabet
2466:
2444:
2439:
1360:The 1903 Postal Working Map –
1222:
1215:
1205:
1198:
1170:
1163:
1153:
1146:
1136:
1132:
1109:
1102:
1095:
1067:
1057:
1050:
1040:
1033:
1031:
1009:
1002:
995:
967:
960:
951:
947:
925:
918:
890:
883:
876:
874:
852:
845:
838:
836:
814:
807:
779:
772:
741:
734:
724:
714:
707:
697:
695:
673:
666:
659:
652:
650:
628:
621:
614:
607:
605:
583:
576:
569:
540:
508:
498:
491:
481:
270:
256:
240:
226:
212:
172:
170:
154:
152:
45:
39:
1:
2587:, Pergamon Press, Ltd, 1967).
2395:Richard, Louis, Kennelly, M,
1870:Kienning Colloquial Romanized
1850:Fuzhou Transliteration Scheme
1773:Habhunwe Latinxua Sin Bhundzi
1704:S. L. Wong (phonetic symbols)
5003:List of varieties of Chinese
2900:Postal Atlas of China 中華郵政輿圖
2683:A Chinese-English Dictionary
1503:Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II
1432:A Chinese-English Dictionary
88: This article contains
2909:China Postal Atlas 中華民國郵政輿圖
2686:. London: Bernard Quaritch.
1286:De Bello Tartarico Historia
125:Chinese postal romanization
5048:
4961:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
2445:dìguó yóudiàn liánxí huìyì
2372:EFEO Chinese transcription
2310:Old National Pronunciation
2295:Old National Pronunciation
2146:Transcription into Chinese
2141:Taiwanese Phonetic Symbols
1622:Romanization of Wu Chinese
1595:Scuanxua Ladinxua Xin Wenz
1458:Transliteration of Chinese
1362:Harvard University Library
332:jau4 zing3 sik1 ping3 jam1
4995:
4345:
3000:
2927:Stanford, Edward (1917),
2917:Playfair, G.M.H. (1910),
2475:
2471:
2350:). While street names in
2169:Romanization in Singapore
2164:Romanization in Hong Kong
2088:Romanized General Chinese
1709:S. L. Wong (romanization)
1260:
1192:
1089:
989:
923:
912:
888:
850:
812:
801:
777:
766:
563:
535:
531:
475:
383:
189:
133:
129:
86:
1970:Nanchang-Duchang dialect
1763:Modern Literal Taiwanese
1642:Wenzhounese romanization
1474:Modern Standard Mandarin
147:Traditional Chinese
5032:Romanization of Chinese
2953:(in Chinese), Beijing:
2929:Complete Atlas of China
2782:Compare Hammond 1948 ("
2680:Giles, Herbert (1892).
2647:Twentieth-Century China
2610:Jacot-Guillarmod (1919)
2339:followed suit in 1982.
2303:William Edward Soothill
1321:, which used to be the
297:Yoe1tzen3 seq4 Phin1in1
165:Simplified Chinese
91:phonetic transcriptions
18:Postal map romanization
5027:Postal system of China
2564:
2467:Guóyīn Chángyòng Zìhuì
2274:
2246:Lower Yangtze Mandarin
2174:Romanization in Taiwan
2105:Other transliterations
1783:Daighi tongiong pingim
1679:Guangdong Romanization
1548:Late imperial Mandarin
1364:
1337:, a form based on the
1323:imperial lingua franca
1294:
1284:
257:Yóu-jhèng shìh Pin-yin
242:Yu-cheng shih P'in-yin
2697:Oriental Press (1903)
2314:Henri Picard-Destelan
2265:
1719:Standard Romanization
1555:Morrison romanization
1445:Chinese Imperial Post
1359:
422:Chinese Imperial Post
373:Iû-chèng sek Phèng-im
2792:Pergamon World Atlas
2585:Pergamon World Atlas
1684:Hong Kong Government
1491:Spelling conventions
1296:Novus Atlas Sinensis
394:place names in China
318:Yàuhjing sīk Pingyām
2513:Postal Romanization
2403:Government Red Book
2299:May Fourth Movement
1565:Postal romanization
1437:Thomas Francis Wade
1252:in the neighboring
390:Postal romanization
213:Yóuzhèng shì Pīnyīn
35:Postal romanization
5022:Philately of China
4956:Cantonese Bopomofo
4823:Chinese characters
4751:Written Sichuanese
3335:Zhangjiakou–Hohhot
2788:Mongolia and China
2733:Kaske, Elizabeth,
2659:10.1353/tcc.0.0007
2581:Mongolia and China
2277:Later developments
1560:Legge romanization
1371:, led by Irishman
1365:
5009:
5008:
4991:
4990:
4818:
4817:
4736:Written Cantonese
4731:
4730:
4513:Classical grammar
4508:Cantonese grammar
4343:
4342:
4240:
4239:
4046:
4045:
3965:
3964:
3827:
3826:
3534:
3533:
3321:
3320:
3211:Chengdu–Chongqing
3004:Sinitic languages
2212:
2211:
2054:Chang–Yi dialects
1890:Hinghwa Romanized
1845:Foochow Romanized
1674:Yale romanization
1590:Sichuanese Pinyin
1518:Yale romanization
1498:Latinxua Sin Wenz
1254:Zhangzhou dialect
1246:
1245:
453:D'Anville (1790)
414:Nanking syllabary
387:
386:
379:
378:
312:Yale Romanization
227:ㄧㄡˊ ㄓㄥˋ ㄕˋ ㄆㄧㄣ ㄧㄣ
200:Standard Mandarin
120:
119:
16:(Redirected from
5039:
5001:
5000:
4973:Taiwanese Hangul
4862:Mainland Chinese
4775:
4766:
4691:
4368:Standard Chinese
4351:
4119:
3838:
3731:
3722:
3604:
3592:
3580:
3568:
3556:
3355:
3027:
3018:
2994:Chinese language
2987:
2980:
2973:
2964:
2958:
2944:
2932:
2922:
2912:
2903:
2894:
2884:
2875:
2859:
2856:
2850:
2839:
2833:
2827:
2821:
2814:
2808:
2801:
2795:
2780:
2774:
2768:
2759:
2756:
2750:
2744:
2738:
2731:
2725:
2719:
2713:
2706:
2700:
2694:
2688:
2687:
2677:
2671:
2670:
2642:
2631:
2630:Richard, p. 625.
2628:
2622:
2621:Richard, p. 618.
2619:
2613:
2607:
2601:
2594:
2588:
2577:
2571:
2567:
2558:
2552:
2546:
2537:
2531:
2525:
2524:
2509:
2488:
2485:
2479:
2477:
2473:
2468:
2455:
2449:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2419:
2412:
2406:
2393:
2291:Literary Chinese
2204:
2197:
2190:
2126:ʼPhags-pa script
1945:Romanized Shaowu
1924:Wenchang dialect
1910:Hainan Romanized
1799:Comparison chart
1730:Comparison chart
1714:Cantonese Pinyin
1689:Macau Government
1534:Comparison chart
1454:
1335:Standard Chinese
1305:. The irregular
1299:
1289:
1267:
1262:
1242:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1225:
1224:
1218:
1217:
1208:
1207:
1201:
1200:
1194:
1187:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1173:
1172:
1166:
1165:
1156:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1139:
1138:
1134:
1126:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1112:
1111:
1105:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1091:
1084:
1083:
1077:
1076:
1070:
1069:
1060:
1059:
1053:
1052:
1043:
1042:
1036:
1035:
1026:
1025:
1019:
1018:
1012:
1011:
1005:
1004:
998:
997:
991:
984:
983:
977:
976:
970:
969:
963:
962:
953:
949:
942:
941:
935:
934:
928:
927:
921:
920:
914:
907:
906:
900:
899:
893:
892:
886:
885:
879:
878:
869:
868:
862:
861:
855:
854:
848:
847:
841:
840:
831:
830:
824:
823:
817:
816:
810:
809:
803:
796:
795:
789:
788:
782:
781:
775:
774:
768:
761:
760:
754:
753:
744:
743:
737:
736:
727:
726:
717:
716:
710:
709:
700:
699:
690:
689:
683:
682:
676:
675:
669:
668:
662:
661:
655:
654:
645:
644:
638:
637:
631:
630:
624:
623:
617:
616:
610:
609:
600:
599:
593:
592:
586:
585:
579:
578:
572:
571:
565:
558:
557:
551:
550:
543:
542:
533:
526:
525:
519:
518:
511:
510:
501:
500:
494:
493:
484:
483:
477:
447:
443:Comparison table
375:
374:
351:
350:
349:
334:
333:
320:
319:
299:
298:
276:
275:
274:
259:
258:
245:
244:
243:
229:
228:
215:
214:
191:
177:
176:
175:
174:
159:
158:
157:
156:
138:
122:
116:
110:
106:
48:
47:
42:
41:
32:
21:
5047:
5046:
5042:
5041:
5040:
5038:
5037:
5036:
5012:
5011:
5010:
5005:
4987:
4924:Tongyong Pinyin
4904:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
4892:Dungan Cyrillic
4875:
4844:
4814:
4755:
4746:Written Hokkien
4727:
4686:
4680:
4656:Middle Mandarin
4622:
4542:
4517:
4479:
4426:
4359:
4352:
4339:
4288:
4236:
4195:
4172:
4108:
4042:
3961:
3940:
3922:
3899:
3823:
3790:
3767:
3711:
3647:
3607:
3598:
3586:
3574:
3562:
3550:
3530:
3512:
3484:
3466:
3440:
3417:
3344:
3317:
3291:
3268:
3192:
3132:
3104:
3081:
3058:
3007:
2996:
2991:
2948:
2936:
2926:
2916:
2907:
2898:
2888:
2879:
2870:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2853:
2849:, Feb. 4, 1979.
2840:
2836:
2828:
2824:
2818:China 1:250,000
2815:
2811:
2802:
2798:
2784:Japan and China
2781:
2777:
2769:
2762:
2757:
2753:
2745:
2741:
2732:
2728:
2720:
2716:
2707:
2703:
2695:
2691:
2679:
2678:
2674:
2644:
2643:
2634:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2608:
2604:
2595:
2591:
2578:
2574:
2559:
2555:
2547:
2540:
2532:
2528:
2511:
2510:
2506:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2491:
2486:
2482:
2456:
2452:
2438:
2434:
2426:
2422:
2413:
2409:
2394:
2390:
2385:
2368:
2344:Tongyong Pinyin
2279:
2229:
2227:1906 conference
2208:
2179:
2178:
2159:
2151:
2150:
2106:
2093:
2092:
2083:
2081:General Chinese
2066:
2065:
2056:
2039:
2038:
2024:
2014:
2013:
1999:
1997:Meixian dialect
1982:
1981:
1972:
1955:
1954:
1940:
1930:
1929:
1905:
1895:
1894:
1885:
1875:
1874:
1865:
1855:
1854:
1840:
1830:
1829:
1815:
1805:
1804:
1778:Bbánlám pìngyīm
1768:Phofsit Daibuun
1753:
1736:
1735:
1664:
1647:
1646:
1637:
1627:
1626:
1617:
1600:
1599:
1585:
1575:
1574:
1550:
1540:
1539:
1528:Simplified Wade
1508:Tongyong Pinyin
1486:Gwoyeu Romatzyh
1476:
1354:
1339:Beijing dialect
1319:Nanjing dialect
1279:Martino Martini
1228:
1159:
1131:
1063:
747:
720:
504:
445:
437:Beijing dialect
291:
251:Tongyong Pinyin
241:
182:Literal meaning
141:
87:
69:
61:
49:
36:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5045:
5043:
5035:
5034:
5029:
5024:
5014:
5013:
5007:
5006:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4989:
4988:
4986:
4985:
4980:
4975:
4970:
4968:Taiwanese kana
4965:
4964:
4963:
4958:
4948:
4947:
4946:
4941:
4939:Lessing-Othmer
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4911:
4906:
4896:
4895:
4894:
4883:
4881:
4877:
4876:
4874:
4869:
4864:
4859:
4854:
4852:
4846:
4845:
4843:
4842:
4837:
4836:
4835:
4830:
4819:
4816:
4815:
4813:
4808:
4803:
4798:
4793:
4788:
4783:
4781:
4772:
4763:
4757:
4756:
4754:
4753:
4748:
4743:
4741:Written Dungan
4738:
4732:
4729:
4728:
4726:
4725:
4720:
4719:
4718:
4713:
4708:
4697:
4695:
4688:
4682:
4681:
4679:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
4658:
4653:
4648:
4646:Middle Chinese
4643:
4638:
4632:
4630:
4624:
4623:
4621:
4620:
4615:
4613:Wubi (Wang Ma)
4610:
4605:
4604:
4603:
4598:
4593:
4583:
4578:
4573:
4572:
4571:
4561:
4558:
4552:
4550:
4544:
4543:
4541:
4540:
4533:
4525:
4523:
4519:
4518:
4516:
4515:
4510:
4505:
4500:
4495:
4489:
4487:
4481:
4480:
4478:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4446:
4445:
4434:
4432:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4424:
4419:
4414:
4409:
4408:
4407:
4406:
4405:
4400:
4390:
4385:
4380:
4375:
4364:
4362:
4354:
4353:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4340:
4338:
4337:
4332:
4330:Xiangnan Tuhua
4327:
4322:
4317:
4315:Shaozhou Tuhua
4312:
4307:
4302:
4296:
4294:
4290:
4289:
4287:
4286:
4285:
4284:
4279:
4274:
4266:
4265:
4264:
4259:
4250:
4248:
4242:
4241:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4219:
4214:
4209:
4203:
4201:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4193:
4188:
4182:
4180:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4170:
4165:
4160:
4155:
4150:
4145:
4144:
4143:
4138:
4127:
4125:
4116:
4110:
4109:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4099:
4094:
4084:
4083:
4082:
4072:
4067:
4062:
4056:
4054:
4048:
4047:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4039:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4018:
4017:
4016:
4006:
4001:
3996:
3991:
3990:
3989:
3984:
3973:
3971:
3967:
3966:
3963:
3962:
3960:
3959:
3954:
3948:
3946:
3942:
3941:
3939:
3938:
3932:
3930:
3924:
3923:
3921:
3920:
3915:
3909:
3907:
3901:
3900:
3898:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3882:
3877:
3872:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3846:
3844:
3835:
3829:
3828:
3825:
3824:
3822:
3821:
3820:
3819:
3814:
3804:
3798:
3796:
3792:
3791:
3789:
3788:
3783:
3777:
3775:
3769:
3768:
3766:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3739:
3737:
3728:
3719:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3707:
3697:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3657:
3655:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3645:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3617:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3605:
3593:
3581:
3569:
3557:
3544:
3542:
3536:
3535:
3532:
3531:
3529:
3528:
3522:
3520:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3494:
3492:
3486:
3485:
3483:
3482:
3476:
3474:
3468:
3467:
3465:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3448:
3446:
3442:
3441:
3439:
3438:
3433:
3427:
3425:
3419:
3418:
3416:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3390:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3363:
3361:
3352:
3346:
3345:
3343:
3342:
3337:
3331:
3329:
3323:
3322:
3319:
3318:
3316:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3299:
3297:
3293:
3292:
3290:
3289:
3284:
3278:
3276:
3270:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3254:
3249:
3244:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3228:Renshou–Fushun
3225:
3224:
3223:
3213:
3202:
3200:
3194:
3193:
3191:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3164:
3163:
3153:
3148:
3142:
3140:
3138:Central Plains
3134:
3133:
3131:
3130:
3125:
3120:
3114:
3112:
3106:
3105:
3103:
3102:
3097:
3091:
3089:
3083:
3082:
3080:
3079:
3074:
3068:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3035:
3033:
3024:
3015:
3009:
3008:
3001:
2998:
2997:
2992:
2990:
2989:
2982:
2975:
2967:
2961:
2960:
2946:
2934:
2924:
2914:
2905:
2896:
2886:
2877:
2866:
2863:
2861:
2860:
2851:
2847:New York Times
2834:
2822:
2809:
2796:
2775:
2773:, p. 105.
2760:
2758:Kaske, p. 415.
2751:
2739:
2726:
2714:
2701:
2689:
2672:
2632:
2623:
2614:
2602:
2589:
2572:
2553:
2551:, p. 101.
2538:
2526:
2503:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2490:
2489:
2480:
2450:
2432:
2420:
2407:
2405:of April 1907.
2387:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2380:
2379:
2374:
2367:
2364:
2278:
2275:
2228:
2225:
2210:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2199:
2192:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2177:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2153:
2152:
2149:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2136:Taiwanese kana
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2107:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2099:
2095:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2084:
2079:
2078:
2075:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2064:
2063:
2057:
2052:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2041:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2031:
2025:
2022:Sixian dialect
2020:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2006:
2000:
1995:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1984:
1983:
1980:
1979:
1973:
1968:
1967:
1964:
1963:
1957:
1956:
1953:
1952:
1949:Shaowu dialect
1941:
1938:Shao–Jiang Min
1936:
1935:
1932:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1917:
1914:Haikou dialect
1906:
1901:
1900:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1886:
1881:
1880:
1877:
1876:
1873:
1872:
1866:
1861:
1860:
1857:
1856:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1841:
1836:
1835:
1832:
1831:
1828:
1827:
1822:
1816:
1811:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1780:
1775:
1770:
1765:
1760:
1754:
1749:
1748:
1745:
1744:
1738:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1726:
1721:
1716:
1711:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1665:
1660:
1659:
1656:
1655:
1649:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1638:
1633:
1632:
1629:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1618:
1613:
1612:
1609:
1608:
1602:
1601:
1598:
1597:
1592:
1586:
1581:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1567:
1562:
1557:
1551:
1546:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1530:
1525:
1523:Lessing-Othmer
1520:
1515:
1510:
1505:
1500:
1495:
1494:
1493:
1483:
1477:
1472:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1353:
1350:
1273:of Hokkien in
1244:
1243:
1236:
1229:
1227:
1226:
1219:
1211:
1209:
1202:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1181:
1174:
1167:
1160:
1158:
1157:
1150:
1142:
1140:
1128:
1127:
1120:
1113:
1106:
1099:
1092:
1086:
1085:
1078:
1071:
1064:
1062:
1061:
1054:
1046:
1044:
1041:Sou-tcheou-fou
1037:
1028:
1027:
1020:
1013:
1006:
999:
992:
986:
985:
978:
971:
964:
957:
954:
944:
943:
936:
929:
922:
915:
909:
908:
901:
894:
887:
880:
871:
870:
863:
856:
849:
842:
833:
832:
825:
818:
811:
804:
798:
797:
790:
783:
776:
773:Quei-li-ng-fou
769:
763:
762:
755:
748:
746:
745:
738:
730:
728:
721:
719:
718:
711:
703:
701:
692:
691:
684:
677:
670:
663:
656:
647:
646:
639:
632:
625:
618:
615:Tchong-kin-fou
611:
602:
601:
594:
587:
580:
573:
570:Tching-tou-fou
566:
560:
559:
552:
545:
537:
534:
528:
527:
520:
513:
505:
503:
502:
495:
487:
485:
478:
472:
471:
468:
464:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
444:
441:
385:
384:
381:
380:
377:
376:
369:
360:
359:
353:
352:
342:
336:
335:
328:
322:
321:
314:
308:
307:
305:Yue: Cantonese
301:
300:
293:
285:
284:
278:
277:
267:
261:
260:
253:
247:
246:
237:
231:
230:
223:
217:
216:
209:
203:
202:
196:
195:
194:Transcriptions
187:
186:
183:
179:
178:
167:
161:
160:
149:
143:
142:
139:
131:
130:
127:
126:
118:
117:
111:⟩, see
84:
83:
78:
74:
73:
70:
67:
64:
63:
57:
55:
51:
50:
37:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5044:
5033:
5030:
5028:
5025:
5023:
5020:
5019:
5017:
5004:
4994:
4984:
4981:
4979:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4962:
4959:
4957:
4954:
4953:
4952:
4949:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4901:
4900:
4897:
4893:
4890:
4889:
4888:
4887:Cyrillization
4885:
4884:
4882:
4878:
4873:
4870:
4868:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4858:
4855:
4853:
4851:
4847:
4841:
4838:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4825:
4824:
4821:
4820:
4812:
4809:
4807:
4804:
4802:
4799:
4797:
4794:
4792:
4789:
4787:
4784:
4782:
4780:
4779:Script styles
4776:
4773:
4771:
4767:
4764:
4762:
4758:
4752:
4749:
4747:
4744:
4742:
4739:
4737:
4734:
4733:
4724:
4721:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4707:
4704:
4703:
4702:
4699:
4698:
4696:
4692:
4689:
4683:
4677:
4674:
4672:
4669:
4667:
4664:
4662:
4659:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4633:
4631:
4629:
4625:
4619:
4616:
4614:
4611:
4609:
4606:
4602:
4599:
4597:
4594:
4592:
4589:
4588:
4587:
4584:
4582:
4579:
4577:
4574:
4570:
4567:
4566:
4565:
4562:
4559:
4557:
4554:
4553:
4551:
4549:
4545:
4539:
4538:
4534:
4532:
4531:
4527:
4526:
4524:
4520:
4514:
4511:
4509:
4506:
4504:
4501:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4490:
4488:
4486:
4482:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
4453:
4451:
4448:
4444:
4441:
4440:
4439:
4436:
4435:
4433:
4429:
4423:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4413:
4410:
4404:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4395:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4370:
4369:
4366:
4365:
4363:
4361:
4355:
4350:
4336:
4333:
4331:
4328:
4326:
4323:
4321:
4318:
4316:
4313:
4311:
4308:
4306:
4303:
4301:
4298:
4297:
4295:
4291:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4275:
4273:
4270:
4269:
4267:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4254:
4252:
4251:
4249:
4247:
4243:
4233:
4230:
4228:
4225:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4215:
4213:
4210:
4208:
4205:
4204:
4202:
4198:
4192:
4189:
4187:
4184:
4183:
4181:
4179:
4175:
4169:
4166:
4164:
4161:
4159:
4156:
4154:
4151:
4149:
4146:
4142:
4139:
4137:
4134:
4133:
4132:
4129:
4128:
4126:
4124:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4111:
4103:
4100:
4098:
4095:
4093:
4090:
4089:
4088:
4085:
4081:
4078:
4077:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4049:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4023:
4022:
4019:
4015:
4012:
4011:
4010:
4007:
4005:
4002:
4000:
3997:
3995:
3992:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3979:
3978:
3975:
3974:
3972:
3968:
3958:
3955:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3943:
3937:
3934:
3933:
3931:
3929:
3925:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3910:
3908:
3906:
3902:
3896:
3893:
3891:
3888:
3886:
3883:
3881:
3878:
3876:
3873:
3871:
3868:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3847:
3845:
3843:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3830:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3809:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3793:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3774:
3770:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3740:
3738:
3736:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3714:
3706:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3674:
3671:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3656:
3654:
3650:
3644:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3627:
3624:
3623:
3622:
3619:
3618:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3602:
3597:
3594:
3590:
3585:
3582:
3578:
3573:
3570:
3566:
3561:
3558:
3554:
3549:
3546:
3545:
3543:
3541:
3537:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3519:
3515:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3487:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3469:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3443:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3428:
3426:
3424:
3420:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3394:
3391:
3388:
3385:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3360:
3356:
3353:
3351:
3347:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3330:
3328:
3324:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3300:
3298:
3294:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3277:
3275:
3271:
3263:
3260:
3259:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3234:
3231:
3230:
3229:
3226:
3222:
3219:
3218:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3208:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3199:
3195:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3162:
3159:
3158:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3147:
3144:
3143:
3141:
3139:
3135:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3115:
3113:
3111:
3107:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3090:
3088:
3084:
3078:
3075:
3073:
3070:
3069:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3036:
3034:
3032:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3005:
2999:
2995:
2988:
2983:
2981:
2976:
2974:
2969:
2968:
2965:
2956:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2941:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2906:
2901:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2882:
2878:
2873:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2855:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2838:
2835:
2831:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2813:
2810:
2806:
2800:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2785:
2779:
2776:
2772:
2771:Harris (2009)
2767:
2765:
2761:
2755:
2752:
2749:
2743:
2740:
2736:
2730:
2727:
2724:, p. 97.
2723:
2722:Harris (2009)
2718:
2715:
2711:
2705:
2702:
2698:
2693:
2690:
2685:
2684:
2676:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2653:(1): 96–109.
2652:
2648:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2633:
2627:
2624:
2618:
2615:
2611:
2606:
2603:
2599:
2593:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2576:
2573:
2569:
2568:
2566:
2557:
2554:
2550:
2549:Harris (2009)
2545:
2543:
2539:
2536:, p. 96.
2535:
2534:Harris (2009)
2530:
2527:
2522:
2518:
2514:
2508:
2505:
2499:
2494:
2484:
2481:
2469:
2463:
2459:
2454:
2451:
2447:
2436:
2433:
2429:
2424:
2421:
2417:
2411:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2399:
2392:
2389:
2382:
2378:
2375:
2373:
2370:
2369:
2365:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2345:
2340:
2338:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2319:
2318:Jilu Mandarin
2315:
2311:
2306:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2276:
2273:
2271:
2264:
2260:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2247:
2241:
2239:
2235:
2226:
2224:
2222:
2216:
2205:
2200:
2198:
2193:
2191:
2186:
2185:
2183:
2182:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2155:
2154:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2137:
2134:
2132:
2129:
2127:
2124:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2116:Cyrillization
2114:
2112:
2109:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2082:
2077:
2076:
2073:
2069:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2055:
2050:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2035:
2032:
2030:
2027:
2026:
2023:
2018:
2017:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1985:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1971:
1966:
1965:
1962:
1958:
1950:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1939:
1934:
1933:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1908:
1907:
1904:
1899:
1898:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1879:
1878:
1871:
1868:
1867:
1864:
1859:
1858:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1842:
1839:
1834:
1833:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1817:
1814:
1809:
1808:
1801:
1800:
1796:
1794:
1791:
1789:
1786:
1784:
1781:
1779:
1776:
1774:
1771:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1747:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1732:
1731:
1727:
1725:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1666:
1663:
1658:
1657:
1654:
1650:
1643:
1640:
1639:
1636:
1631:
1630:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1611:
1610:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1584:
1579:
1578:
1571:
1568:
1566:
1563:
1561:
1558:
1556:
1553:
1552:
1549:
1544:
1543:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1499:
1496:
1492:
1489:
1488:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1478:
1475:
1470:
1469:
1466:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1448:
1446:
1441:
1438:
1434:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1363:
1358:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1342:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1317:based on the
1316:
1315:court dialect
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1298:
1297:
1290:
1288:
1287:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1237:
1230:
1220:
1213:
1212:
1210:
1203:
1196:
1191:
1190:
1182:
1175:
1168:
1161:
1151:
1144:
1143:
1141:
1130:
1129:
1121:
1114:
1107:
1100:
1096:Tien-king-oei
1093:
1088:
1087:
1079:
1072:
1065:
1055:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1038:
1030:
1029:
1021:
1014:
1007:
1000:
993:
988:
987:
979:
972:
965:
958:
955:
946:
945:
937:
930:
916:
911:
910:
902:
895:
881:
873:
872:
864:
857:
843:
835:
834:
826:
819:
805:
800:
799:
791:
784:
770:
765:
764:
756:
749:
739:
732:
731:
729:
722:
712:
705:
704:
702:
694:
693:
685:
678:
671:
664:
657:
649:
648:
640:
636:Ch’ung-ch’ing
633:
626:
619:
612:
604:
603:
595:
588:
581:
574:
567:
562:
561:
553:
546:
538:
530:
529:
521:
514:
506:
496:
489:
488:
486:
479:
474:
473:
469:
466:
465:
448:
442:
440:
438:
434:
430:
425:
423:
419:
415:
411:
410:Herbert Giles
406:
404:
400:
395:
391:
382:
370:
368:
365:
361:
358:
354:
348:
343:
341:
337:
329:
327:
323:
315:
313:
309:
306:
302:
294:
290:
286:
283:
279:
273:
268:
266:
262:
254:
252:
248:
238:
236:
232:
224:
222:
218:
210:
208:
204:
201:
197:
192:
188:
184:
180:
168:
166:
162:
150:
148:
144:
137:
132:
128:
123:
114:
102:
98:
96:
92:
85:
82:
79:
75:
71:
65:
60:
56:
52:
33:
30:
19:
4918:
4909:Hanyu Pinyin
4899:Romanization
4806:Semi-cursive
4651:Old Mandarin
4608:Stroke count
4535:
4528:
4450:Old National
4293:Unclassified
3198:Southwestern
3031:Northeastern
3013:Major groups
3002:
2950:
2939:
2928:
2918:
2908:
2899:
2890:
2880:
2871:
2865:Bibliography
2854:
2846:
2837:
2830:USBGN (1979)
2825:
2812:
2799:
2791:
2778:
2754:
2747:
2742:
2734:
2729:
2717:
2709:
2704:
2692:
2682:
2675:
2650:
2646:
2626:
2617:
2605:
2592:
2584:
2575:
2561:
2556:
2529:
2512:
2507:
2483:
2465:
2457:
2453:
2443:
2435:
2423:
2410:
2402:
2396:
2391:
2341:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2307:
2280:
2266:
2261:
2250:
2242:
2230:
2217:
2213:
2009:Hagfa Pinyim
1863:Northern Min
1797:
1729:
1724:Barnett–Chao
1564:
1532:
1481:Hanyu Pinyin
1449:
1442:
1430:
1429:
1377:Treaty Ports
1366:
1343:
1325:of the late
1306:
1302:
1292:
1282:
1271:Amoy dialect
1264:
1247:
708:Quang-tcheou
426:
407:
405:until 2002.
389:
388:
357:Southern Min
292:Romanization
289:Shanghainese
207:Hanyu Pinyin
107:and ⟨
89:
62:romanization
29:
4978:Xiao'erjing
4840:Punctuation
4833:Traditional
4786:Oracle bone
4770:Logographic
4666:Proto-Hakka
4641:Eastern Han
4636:Old Chinese
4498:Classifiers
4465:Northern Wu
4393:Singaporean
3599: [
3587: [
3575: [
3563: [
3551: [
2287:Yuan Shikai
2121:Xiao'erjing
2029:Pha̍k-fa-sṳ
1883:Pu-Xian Min
1694:Meyer–Wempe
1635:Wenzhounese
1373:Robert Hart
1291:(1654) and
1199:Si-ngan-fou
884:Tci-nan-fou
808:Hang-tcheou
622:Ch'ungk'ing
470:1919, 1947
459:Wade–Giles
68:Time period
54:Script type
5016:Categories
4929:Wade–Giles
4828:Simplified
4723:Vernacular
4716:in Vietnam
4569:Simplified
4556:Biaoxingma
4503:Honorifics
4438:Historical
4383:Philippine
4373:Sichuanese
4300:Badong Yao
4004:Shao–Jiang
3875:Philippine
3683:Xiangxiang
3678:Shuangfeng
3423:Taizhou Wu
3206:Sichuanese
2495:References
2072:Polylectal
1838:Fuzhounese
1825:Pe̍h-ūe-jī
1758:Pe̍h-ōe-jī
1699:Sidney Lau
1615:General Wu
1583:Sichuanese
1513:Wade–Giles
1346:Kuomintang
1344:After the
1329:and early
1117:T’ien-chin
1017:Ssu-ch’uan
975:Ch’ing-tao
752:Kuang-chou
681:Kuang-tung
660:Quang-tong
429:Wade–Giles
235:Wade–Giles
4867:Taiwanese
4857:Cantonese
4701:Classical
4661:Proto-Min
4596:Microsoft
4455:Cantonese
4431:Phonology
4412:Cantonese
4403:Singdarin
4388:Malaysian
4378:Taiwanese
4282:Rongjiang
4272:Yongjiang
4268:Southern
4253:Northern
4227:Luo–Guang
4136:Hong Kong
4131:Guangzhou
4087:Taiwanese
4080:Changting
4014:Zhanjiang
3928:Zhongshan
3895:Malaysian
3890:Singapore
3855:Zhangzhou
3807:Zhongshan
3700:Yong–Quan
3596:Jing-Zhan
3526:Xuancheng
3503:Jiangshan
3382:Changzhou
3303:Junjiahua
3156:Guanzhong
3039:Changchun
2500:Citations
2356:Kaohsiung
2320:in 1932.
1903:Hainanese
1662:Cantonese
1421:Weihaiwei
1397:Chungking
1393:Chinkiang
1103:T'ientsin
1003:Szechw'an
996:Se-tchuen
961:Ts'ingtao
933:Nan-ching
860:Chiang-su
846:Kiang-nan
822:Hang-chou
759:Guǎngzhōu
742:Kwangchow
725:Kwangchow
688:Guǎngdōng
674:Kwangtung
667:Kwangtung
643:Chóngqìng
629:Chungking
591:Ch’êng-tu
549:Pei-pʻing
517:Pei-ching
427:When the
408:In 1892,
77:Languages
72:1892–2002
4951:Bopomofo
4880:Phonetic
4872:Two-cell
4801:Clerical
4711:in Japan
4706:Adoption
4694:Official
4685:Literary
4560:Boshiamy
4537:Xiehouyu
4493:Numerals
4470:Mandarin
4398:Standard
4358:Standard
4232:Qin–Lian
4222:Yong–Xun
4207:Gao–Yang
4153:Jiujiang
4141:Malaysia
4075:Tingzhou
4026:Wenchang
3987:Jianyang
3977:Northern
3936:Sanxiang
3850:Quanzhou
3833:Southern
3802:Manjiang
3666:Changsha
3626:Nanchang
3621:Chang–Du
3518:Xuanzhou
3508:Qingtian
3462:Wencheng
3408:Jiangyin
3403:Jinxiang
3393:Shaoxing
3387:Hangzhou
3367:Shanghai
3308:Qinjiang
3216:Minjiang
3188:Xinjiang
3146:Dongping
3110:Jiaoliao
3049:Shenyang
3022:Mandarin
2667:68653154
2521:81619222
2440:帝國郵電聯席會議
2428:This map
2366:See also
2270:orthoepy
2158:By place
2131:Bopomofo
2098:See also
1669:Jyutping
1465:Mandarin
1413:Kewkiang
1381:Shanghai
1178:Hsia-mên
1110:Tientsin
1010:Szechwan
968:Tsingtao
919:Nan-king
829:Hángzhōu
815:Hangchow
787:Kuei-lin
577:Ch'êngtu
450:Chinese
433:Shanghai
326:Jyutping
221:Bopomofo
105:/ /
101:Help:IPA
59:Alphabet
4850:Braille
4811:Cursive
4761:Scripts
4628:History
4618:ZhengMa
4564:Cangjie
4530:Chengyu
4485:Grammar
4460:Hokkien
4417:Hokkien
4325:Waxiang
4305:Danzhou
4277:Guandao
4262:Younian
4257:Tongdao
4246:Pinghua
4186:Taishan
4102:Raoping
4070:Huizhou
4060:Meixian
4036:Banqiao
4009:Leizhou
3999:Pu–Xian
3994:Central
3982:Jian'ou
3957:Longyan
3905:Teochew
3842:Hokkien
3817:Nanlang
3773:Fu–Ning
3753:Changle
3735:Houguan
3726:Eastern
3673:Loushao
3661:Changyi
3643:Da–Tong
3638:Ying–Yi
3584:Yanzhou
3452:Wenzhou
3445:Oujiang
3436:Tiantai
3431:Taizhou
3340:Zhi–Yan
3287:Nantong
3282:Nanjing
3257:Gui–Liu
3247:Nanping
3242:Kunming
3168:Luoyang
3123:Qingdao
3095:Tianjin
3072:Beijing
3064:Beijing
2951:中国大百科全书
2281:At the
2253:Jiangsu
2234:Guangxi
1820:Peng'im
1813:Teochew
1751:Hokkien
1417:Nanking
1401:Foochow
1352:History
1303:Pehking
1258:Hokkien
1164:Hsiamên
1147:Hia-men
1124:Tiānjīn
1075:Su-chou
1068:Soochow
1051:Soochow
1024:Sìchuān
982:Qīngdǎo
940:Nánjīng
926:Nanking
898:Chi-nan
867:Jiāngsū
853:Kiangsu
780:Kweilin
598:Chéngdū
584:Chengtu
556:Běipíng
541:Peiping
524:Běijīng
499:Pehking
462:Pinyin
456:Postal
364:Hokkien
93:in the
81:Chinese
4919:Postal
4914:MPS II
4791:Bronze
4671:Ba–Shu
4591:Google
4586:Pinyin
4522:Idioms
4335:Yeheni
4217:Wu–Hua
4212:Goulou
4191:Xinhui
4168:Dapeng
4163:Weitou
4148:Xiguan
4123:Yuehai
4092:Sixian
4031:Haikou
4021:Hainan
3952:Zhenan
3918:Haklau
3913:Swatow
3885:Penang
3870:Taiwan
3865:Chawan
3812:Longdu
3781:Ningde
3758:Gutian
3748:Fuqing
3743:Fuzhou
3705:Qiyang
3688:Wugang
3633:Yi–Liu
3560:Xiu-Yi
3548:Ji-She
3498:Quzhou
3490:Chu–Qu
3480:Jinhua
3472:Wuzhou
3457:Rui'an
3398:Ningbo
3372:Suzhou
3262:Wuming
3233:Zigong
3221:Leshan
3183:Lanyin
3178:Dungan
3173:Xuzhou
3151:Gangou
3128:Weihai
3118:Dalian
3077:Taiwan
3044:Harbin
2957:, 1998
2665:
2598:China.
2519:
2476:國音常用字彙
2472:国音常用字汇
2464::
2462:pinyin
2360:Tainan
2352:Taipei
2238:Fujian
1793:Tâi-lô
1423:, and
1409:Ichang
1405:Hankow
1389:Chefoo
1311:Xuzhou
1275:Xiamen
1266:Ēe-mûi
1250:Xiamen
1233:Hsi-an
1216:Sianfu
1206:Singan
1185:Xiàmén
1082:Sūzhōu
1058:Suchow
891:Tsinan
794:Guìlín
735:Canton
715:Canton
544:(1947)
512:(1919)
509:Peking
492:Peking
482:Peking
416:. The
403:Taiwan
399:pinyin
109:
4983:Nüshu
4687:forms
4601:Sogou
4548:Input
4422:Hakka
4360:forms
4200:Other
4158:Shiqi
4097:Hailu
4065:Wuhua
4052:Hakka
3970:Other
3945:Other
3880:Pedan
3795:Other
3786:Fu'an
3763:Matsu
3695:Ji–Xu
3653:Xiang
3603:]
3591:]
3579:]
3572:Qi-De
3567:]
3555:]
3413:Shadi
3359:Taihu
3313:Gyami
3296:Other
3252:Wuhan
3161:Xi'an
3100:Jinan
2663:S2CID
2414:1947
2383:Notes
2257:Anhui
2061:Pinfa
2045:Xiang
2004:Pinfa
1988:Hakka
1977:Pinfa
1240:Xī'ān
1154:Emoui
905:Jǐnán
467:1907
173:邮政式拼音
155:郵政式拼音
97:(IPA)
46:邮政式拼音
40:郵政式拼音
4944:Yale
4934:EFEO
4796:Seal
4581:Dayi
4178:Siyi
3860:Amoy
3377:Wuxi
3274:Huai
3087:Jilu
2517:OCLC
2358:and
2255:and
2236:and
2034:TLPA
1788:TLPA
1570:EFEO
1425:Wuhu
1385:Amoy
1331:Qing
1327:Ming
1281:'s
1223:Sian
1171:Amoy
4676:Gan
4576:CKC
4443:Old
4320:She
4310:Mai
4114:Yue
3717:Min
3613:Gan
3540:Hui
3389:(?)
3327:Jin
3054:Taz
2845:,"
2790:",
2655:doi
2583:",
1961:Gan
1742:Min
1653:Yue
1256:of
1032:蘇州；
875:濟南；
837:江蘇；
696:廣州；
651:廣東；
606:重慶；
367:POJ
340:IPA
265:IPA
5018::
3601:zh
3589:zh
3577:zh
3565:zh
3553:zh
3350:Wu
2763:^
2661:.
2651:34
2649:.
2635:^
2541:^
2474:/
2460:,
2442:;
1606:Wu
1419:,
1415:,
1411:,
1407:,
1403:,
1399:,
1395:,
1391:,
1387:,
1383:,
1379::
1307:oo
1263:;
1261:廈門
1193:西安
1137:厦门
1133:廈門
1090:天津
1034:苏州
990:四川
952:青岛
948:青島
913:南京
877:济南
839:江苏
802:杭州
767:桂林
698:广州
653:广东
608:重庆
564:成都
532:北平
476:北京
282:Wu
2986:e
2979:t
2972:v
2959:.
2945:.
2933:.
2923:.
2913:.
2904:.
2895:.
2885:.
2876:.
2841:"
2832:.
2816:"
2803:"
2699:.
2669:.
2657::
2612:.
2596:"
2579:"
2523:.
2478:)
2470:(
2448:.
2203:e
2196:t
2189:v
1951:)
1947:(
1926:)
1922:(
1916:)
1912:(
1135:；
956:—
950:；
536:—
115:.
43:；
20:)
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