Post-glacial rebound - Knowledge (XXG)

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crustal motion, changes in global sea levels and the Earth's gravity field, induced earthquakes, and changes in the Earth's rotation. Another alternate term is "glacial isostasy", because the uplift near the centre of rebound is due to the tendency towards the restoration of isostatic equilibrium (as in the case of isostasy of mountains). Unfortunately, that term gives the wrong impression that isostatic equilibrium is somehow reached, so by appending "adjustment" at the end, the motion of restoration is emphasized.

446: 716:). As well as the addition of melted ice water from glaciers and ice sheets, recent sea level changes are affected by the thermal expansion of sea water due to global warming, sea level change due to deglaciation of the last glacial maximum (postglacial sea level change), deformation of the land and ocean floor and other factors. Thus, to understand global warming from sea level change, one must be able to separate all these factors, especially postglacial rebound, since it is one of the leading factors. 271: 4142: 685:

but is large enough to reactivate pre-existing faults that are close to failure. Thus, both postglacial rebound and past tectonics play important roles in today's intraplate earthquakes in eastern Canada and southeast US. Generally postglacial rebound stress could have triggered the intraplate earthquakes in eastern Canada and may have played some role in triggering earthquakes in the eastern US including the

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subside. Therefore, ancient beaches are found below present day sea level in the bulge area. The "relative sea level data", which consists of height and age measurements of the ancient beaches around the world, tells us that glacial isostatic adjustment proceeded at a higher rate near the end of deglaciation than today.

652:, plate-plate interaction results in earthquakes near plate boundaries. However, large earthquakes are found in intraplate environments like eastern Canada (up to M7) and northern Europe (up to M5) which are far away from present-day plate boundaries. An important intraplate earthquake was the magnitude 8 228:, the total area of the country is growing by about seven square kilometers per year. Studies suggest that rebound will continue for at least another 10,000 years. The total uplift from the end of deglaciation depends on the local ice load and could be several hundred metres near the centre of rebound. 684:

of rock failure, large glacial loads generally suppress earthquakes, but rapid deglaciation promotes earthquakes. According to Wu & Hasagawa, the rebound stress that is available to trigger earthquakes today is of the order of 1 MPa. This stress level is not large enough to rupture intact rocks

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is a reference surface for altitude measurement and plays vital roles in many human activities, including land surveying and construction of buildings and bridges. Since postglacial rebound continuously deforms the crustal surface and the gravitational field, the vertical datum needs to be redefined

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In areas where the rising of land is seen, it is necessary to define the exact limits of property. In Finland, the "new land" is legally the property of the owner of the water area, not any land owners on the shore. Therefore, if the owner of the land wishes to build a pier over the "new land", they

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In the near field outside the former ice margin, the land sinks relative to the sea. This is the case along the east coast of the United States, where ancient beaches are found submerged below present day sea level and Florida is expected to be submerged in the future. GPS data in North America also

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Recently, the term "post-glacial rebound" is gradually being replaced by the term "glacial isostatic adjustment". This is in recognition that the response of the Earth to glacial loading and unloading is not limited to the upward rebound movement, but also involves downward land movement, horizontal

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A model of present-day mass change due to post-glacial rebound and the reloading of the ocean basins with seawater. Blue and purple areas indicate rising due to the removal of the ice sheets. Yellow and red areas indicate falling as mantle material moved away from these areas in order to supply the

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local ice thickness. A popular ice model deduced this way is the ICE5G model. Because the response of the Earth to changes in ice height is slow, it cannot record rapid fluctuation or surges of ice sheets, thus the ice sheet profiles deduced this way only gives the "average height" over a thousand

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One of the possible impacts of global warming-triggered rebound may be more volcanic activity in previously ice-capped areas such as Iceland and Greenland. It may also trigger intraplate earthquakes near the ice margins of Greenland and Antarctica. Unusually rapid (up to 4.1 cm/year) present

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The combination of horizontal and vertical motion changes the tilt of the surface. That is, locations farther north rise faster, an effect that becomes apparent in lakes. The bottoms of the lakes gradually tilt away from the direction of the former ice maximum, such that lake shores on the side of

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Post-glacial rebound produces measurable effects on vertical crustal motion, global sea levels, horizontal crustal motion, gravity field, Earth's rotation, crustal stress, and earthquakes. Studies of glacial rebound give us information about the flow law of mantle rocks, which is important to the

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Since the glacial isostatic adjustment process causes the land to move relative to the sea, ancient shorelines are found to lie above present day sea level in areas that were once glaciated. On the other hand, places in the peripheral bulge area which was uplifted during glaciation now begins to

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experiments of mantle rocks at natural strain rates would take thousands of years to observe and the ambient temperature and pressure conditions are not easy to attain for a long enough time. Thus, the observations of postglacial rebound provide a natural experiment to measure mantle rheology.

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again. However, geological records of sea level changes show that the redistribution of the melted ice water is not the same everywhere in the oceans. In other words, depending upon the location, the rise in sea level at a certain site may be more than that at another site. This is due to the

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Increasing pressure due to the weight of the ice during glaciation may have suppressed melt generation and volcanic activities below Iceland and Greenland. On the other hand, decreasing pressure due to deglaciation can increase the melt production and volcanic activities by 20-30 times.

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The elastic behavior of the lithosphere and mantle, illustrating subsidence of the crust with respect to landscape properties as a result of the downward force of a glacier ("Before"), and the effects that melting and glacial retreat have on the rebound of the mantle and lithosphere in

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in southeastern Canada. When the postglacial faults formed at the end of deglaciation 9000 years ago, the horizontal principal stress orientation was almost perpendicular to the former ice margin, but today the orientation is in the northeast–southwest, along the direction of

1252:{\displaystyle S(\theta ,\lambda ,t)={\frac {\rho _{i}}{\gamma }}G_{s}\otimes _{i}I+{\frac {\rho _{w}}{\gamma }}G_{s}\otimes _{o}S+S^{E}-{\frac {\rho _{i}}{\gamma }}{\overline {G_{s}\otimes _{i}I}}-{\frac {\rho _{w}}{\gamma }}{\overline {G_{o}\otimes _{o}S}},} 731:

satellite mission are useful for such purpose. However, glacial isostatic adjustment of the ice sheets affect ground deformation and the gravity field today. Thus understanding glacial isostatic adjustment is important in monitoring recent global warming.

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ice sheets are closely related to the basal condition of the ice sheets. Thus the volume of ice locked up is proportional to their instantaneous area. Finally, the heights of ancient beaches in the sea level data and observed land uplift rates (e.g. from

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Modelling of glacial isostatic adjustment addresses the question of how viscosity changes in the radial and lateral directions and whether the flow law is linear, nonlinear, or composite rheology. Mantle viscosity may additionally be estimated using

473:, and the post-glacial rebound of northern Great Britain (up to 10 cm per century) is causing a corresponding downward movement of the southern half of the island (up to 5 cm per century). This will eventually lead to an increased risk of 664:. Since the mantle and the lithosphere continuously respond to the changing ice and water loads, the state of stress at any location continuously changes in time. The changes in the orientation of the state of stress is recorded in the 580:. The effects are similar to that concerning seashores, but occur above sea level. Tilting of land will also affect the flow of water in lakes and rivers in the future, and thus is important for water resource management planning. 543:

Accompanying vertical motion is the horizontal motion of the crust. The BIFROST GPS network shows that the motion diverges from the centre of rebound. However, the largest horizontal velocity is found near the former ice margin.

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gravitational attraction between the mass of the melted water and the other masses, such as remaining ice sheets, glaciers, water masses and mantle rocks and the changes in centrifugal potential due to Earth's variable rotation.

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were so massive that global sea level fell by about 120 metres. Thus continental shelves were exposed and many islands became connected with the continents through dry land. This was the case between the British Isles and Europe

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Wang, H.S.; P. Wu (2006). "Effects of lateral variations in lithospheric thickness and mantle viscosity on glacially induced relative sea levels and long wavelength gravity field in a spherical, self-gravitating Maxwell Earth".

889:, and only later has been refined by Platzman and Farrell in the context of the study of the ocean tides. In the words of Wu and Peltier, the solution of the SLE yields the space– and time–dependent change of ocean 416:), the harbour has had to be relocated several times. Place names in the coastal regions also illustrate the rising land: there are inland places named 'island', 'skerry', 'rock', 'point' and 'sound'. For example, 2158: 659:

Glacial loads provided more than 30 MPa of vertical stress in northern Canada and more than 20 MPa in northern Europe during glacial maximum. This vertical stress is supported by the mantle and the flexure of the

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Barletta, V.; M. Bevis; B. Smith; T. Wilson; A. Brown; A. Bordoni; M. Willis; S. Khan; M. Rovira-Navarro; I. Dalziel; B. Smalley; E. Kendrick; S. Konfal; D. Caccamise; R. Aster; A. Nyblade & D. Wiens (2018).

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glacial isostatic rebound due to recent ice mass losses in the Amundsen Sea embayment region of Antarctica coupled with low regional mantle viscosity is predicted to provide a modest stabilizing influence on

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a number of marks were made in rock on different locations along the Swedish coast. In 1765 it was possible to conclude that it was not a lowering of sea levels but an uneven rise of land. In 1865

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tell us the areal extent and retreat of past ice sheets. Physics of glaciers gives us the theoretical profile of ice sheets at equilibrium, it also says that the thickness and horizontal extent of

587:'s outlet in the northwest has a rebound of 2.36 mm/a while in the eastern Svanaviken it is 2.05 mm/a. This means the lake is being slowly tilted and the southeastern shores drowned. 719:

Mass changes of ice sheets can be monitored by measuring changes in the ice surface height, the deformation of the ground below and the changes in the gravity field over the ice sheet. Thus

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in Finland, which is large (90 x 30 km) and oriented perpendicularly to the former ice margin, originally drained through an outlet in the middle of the lake near Nunnanlahti to Lake

313:. In addition, post-glacial rebound has caused numerous significant changes to coastlines and landscapes over the last several thousand years, and the effects continue to be significant. 677:. This shows that the stress due to postglacial rebound had played an important role at deglacial time, but has gradually relaxed so that tectonic stress has become more dominant today. 504:

To form the ice sheets of the last Ice Age, water from the oceans evaporated, condensed as snow and was deposited as ice in high latitudes. Thus global sea level fell during glaciation.

94:), the deformation of the Earth's crust in response to changes in ice mass distribution. The direct raising effects of post-glacial rebound are readily apparent in parts of Northern 1544: 791:

and paleo-oceanography. Ice thickness histories are traditionally deduced from the three types of information: First, the sea level data at stable sites far away from the centers of

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Mitrovica, J. X., Davis, J. L. & Shapiro, I. I., 1994. A spectral formal- ism for computing three–dimensional deformations due to surface loads. J. geophys. Res., 99, 70577073.

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Wu, P., and W. R. Peltier. Glacial isostatic adjustment and the free–air gravity anomaly as a constraint on deep mantle viscosity. Geophys. J. R. Astron. Soc., 74, 377449, 1983.

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denote spatio-temporal convolutions over the ice- and ocean-covered regions, and the overbar indicates an average over the surface of the oceans that ensures mass conservation.

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need the permission of the owner of the (former) water area. The landowner of the shore may redeem the new land at market price. Usually the owner of the water area is the

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earth model. The SLE theory was then developed by other authors as Mitrovica & Peltier, Mitrovica et al. and Spada & Stocchi. In its simplest form, the SLE reads

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came up with a theory that the rise of land was connected with the ice age that had been first discovered in 1837. The theory was accepted after investigations by

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Hughes, T. (1998). "Tutorial on Strategies for using isostatic adjustments in models that reconstruct ice sheets during the last deglaciation". In Wu, P. (ed.).

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variations associated with the PGR. The basic idea of the SLE dates back to 1888, when Woodward published his pioneering work on the form and position of mean

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is an example of post-glacial rebound after the last Ice Age. Little to no tide helped to form its layer-cake look. Isostatic rebound is still underway here.

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satellite mission. The change in long-wavelength components of Earth's gravity field also perturbs the orbital motion of satellites and has been detected by

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Wu, P. (1996). "Changes in orientation of near-surface stress field as constraints to mantle viscosity and horizontal stress differences in Eastern Canada".

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retreated, the removal of this weight led to slow (and still ongoing) uplift or rebound of the land and the return flow of mantle material back under the

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give an estimate of how much water entered the oceans or equivalently how much ice was locked up at glacial maximum. Secondly, the location and dates of

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The situation in North America is less certain; this is due to the sparse distribution of GPS stations in northern Canada, which is rather inaccessible.

30: 2811:"Mantle viscosity inferences from joint inversion of Pleistocene deglaciation-induced changes in geopotential with a new SLR analysis and Polar Wander" 2631: 2290:"Tilting of Lake Pielinen, eastern Finland – an example of extreme transgressions and regressions caused by differential post-glacial isostatic uplift" 3354: 1820: 3216: 2110: 728: 618: 363:, making the present day villages on the west coast set back unexpectedly far from the shore. These effects are quite dramatic at the village of 2196: 3856: 3832: 3820: 3236:

Platzman , G. W., 1971. Ocean tides. In Lectures in Applied Mathematics, 14, part 2, pp. 239292, American Mathematical Society, Providence, RI.

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the maximum (typically north) recede and the opposite (southern) shores sink. This causes the formation of new rapids and rivers. For example,

3475: 1743: 771:, the dynamical processes in Earth, and the thermal state and thermal evolution of Earth. However viscosity is difficult to observe because 3263:

Mitrovica, J. X. & Peltier, W. R., 1991. On postglacial geoid subsidence over the equatorial ocean. J. geophys. Res., 96, 20,05320,071.

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decreasing rate. Today, typical uplift rates are of the order of 1 cm/year or less. In northern Europe, this is clearly shown by the

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The fall in sea level also affects the circulation of ocean currents and thus has important impact on climate during the glacial maximum.

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has caused mountain glaciers and the ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica to melt and global sea level to rise. Therefore, monitoring

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van der Wal, W.; et al. (2010). "Sea levels and uplift rate from composite rheology in glacial isostatic adjustment modeling".

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The uplift has taken place in two distinct stages. The initial uplift following deglaciation was almost immediate due to the

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Milne, G.; Shennan, I. (2013). "Isostasy: Glaciation-Induced Sea-Level Change". In Elias, Scott A.; Mock, Cary J. (eds.).

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response of the crust as the ice load was removed. After this elastic phase, uplift proceeded by slow viscous flow at an

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Peltier, W. R. (2004). "Global glacial isostasy and the surface of the ice age earth: the ICE-5G (VM2) Model and GRACE".

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Kaufmann, G.; K. Lambeck (2002). "Glacial isostatic adjustment and the radial viscosity profile from inverse modeling".

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Mitrovica, J.X.; W.R. Peltier (1993). "Present-day secular variations in zonal harmonics of the Earth's geopotential".

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The changing gravity field can be detected by repeated land measurements with absolute gravimeters and recently by the

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and the thermal evolution of the Earth. It also gives insight into past ice sheet history, which is important to

4097: 3753: 3528: 1828: 614:. This change in the topography of Earth's surface affects the long-wavelength components of the gravity field. 4052: 3844: 3783: 3227:

Woodward, R. S., 1888. On the form and position of mean sea level. United States Geol. Survey Bull., 48, 87170.

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https://www.maanmittauslaitos.fi/ajankohtaista/vesijatto-mita-mokkeilijan-olisi-hyva-tietaa-erikoisesta-sanasta

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network called BIFROST. Results of GPS data show a peak rate of about 11 mm/year in the north part of the

394: 1936:"Postglacial variations in the level of the sea: implications for climate dynamics and solid-earth geophysics" 681: 3432: 1502: 3801: 3245:

Farrell, W. E., 1973. Earth tides, ocean tides and tidal loading. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. A, 274, 253259.

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sediments imply a similar event in prehistoric times. Other pronounced effects can be seen on the island of

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Yoder, C. F.; et al. (1983). "J2-dot from Lageos and the non-tidal acceleration of earth rotation".

4077: 4012: 3910: 3688: 3642: 3503: 3362: 2548:"Induced stresses and fault potential in Eastern Canada due to a realistic load: a preliminary analysis" 665: 2096: 709:

and the mass balance of ice sheets and glaciers allows people to understand more about global warming.

1407: 4176: 4087: 4042: 3880: 3513: 3508: 3451: 3316: 3068: 3033: 2991: 2940: 2905: 2859: 2822: 2773: 2705: 2596: 2559: 2520: 2477: 2362: 2260: 2188: 2067: 2026: 1984: 1947: 1894: 1792: 1705: 756:(i.e., the flow) of the mantle, and the ice loading and unloading histories on the surface of Earth. 573: 213: 171: 79: 1549: 4166: 4037: 3826: 3737: 1685: – Global deglaciation starting about 19,000 years ago and accelerating about 15,000 years ago 824:

adjustment also plays an important role in understanding recent global warming and climate change.

772: 599:, and as they move around, they exert a gravitational pull on other masses towards them. Thus, the 143: 75: 1649: 1622: 4117: 4112: 4047: 3455: 3415: 3339: 3290: 2964: 2493: 2378: 1699: 777: 674: 670: 3601: 3381:

The Coordinating Committee On Great Lakes Basic Hydraulic and Hydrologic Data (November 2001).

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is former seabed or archipelago: illustrated are sea levels immediately after the last ice age.

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Jull, M.; D. McKenzie (1996). "The effect of deglaciation on mantle melting beneath Iceland".

1739: 1289: 878: 796: 764: 306: 217: 3203: 1387: 1265: 3652: 3324: 3181: 3154: 3127: 3076: 3041: 3037: 2999: 2948: 2913: 2909: 2875: 2867: 2830: 2781: 2713: 2604: 2567: 2528: 2485: 2370: 2353: 2301: 2268: 2101: 2075: 2034: 1992: 1955: 1902: 1800: 1781:"Continuous GPS measurements of postglacial adjustment in Fennoscandia. 1. Geodetic results" 1731: 911: 784: 760: 607: 401: 186: 99: 3080: 2694:"A method of combining ICESat and GRACE satellite data to constrain Antarctic mass balance" 561: 3991: 3960: 3892: 3874: 3632: 3611: 3533: 3518: 3445: 3438: 3019:"The uppermost mantle seismic velocity and viscosity structure of central West Antarctica" 2447: 902: 841: 768: 712:

Recent rise in sea levels has been monitored by tide gauges and satellite altimetry (e.g.

649: 611: 508: 492:, but this uplift rate decreases away and becomes negative outside the former ice margin. 489: 375: 287: 242: 179: 147: 3281:

Spada G. & Stocchi, P., 2006. The Sea Level Equation, Theory and Numerical Examples.

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material back to the glaciated area causes the overall shape of the Earth to become less

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Påsse, Tore (1998). "Lake-tilting, a method for estimation of glacio-isostatic uplift".

2264: 2071: 2030: 1988: 1951: 1898: 1796: 270: 4127: 3996: 3955: 3420: 3389: 3109: 2572: 2547: 2374: 2097:"Late Weichselian and Holocene shore displacement history of the Baltic Sea in Finland" 2080: 2055: 1735: 1602: 1482: 1462: 1313: 989: 969: 949: 858: 845: 837: 713: 706: 702: 635: 531: 364: 190: 48: 2762:"Observed rapid bedrock uplift in Amundsen Sea Embayment promotes ice-sheet stability" 4160: 4107: 4072: 3904: 3898: 3868: 3850: 3771: 3713: 3662: 3647: 3606: 3329: 3304: 3118: 2382: 2273: 2246: 600: 557: 462: 454: 393:, selected as a "type area" illustrating the effects of post-glacial rebound and the 352: 155: 135: 3338:

Garai, J. (2003). "Post glacial rebounds measure the viscosity of the lithosphere".

351:, Sweden, which has little topographic relief due to the presence of the very level 4057: 4022: 3543: 3538: 2968: 2497: 1688: 898: 792: 344: 250: 198: 183: 174:

about 20,000 years ago. The enormous weight of this ice caused the surface of the

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that allowed the migration of people and animals during the last glacial maximum.

3355:"Glacial and Postglacial Geologic History of Isle Royale National Park, Michigan" 2952: 1702: – Physical quantity that expresses internal forces in a continuous material 4082: 4067: 4062: 3916: 3708: 3596: 3553: 2931:

Karato, S., S; P. Wu (1993). "Rheology of the upper mantle : a synthesis".

2224: 1883:"Observation of glacial isostatic adjustment in "stable" North America with GPS" 661: 606:

Today, more than 6000 years after the last deglaciation terminated, the flow of

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De Geer, Gerard (1924). "Post-Algonkian Oscillations of Land in Feunoscandia".

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The speed and amount of postglacial rebound is determined by two factors: the

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of the mantle, it will take many thousands of years for the land to reach an

3305:"Sea-level change, glacial rebound and mantle viscosity for northern Europe" 2786: 2761: 2306: 2289: 1307: 886: 882: 749: 517: 496:

confirms that land uplift becomes subsidence outside the former ice margin.

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are felt globally far from the locations of current and former ice sheets.

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in West Antarctica, but likely not to a sufficient degree to arrest it.

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The present-day uplift motion in northern Europe is also monitored by a

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Sella, G.F.; Stein, S.; Dixon, T.H.; Craymer, M.; et al. (2007).

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is the sea surface variation as seen from Earth's center of mass, and

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During deglaciation, the melted ice water returns to the oceans, thus

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de Geer, Gerard (1910). "Quaternary Sen-bottoms in Western Sweden".

3113: 2427: 564:. The change of tilt caused Pielinen to burst through the Uimaharju 2056:"Pleistocene deglaciation and the earth's rotation: a new analysis" 861:

of the landowners of the shores, a collective holding corporation.

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inhabitants were known to subsist on substantial coastal fishing.

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material to flow away from the loaded region. At the end of each

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at the southwestern end of the lake, creating a new river (

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Map of Post Glacial Rebound effects upon the land-level of

1730:. Vol. 3 (2nd ed.). Elsevier. pp. 452–459. 1009:

In a more explicit form the SLE can be written as follow:

3114:"Om Skandinaviens nivåförändringar under qvartärperioden" 780:, where seismic velocity is used as a proxy observable. 224:

data obtained by the BIFROST GPS network; for example in

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Searching for eustasy in deglacial sea-level histories.

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is the sea–level Green's function (dependent upon the

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that occurred in mid-continental US in the year 1811.

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Mitrovica, J.X.; G.A. Milne & J.L. Davis (2001).

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Geophysical Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society

2015:"Can deglaciation trigger earthquakes in N. America?" 1652: 1625: 1605: 1552: 1505: 1485: 1465: 1410: 1390: 1363: 1336: 1316: 1292: 1268: 1018: 992: 972: 952: 914: 644:

State of stress, intraplate earthquakes and volcanism

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viscoelastic load–deformation coefficients - LDCs),

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of old shorelines in Scandinavia published in 1890.

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Dynamics of the Ice Age Earth: A Modern Perspective

2288:Seppä, H.; M. Tikkanen & J.-P. Mäkiaho (2012). 783:Ice thickness histories are useful in the study of 522:

land bridge also existed between Siberia and Alaska

3303:Lambeck, K.; C. Smither; P. Johnston (July 1998). 2247:"Glacial isostatic adjustment on a rotating earth" 2008: 2006: 1665: 1638: 1611: 1587: 1538: 1491: 1471: 1451: 1396: 1384:are the densities of ice and water, respectively, 1376: 1349: 1322: 1298: 1274: 1251: 998: 978: 958: 935: 832:Before the eighteenth century, it was thought, in 3098:. Switzerland: Trans Tech Publ. pp. 271–322. 1876: 1874: 1872: 35:rising areas, and because of the collapse of the 3416:As Alaska Glaciers Melt, It’s Land That’s Rising 2322:"Jääkausi päättyy, Pielinen syntyy - joensuu.fi" 1774: 1772: 1770: 1768: 3174:Geologiska Föreningen i Stockholm Förhandlingar 3147:Geologiska Föreningen i Stockholm Förhandlingar 3119:Geologiska Föreningen i Stockholm Förhandlingar 1821:"e_Opin oppikirjat: eMaantieto: Maankohoaminen" 477:in southern England and south-western Ireland. 3929:Withrow Moraine and Jameson Lake Drumlin Field 2692:Wahr, J.; D. Wingham & C. Bentley (2000). 2444:"GFZ Potsdam, Department 1: The GRACE Mission" 1926: 1924: 1922: 1920: 1918: 3476: 3061:Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 8: 424:" is a peninsula, with inland names such as 335:in about the 12th century, at the time when 3923:Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area 2397:"Ice sheet in peril? Gravity to the rescue" 3743: 3668: 3576: 3483: 3469: 3461: 3359:Geological Survey Professional Paper 754-A 2215: 2213: 895:gravitational potential of the sea surface 138:due to glaciation and post-glacial rebound 4182:Events in the geological history of Earth 3343: 3328: 2879: 2834: 2785: 2717: 2571: 2305: 2272: 2079: 2038: 1959: 1906: 1804: 1762:Quaternary Science Reviews. 27:2292–2302. 1657: 1651: 1630: 1624: 1604: 1570: 1557: 1551: 1504: 1484: 1464: 1428: 1415: 1409: 1389: 1368: 1362: 1341: 1335: 1315: 1291: 1267: 1231: 1221: 1214: 1203: 1197: 1179: 1169: 1162: 1151: 1145: 1136: 1120: 1110: 1095: 1089: 1077: 1067: 1052: 1046: 1017: 991: 971: 951: 913: 374:As a result of post-glacial rebound, the 182:to deform and warp downward, forcing the 118:, the effects of post-glacial rebound on 2809:Vermeersen, L.L.A.; et al. (1998). 2133:"Oulunsalon kirkon seudun paikannimistö" 269: 260: 42: 27:Rise of land masses after glacial period 2095:Tikkanen, Matti; Oksanen, Juha (2002). 1758:Milne, G.A., and J.X. Mitrovica (2008) 1718: 1599:term (i.e. the ocean–averaged value of 1539:{\displaystyle I=I(\theta ,\lambda ,t)} 378:is predicted to eventually close up at 309:are among the common signatures of the 3857:Ice Age Floods National Geologic Trail 3821:Chippewa Moraine State Recreation Area 3081:10.1146/annurev.earth.32.082503.144359 2677:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2670: 3017:O'Donnell, J.P.; et al. (2017). 2113:from the original on October 20, 2017 1779:Johansson, J.M.; et al. (2002). 7: 436:"the brook of the Sound". (Compare 110:. However, through the processes of 3863:Ice Age National Scientific Reserve 3026:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2898:Earth and Planetary Science Letters 2407:from the original on 14 August 2017 1708:- The opposite of isostatic rebound 359:settlement area to recede from the 2634:from the original on 20 April 2018 2624:"Warming Seas, Melting Ice Sheets" 2573:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1996.tb01546.x 2375:10.1111/j.1502-3885.1998.tb00868.x 2294:Estonian Journal of Earth Sciences 2081:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1984.tb01920.x 1736:10.1016/B978-0-444-53643-3.00135-7 1728:Encyclopedia of Quaternary Science 1695:Physical impacts of climate change 1404:is the reference surface gravity, 595:Ice, water, and mantle rocks have 355:. The rising land has caused the 25: 3851:Horicon Marsh State Wildlife Area 3309:Geophysical Journal International 2552:Geophysical Journal International 2332:from the original on 30 June 2017 2252:Geophysical Journal International 4141: 4140: 3796:Origin of the Oak Ridges Moraine 3330:10.1046/j.1365-246x.1998.00541.x 2748:– via www.telegraph.co.uk. 2274:10.1046/j.1365-246x.2001.01550.x 2189:"Observed Radial Rates from GPS" 1546:is the ice thickness variation, 1452:{\displaystyle G_{s}=G_{s}(h,k)} 532:sea level in the ocean increases 2852:Journal of Geophysical Research 2736:. 30 March 2016. Archived from 2698:Journal of Geophysical Research 2660:from the original on 2017-08-31 2589:Journal of Geophysical Research 2199:from the original on 2012-08-19 2193:BIFROST Associated GPS Networks 2157:Gray, Louise (7 October 2009). 1977:Journal of Geophysical Research 1851:"Maa kohoaa ja maisema muuttuu" 1785:Journal of Geophysical Research 865:Formulation: sea-level equation 3859:, Idaho, Oregon and Washington 3439:GRACE Gravity Mission from GPZ 3200:"Alluvion comes as a surprise" 2622:Garner, Rob (25 August 2015). 2546:Wu, P.; H.S. Hasegawa (1996). 1588:{\displaystyle S^{E}=S^{E}(t)} 1582: 1576: 1533: 1515: 1446: 1434: 1040: 1022: 893:which is required to keep the 763:is important in understanding 687:New Madrid earthquakes of 1811 382:in more than 2,000 years. The 1: 4103:Huelmo–Mascardi Cold Reversal 3524:Glacial history of Minnesota 2953:10.1126/science.260.5109.771 2815:Geophysical Research Letters 2513:Geophysical Research Letters 2135:(in Finnish). Archived from 2054:Wu, P.; W.R.Peltier (1984). 2019:Geophysical Research Letters 2013:Wu, P.; P. Johnston (2000). 1887:Geophysical Research Letters 1827:(in Finnish). Archived from 1666:{\displaystyle \otimes _{o}} 1639:{\displaystyle \otimes _{i}} 1241: 1189: 738:marine ice sheet instability 343:. Marine seashells found in 241:study of mantle convection, 134:Changes in the elevation of 88:glacial isostatic adjustment 3887:Kettle Moraine State Forest 3790:Lion's Head Provincial Park 648:According to the theory of 572:) that runs to the sea via 507:The ice sheets at the last 391:World Natural Heritage Site 324:was formerly an arm of the 4198: 4033:Penultimate Glacial Period 3760:Big Rock (glacial erratic) 3046:10.1016/j.epsl.2017.05.016 2918:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.07.011 1006:is vertical displacement. 201:area. Due to the extreme 4136: 4098:Late Glacial Interstadial 3877:, Minnesota and Wisconsin 3754:Arrowhead Provincial Park 3529:List of prehistoric lakes 3186:10.1080/11035892409442370 3159:10.1080/11035891009442325 3132:10.1080/11035898809444216 3004:10.1016/j.jog.2010.01.006 1855:e-Opin kustantama e-kirja 1377:{\displaystyle \rho _{w}} 1350:{\displaystyle \rho _{i}} 966:is the sea–level change, 640:repeatedly through time. 539:Horizontal crustal motion 367:, for example, where the 4053:Holocene glacial retreat 3845:Glacial Lakes State Park 3784:Foothills Erratics Train 2595:(B10): 21, 815–21, 828. 1683:Holocene glacial retreat 1299:{\displaystyle \lambda } 897:constant for a specific 395:holocene glacial retreat 4093:Bølling–Allerød warming 3833:Devil's Lake State Park 3802:Ovayok Territorial Park 3491:Continental glaciations 3353:King Huber, N. (1973). 3038:2017E&PSL.472...38O 2910:2006E&PSL.249..368W 2787:10.1126/science.aao1447 2307:10.3176/earth.2012.3.02 1397:{\displaystyle \gamma } 1275:{\displaystyle \theta } 257:Vertical crustal motion 3935:Yosemite National Park 3839:Glacial Lake Wisconsin 3778:Eskers Provincial Park 3766:Cypress Hills (Canada) 3564:Timeline of glaciation 2984:Journal of Geodynamics 1667: 1640: 1613: 1589: 1540: 1493: 1473: 1453: 1398: 1378: 1351: 1324: 1300: 1276: 1253: 1000: 980: 960: 937: 936:{\displaystyle S=N-U,} 465:, glaciation affected 458: 279: 267: 139: 56: 47:This layered beach at 40: 39:around the ice sheets. 4078:Quaternary glaciation 4013:Quaternary glaciation 3911:Mill Bluff State Park 3875:Interstate State Park 3689:Giant current ripples 3504:Cordilleran ice sheet 3363:National Park Service 2426:Japhet, John (2018). 1940:Reviews of Geophysics 1668: 1641: 1614: 1590: 1541: 1494: 1474: 1454: 1399: 1379: 1352: 1325: 1301: 1277: 1254: 1001: 981: 961: 938: 759:The viscosity of the 697:Recent global warming 654:New Madrid earthquake 448: 273: 264: 133: 46: 33: 4088:Wisconsin glaciation 4043:Last Glacial Maximum 3559:Post-glacial rebound 3514:Last Glacial Maximum 3509:Laurentide ice sheet 2872:10.1029/2001JB000941 2836:10.1029/1998GL900150 2719:10.1029/2000JB900113 2040:10.1029/1999GL011070 1908:10.1029/2006GL027081 1806:10.1029/2001JB000400 1706:Isostatic depression 1650: 1623: 1603: 1550: 1503: 1483: 1463: 1408: 1388: 1361: 1334: 1314: 1290: 1266: 1016: 990: 970: 950: 912: 116:continental levering 80:isostatic depression 60:Post-glacial rebound 4073:Pre-Illinoian Stage 4038:Last Glacial Period 3827:Coteau des Prairies 3738:Greenland ice sheet 3452:BIFROST GPS results 3321:1998GeoJI.134..102L 3073:2004AREPS..32..111P 2996:2010JGeo...50...38V 2945:1993Sci...260..771K 2864:2002JGRB..107.2280K 2827:1998GeoRL..25.4261V 2778:2018Sci...360.1335B 2772:(6395): 1335–1339. 2710:2000JGR...10516279W 2704:(B7): 16279–16294. 2601:1996JGR...10121815J 2564:1996GeoJI.127..215W 2525:1996GeoRL..23.2263W 2482:1983Natur.303..757Y 2403:. 2 December 2010. 2367:1998Borea..27...69P 2265:2001GeoJI.147..562M 2072:1984GeoJ...76..753W 2031:2000GeoRL..27.1323W 1989:1993JGR....98.4509M 1952:1998RvGeo..36..603P 1899:2007GeoRL..34.2306S 1831:on October 12, 2015 1797:2002JGRB..107.2157J 881:that describes the 682:Mohr–Coulomb theory 144:last glacial period 78:, which had caused 76:last glacial period 18:Postglacial rebound 4118:4.2 kiloyear event 4113:8.2 kiloyear event 4048:Mousterian Pluvial 3780:, British Columbia 3456:Harvard University 3444:2008-05-08 at the 2429:Physical Geography 1700:Stress (mechanics) 1663: 1636: 1609: 1585: 1536: 1489: 1469: 1449: 1394: 1374: 1347: 1320: 1296: 1272: 1249: 996: 976: 956: 933: 871:sea-level equation 852:Legal implications 778:seismic tomography 675:Mid-Atlantic Ridge 671:seafloor spreading 666:postglacial faults 625:satellite motion. 459: 432:"Sandy Cape", and 280: 268: 140: 57: 41: 4154: 4153: 4123:Piora Oscillation 4083:Sangamonian Stage 3944: 3943: 3726: 3725: 3722: 3721: 3206:on July 16, 2011. 2939:(5109): 771–778. 2821:(23): 4261–4264. 2609:10.1029/96jb01308 2533:10.1029/96GL02149 2519:(17): 2263–2266. 2476:(5920): 757–762. 1997:10.1029/92JB02700 1983:(B3): 4509–4526. 1961:10.1029/98RG02638 1745:978-0-444-53643-3 1612:{\displaystyle S} 1492:{\displaystyle k} 1472:{\displaystyle h} 1323:{\displaystyle t} 1244: 1212: 1192: 1160: 1104: 1061: 999:{\displaystyle U} 979:{\displaystyle N} 959:{\displaystyle S} 879:integral equation 812:) can be used to 797:terminal moraines 765:mantle convection 680:According to the 500:Global sea levels 469:but not southern 400:In several other 64:isostatic rebound 16:(Redirected from 4189: 4144: 4143: 3744: 3669: 3653:Terminal moraine 3577: 3485: 3478: 3471: 3462: 3403: 3401: 3400: 3394: 3387: 3377: 3375: 3374: 3365:. Archived from 3349: 3347: 3334: 3332: 3294: 3279: 3273: 3270: 3264: 3261: 3255: 3252: 3246: 3243: 3237: 3234: 3228: 3225: 3219: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3202:. Archived from 3196: 3190: 3189: 3180:(3–4): 316–324. 3169: 3163: 3162: 3153:(5): 1139–1195. 3142: 3136: 3135: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3091: 3085: 3084: 3056: 3050: 3049: 3023: 3014: 3008: 3007: 2979: 2973: 2972: 2928: 2922: 2921: 2904:(3–4): 368–383. 2892: 2886: 2885: 2883: 2847: 2841: 2840: 2838: 2806: 2800: 2799: 2789: 2756: 2750: 2749: 2747: 2745: 2740:on 23 March 2018 2730: 2724: 2723: 2721: 2689: 2683: 2682: 2676: 2668: 2666: 2665: 2650: 2644: 2643: 2641: 2639: 2619: 2613: 2612: 2584: 2578: 2577: 2575: 2543: 2537: 2536: 2508: 2502: 2501: 2490:10.1038/303757a0 2465: 2459: 2458: 2456: 2455: 2446:. Archived from 2440: 2434: 2433: 2423: 2417: 2416: 2414: 2412: 2393: 2387: 2386: 2348: 2342: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2318: 2312: 2311: 2309: 2285: 2279: 2278: 2276: 2242: 2236: 2235: 2233: 2232: 2223:. Archived from 2217: 2208: 2207: 2205: 2204: 2185: 2179: 2178: 2176: 2174: 2165:. Archived from 2154: 2148: 2147: 2145: 2144: 2129: 2123: 2122: 2120: 2118: 2092: 2086: 2085: 2083: 2051: 2045: 2044: 2042: 2025:(9): 1323–1326. 2010: 2001: 2000: 1972: 1966: 1965: 1963: 1928: 1913: 1912: 1910: 1878: 1867: 1866: 1864: 1862: 1847: 1841: 1840: 1838: 1836: 1817: 1811: 1810: 1808: 1776: 1763: 1756: 1750: 1749: 1723: 1672: 1670: 1669: 1664: 1662: 1661: 1645: 1643: 1642: 1637: 1635: 1634: 1618: 1616: 1615: 1610: 1594: 1592: 1591: 1586: 1575: 1574: 1562: 1561: 1545: 1543: 1542: 1537: 1498: 1496: 1495: 1490: 1478: 1476: 1475: 1470: 1458: 1456: 1455: 1450: 1433: 1432: 1420: 1419: 1403: 1401: 1400: 1395: 1383: 1381: 1380: 1375: 1373: 1372: 1356: 1354: 1353: 1348: 1346: 1345: 1329: 1327: 1326: 1321: 1305: 1303: 1302: 1297: 1281: 1279: 1278: 1273: 1258: 1256: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1236: 1235: 1226: 1225: 1215: 1213: 1208: 1207: 1198: 1193: 1188: 1184: 1183: 1174: 1173: 1163: 1161: 1156: 1155: 1146: 1141: 1140: 1125: 1124: 1115: 1114: 1105: 1100: 1099: 1090: 1082: 1081: 1072: 1071: 1062: 1057: 1056: 1047: 1005: 1003: 1002: 997: 985: 983: 982: 977: 965: 963: 962: 957: 942: 940: 939: 934: 785:paleoclimatology 288:U-shaped valleys 100:Northern America 84:glacial isostasy 21: 4197: 4196: 4192: 4191: 4190: 4188: 4187: 4186: 4157: 4156: 4155: 4150: 4132: 4018:Illinoian Stage 4001: 3992:Lambert Glacier 3975: 3961:Killary Harbour 3940: 3893:Lake Bonneville 3813: 3807: 3742: 3718: 3667: 3616: 3612:U-shaped valley 3602:Roche moutonnée 3568: 3534:Proglacial lake 3519:Canadian Shield 3492: 3489: 3446:Wayback Machine 3433:Glacial Rebound 3429: 3411: 3409:Further reading 3406: 3398: 3396: 3392: 3385: 3380: 3372: 3370: 3352: 3345:physics/0308002 3337: 3302: 3298: 3297: 3280: 3276: 3271: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3253: 3249: 3244: 3240: 3235: 3231: 3226: 3222: 3215: 3211: 3198: 3197: 3193: 3171: 3170: 3166: 3144: 3143: 3139: 3110:De Geer, Gerard 3108: 3107: 3103: 3093: 3092: 3088: 3058: 3057: 3053: 3021: 3016: 3015: 3011: 2981: 2980: 2976: 2930: 2929: 2925: 2894: 2893: 2889: 2849: 2848: 2844: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2758: 2757: 2753: 2743: 2741: 2732: 2731: 2727: 2691: 2690: 2686: 2669: 2663: 2661: 2654:"Archived copy" 2652: 2651: 2647: 2637: 2635: 2621: 2620: 2616: 2586: 2585: 2581: 2545: 2544: 2540: 2510: 2509: 2505: 2467: 2466: 2462: 2453: 2451: 2442: 2441: 2437: 2425: 2424: 2420: 2410: 2408: 2395: 2394: 2390: 2350: 2349: 2345: 2335: 2333: 2320: 2319: 2315: 2287: 2286: 2282: 2244: 2243: 2239: 2230: 2228: 2219: 2218: 2211: 2202: 2200: 2187: 2186: 2182: 2172: 2170: 2169:on 17 June 2012 2156: 2155: 2151: 2142: 2140: 2131: 2130: 2126: 2116: 2114: 2094: 2093: 2089: 2053: 2052: 2048: 2012: 2011: 2004: 1974: 1973: 1969: 1930: 1929: 1916: 1880: 1879: 1870: 1860: 1858: 1849: 1848: 1844: 1834: 1832: 1819: 1818: 1814: 1778: 1777: 1766: 1757: 1753: 1746: 1725: 1724: 1720: 1715: 1679: 1653: 1648: 1647: 1626: 1621: 1620: 1601: 1600: 1595:represents the 1566: 1553: 1548: 1547: 1501: 1500: 1481: 1480: 1461: 1460: 1424: 1411: 1406: 1405: 1386: 1385: 1364: 1359: 1358: 1337: 1332: 1331: 1312: 1311: 1288: 1287: 1264: 1263: 1227: 1217: 1216: 1199: 1175: 1165: 1164: 1147: 1132: 1116: 1106: 1091: 1073: 1063: 1048: 1014: 1013: 988: 987: 968: 967: 948: 947: 910: 909: 901:chronology and 867: 854: 842:Thomas Jamieson 830: 769:plate tectonics 746: 699: 650:plate tectonics 646: 631: 593: 553: 541: 509:glacial maximum 502: 490:Gulf of Bothnia 376:Gulf of Bothnia 339:was founded at 274:Much of modern 259: 243:plate tectonics 238: 172:glacial maximum 166:was covered by 148:northern Europe 128: 112:ocean siphoning 68:crustal rebound 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4195: 4193: 4185: 4184: 4179: 4174: 4169: 4159: 4158: 4152: 4151: 4149: 4148: 4137: 4134: 4133: 4131: 4130: 4128:Little Ice Age 4125: 4120: 4115: 4110: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4080: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4060: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4035: 4030: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4009: 4007: 4003: 4002: 4000: 3999: 3997:Ross Ice Shelf 3994: 3989: 3983: 3981: 3977: 3976: 3974: 3973: 3968: 3963: 3958: 3956:Hardangerfjord 3952: 3950: 3946: 3945: 3942: 3941: 3939: 3938: 3932: 3926: 3920: 3914: 3908: 3902: 3896: 3890: 3884: 3881:Kelleys Island 3878: 3872: 3866: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3830: 3829:, South Dakota 3824: 3817: 3815: 3809: 3808: 3806: 3805: 3799: 3793: 3787: 3781: 3775: 3769: 3768:, Saskatchewan 3763: 3757: 3750: 3748: 3741: 3740: 3734: 3732: 3728: 3727: 3724: 3723: 3720: 3719: 3717: 3716: 3711: 3706: 3701: 3696: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3675: 3673: 3666: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3624: 3622: 3618: 3617: 3615: 3614: 3609: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3592:Glacial striae 3589: 3583: 3581: 3574: 3570: 3569: 3567: 3566: 3561: 3556: 3551: 3546: 3541: 3536: 3531: 3526: 3521: 3516: 3511: 3506: 3500: 3498: 3494: 3493: 3490: 3488: 3487: 3480: 3473: 3465: 3459: 3458: 3449: 3436: 3428: 3427:External links 3425: 3424: 3423: 3421:New York Times 3410: 3407: 3405: 3404: 3378: 3350: 3335: 3315:(1): 102–144. 3299: 3296: 3295: 3274: 3265: 3256: 3247: 3238: 3229: 3220: 3209: 3191: 3164: 3137: 3126:(5): 366–379. 3122:(in Swedish). 3101: 3086: 3051: 3009: 2974: 2923: 2887: 2842: 2801: 2751: 2725: 2684: 2645: 2614: 2579: 2558:(1): 215–229. 2538: 2503: 2460: 2435: 2418: 2388: 2343: 2326:www.joensuu.fi 2313: 2300:(3): 149–161. 2280: 2259:(3): 562–578. 2237: 2209: 2180: 2149: 2124: 2087: 2066:(3): 753–792. 2046: 2002: 1967: 1946:(4): 603–689. 1914: 1868: 1842: 1812: 1764: 1751: 1744: 1717: 1716: 1714: 1711: 1710: 1709: 1703: 1697: 1692: 1686: 1678: 1675: 1660: 1656: 1633: 1629: 1608: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1573: 1569: 1565: 1560: 1556: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1526: 1523: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1511: 1508: 1488: 1468: 1448: 1445: 1442: 1439: 1436: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1418: 1414: 1393: 1371: 1367: 1344: 1340: 1319: 1295: 1271: 1260: 1259: 1248: 1243: 1239: 1234: 1230: 1224: 1220: 1211: 1206: 1202: 1196: 1191: 1187: 1182: 1178: 1172: 1168: 1159: 1154: 1150: 1144: 1139: 1135: 1131: 1128: 1123: 1119: 1113: 1109: 1103: 1098: 1094: 1088: 1085: 1080: 1076: 1070: 1066: 1060: 1055: 1051: 1045: 1042: 1039: 1036: 1033: 1030: 1027: 1024: 1021: 995: 975: 955: 944: 943: 932: 929: 926: 923: 920: 917: 877:) is a linear 866: 863: 859:partition unit 853: 850: 846:Gerard De Geer 838:Anders Celsius 829: 826: 745: 742: 714:TOPEX/Poseidon 707:sea level rise 703:global warming 698: 695: 645: 642: 636:vertical datum 630: 629:Vertical datum 627: 592: 589: 574:Lake Pyhäselkä 552: 549: 540: 537: 501: 498: 428:"Birch Rock", 258: 255: 237: 234: 191:glacial period 127: 124: 92:glacioisostasy 49:Bathurst Inlet 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4194: 4183: 4180: 4178: 4175: 4173: 4172:Geomorphology 4170: 4168: 4165: 4164: 4162: 4147: 4139: 4138: 4135: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4121: 4119: 4116: 4114: 4111: 4109: 4108:Younger Dryas 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4081: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4071: 4069: 4066: 4064: 4061: 4059: 4056: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4034: 4031: 4029: 4026: 4024: 4021: 4019: 4016: 4014: 4011: 4010: 4008: 4004: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3988: 3985: 3984: 3982: 3978: 3972: 3969: 3967: 3964: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3954: 3953: 3951: 3947: 3936: 3933: 3930: 3927: 3924: 3921: 3918: 3915: 3912: 3909: 3906: 3905:Lake Missoula 3903: 3900: 3899:Lake Lahontan 3897: 3894: 3891: 3888: 3885: 3882: 3879: 3876: 3873: 3870: 3869:Ice Age Trail 3867: 3864: 3861: 3858: 3855: 3852: 3849: 3846: 3843: 3840: 3837: 3834: 3831: 3828: 3825: 3822: 3819: 3818: 3816: 3810: 3803: 3800: 3797: 3794: 3791: 3788: 3785: 3782: 3779: 3776: 3773: 3772:Eramosa River 3770: 3767: 3764: 3761: 3758: 3755: 3752: 3751: 3749: 3745: 3739: 3736: 3735: 3733: 3731:North America 3729: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3705: 3702: 3700: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3670: 3664: 3663:Veiki moraine 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3648:Rogen moraine 3646: 3644: 3643:Pulju moraine 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3633:Erratic block 3631: 3629: 3626: 3625: 3623: 3619: 3613: 3610: 3608: 3607:Tunnel valley 3605: 3603: 3600: 3598: 3595: 3593: 3590: 3588: 3585: 3584: 3582: 3578: 3575: 3571: 3565: 3562: 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