974:; during the colonial era, this was imported from Spain, which had been one of the world's leading producers of mercury since Roman times. However, the Spanish refused to sell the reagent to its former colonies and it was not available locally in industrial quantities. Silver mining later revived with new processes not requiring mercury, but during the Porfiriato, mining of industrial minerals became the core of the industry. The world price of silver dropped in 1873, while at the same time economies in developed countries needed industrial minerals for their manufacturing. As with other aspects of the Mexican economy, the growth in the mining sector was predicated on the stability established by the government. The expansion of the railway network meant that ore could be transported cheaply and the telegraph network allowed investors to have efficient communications with the mining sites. Foreign investors, particularly from the U.S., had confidence in risking their capital in mining enterprises in Mexico. Mining enterprises for copper, lead, iron, and coal in Mexico's north, especially Sonora, Chihuahua, Durango, Guanajuato and Coahuila, with Monterrey and Aguascalientes becoming especially prominent.
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obstacle for
Mexican economic development. The first line to be built was from the Gulf port of Veracruz to Mexico City, begun during the French intervention, but the rapid expansion of lines in central Mexico and northward to the U.S. border lowered transportation costs for passengers and freight, opened new regions, such as the Comarca Lagunera in northern Mexico, to agricultural development. The capital for railways as well as tracks and rolling stock were foreign. Investment in such capital demanding infrastructure is an indicator that foreign investors had confidence in Mexico's stability. Construction of the railways was an effect of stability, but there was a significant decrease in banditry and other unrest because of the railways. The
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landless peasants tilling lands they did not own. Patterns of land ownership were shifting in the nineteenth century. The
Liberal Reform had sought to eliminate corporate ownership of land, targeting estates owned by the Roman Catholic Church and indigenous communities, forcing them to be broken up into parcels and sold. Despite liberals’ hopes, this did not result in the creation of a class of yeoman farmers, but it did undermine the integrity of indigenous communities and undermine the economic power of the Church. These landholdings were deemed "vacant," even if others were living on them. Their ownership would be invalidated in the government courts to make room for Díaz's allies.
875:. Positivism sought to ground knowledge on observation and empirically-based knowledge rather than metaphysics or religious belief. In Mexico, liberal intellectuals believed that Mexico's stability under Díaz was due to his strong government. In Social Darwinism and Positivism intellectuals saw the justification of their rule due to their superiority over a largely rural, largely indigenous and mixed-race (mestizo) Mexican population. Liberals sought to develop Mexico economically and sought to implement progress by an ideology promoting attitudes that were "nationalist, pro-capitalist, and moral tenets of thrift, hard work, entrepreneurialism, proper hygiene, and temperance."
1060:
office workers. During the
Liberal Reform in the mid-nineteenth century, women began entering the workforce as public school teachers and in charitable work. The Díaz regime opened opportunities for women as government office workers in the 1890s. The creation of a Mexican government bureaucracy largely staffed by women at the lower levels occurred in similar fashion to other nations as educated women dealt with the expansion of official paperwork and the introduction of new office technology of the typewriter, telephone, and telegraph. Women also engaged in certain types of manual labor, including factory work in paper mills, cotton textiles, chocolate, shoes, and hats.
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1461:, who was a faithful Catholic, helped to mend the rift. Díaz never had the anticlerical articles of the constitution repealed, but he did not strictly enforce them, so that the Catholic Church made a political and economic comeback during the Porfiriato. U.S. Protestant missionaries made inroads in Mexico during the Porfiriato, particularly in the north, but did not significantly challenge the power of Catholicism in Mexico. In a number of regions of Mexico, local religious cults and dissident peasant movements arose, which the Catholic Church considered idolatrous. Responding to the potential loss of the faithful in Mexico and elsewhere, Pope
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longer successfully aspire to being master artisans owning their own shop. Their discontent led to agitation, but the formation of combative industrial labor organizations in the later nineteenth century can be seen as roots of the modern labor movement in Mexico. After 1900, as Mexico's economy was expanding dramatically with the infusion of foreign capital and the growth of various industries, organized industrial labor grew as well. Workers resisted mechanization of such industries as textiles, where owners sought higher productivity per worker. Strikes in cotton textile mills took place, with the
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Apache did not recognize the sovereignty of either the U.S. or Mexico over their territories, but used the international division to their advantage, raiding on one side of the border and seeking sanctuary on the other. Thieves stole cattle and likewise used the border to escape authorities. The U.S. used the border issue as a reason to withhold recognition of Díaz's regime and a low-level international conflict continued. The issue of recognition was finally resolved when Díaz's government granted generous concessions to prominent U.S. promoters of investment in Mexico, who pressured
President
1471:, calling on the Church to become involved in social problems. In Mexico, some Catholic laymen supported the abolition of debt peonage on landed estates, which kept peasants tied to work there because they were unable to pay off their debts. The Church itself had lost lands during the Liberal Reform in the mid-nineteenth century, so it could voice support for the peasants' plight. The Church's success in the new initiatives can be seen as Zapatistas in Morelos carried out no anticlerical actions during the Mexican Revolution, and many fighters wore the Virgin of Guadalupe on their hats.
56:
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1056:(PLM) advocated radical changes in favor of labor, most industrial workers were reformist not revolutionary. As the Díaz regime failed to respond to calls for reform, many workers saw regime change as desirable. With the expansion of the railway network, workers could seek work far away from their homes. In Mexico City, the development of a streetcar system, initially mule-drawn cars, and later electric ones, allowed for mass transportation. Street car companies employed a variety of workers to build the tracks, maintain the cars and mules, and serve as conductors.
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but increasingly the
Porfiriato is seen as laying the basis for post-revolutionary Mexico. Under Díaz, Mexico was able to centralize authority, manage political infighting, tamp down banditry, and shift tendencies of economic nationalism to embrace foreign investment. That major economic shift allowed rapid economic and technological change, an openness to cultural innovation, increasing urbanization, and shifts in societal attitudes of elites. The benefits of economic growth were unevenly distributed and social ills increased, including
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distributed house to house by workmen with wheelbarrows or carrying containers on their backs. Some households were too poor to pay for the service, so a household member would draw and transport the water. Planners viewed inadequate drainage, sewage treatment, and lack of access to clean, potable water as solvable problems using scientific methods. Another issue that modernizers tackled was sanitation in the meatpacking industry. Instilling ideas of proper hygiene were values to be imparted in schools.
42:
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787:("political bosses") answerable to central government, who commanded local forces. The policies of conciliation, cooptation and repression allowed the regime to maintain order for decades. In central Mexico, indigenous communities that had exercised political and economic control over their lands and populations were undermined by the Díaz regime through expropriation of lands and weakening or absence of indigenous leadership. Expropriation of village lands occurred as landed estates
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Internal stability, sometimes called the Pax
Porfiriana, was coupled with the increasing strength of the Mexican state, fueled by increased revenues from an expanding economy. Díaz replaced a number of independent regional leaders with men loyal to himself, and quelled discontent by coopting political "outs" by making them intermediaries with foreign investors, allowing their personal enrichment. To further consolidate state power, Díaz appointed
768:
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growing, adding to the anti-reelectionists. Limantour was in Europe as well, renegotiating Mexico's debt, leaving Díaz increasingly isolated politically. Díaz began negotiating with Madero's uncle
Ernesto Madero, promising reforms if peace were restored. He also began informal negotiations with anti-reelectionist rebels in early 1911. Díaz refused to resign, which re-ignited the armed rebellion against him, particularly in Chihuahua led by
1564:, considered the starting point of Mexico's struggle for independence in 1810. On Friday, 15 September, the day was marked by a huge parade representing the arc of Mexican history, focusing on the 1519 conquest of Mexico, the struggle for independence in the early nineteenth century, and the liberal reform of the mid-nineteenth century. There were allegorical floats depicting the insurgent army of independence, independence martyr Father
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organized races made their appearance soon after. Organized sports with rules, equality of competition, bureaucracy and formal record keeping became hallmarks of modernity. Although men dominated the sport, women also participated. For women especially, bicycling challenged traditional behavior, demeanor, and fashions, freeing them from being closely supervised shut-ins. Riding a bicycle required better women's clothing, and many adopted
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diplomatic corps in attendance, as well as
Mexican army officers. The king of Spain conveyed through his special ambassador the honor of the Order of Charles III on Diaz, the highest distinction for sovereigns and heads of state. Others holding the honor were the Russian czar, and the monarchs of Germany and Austria. A portrait of Spanish monarch Charles III was unveiled in the Salon of Ambassadors in the National Palace.
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1140:, having the largest concentration of wealthy elites. Peasants tilled land that was generally owned by others. In the cities, plebeian women were domestic servants, workers in bakeries, and factories, while plebeian men pursued a whole variety of manual tasks. In central and southern Mexico, the state increasingly undermined the political structure of rule and the loss of community land had a significant impact.
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1591:. Although a political rival in life, Diaz helped memorialize Juárez's contributions to Mexico. At the ceremony, the French ambassador returned the ceremonial keys of Mexico City that were given to General Forey in 1863 during the French Intervention. The French invasion had disrupted Juárez's presidency, forcing his government into domestic exile while the French occupied Mexico.
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did not just teach literacy and numeracy, but also aimed at creating a workforce guided by principles of punctuality, thrift, valuable work habits, and abstinence from alcohol and tobacco use, and gambling. Even so, illiteracy was widespread, with the 1910 census indicating only 33% of men and 27% of women were literate. However, the government's commitment to education under
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745:. He initially ruled from 1876 until 1880. Díaz's first term is sometimes treated separately, as he consolidated power and sought the U.S. government's recognition of his regime. The Plan of Tuxtepec explicitly called for no reelection of the president, so at the end of Díaz's term, a political ally from the Federal Army, General
1379:, his cabinet, and the diplomatic corps, along with Mexicans who could afford the entry, watched horses owned by gentlemen compete for purses. The Jockey Club was founded in 1881, modeled on those in Europe. Mexico City's occupied the top floor of the eighteenth-century former residence of the Count of Orizaba known as the
837:; they were under his command and control in a way the Mexican army was not. The slogan of the Porfiriato, "order and progress," affirmed that without political order, economic development and growth—progress—was impossible. Investors would be unwilling to risk their capital if political conditions were unstable.
1375:, built by the newly-formed Jockey Club. The club hired an architect who attended race events in Europe and the U.S. to design and build the track, which was to be opened on Easter Sunday 1882, a distinctly non-religious way to celebrate the holiday. At the delayed opening, the President of the Republic (1880–82),
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He inaugurated a new insane asylum in
Mixcoac on the first of September. On 2 September, the pillar of the baptismal font in Hidalgo's church was brought to the capital with great ceremony and placed in the National Museum, with some 25,000 children viewing the event. Many nations participated in the
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answered the question "why go by bicycle?": for amusement, for pleasure in the streets, and one panel shows a bicycle on its side with a couple embracing, with the caption "for love." Cycling was touted as promoting exercise and good hygiene and was associated with modernity, speed, and modernization
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Despite a societal shift in attitudes toward women's roles, sexual diversity did not change as rapidly. Homosexuality remained clandestine and private in general. In
November 1901, there was a public scandal about a police raid of a gathering of gay and cross-dressing men in Mexico City, known as the
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Urban women were able to obtain office employment in both government and private enterprises. Although women's presence in the home rather than working outside the home was a marker of middle class status, in the late nineteenth century respectable women were increasingly employed outside the home as
912:
Mexico at the beginning of the Porfiriato was a predominantly rural nation, with large estate owners controlling agricultural production for the local and regional food market. The largest groups of Mexicans involved in agriculture were small-scale ranchers and subsistence agriculturalists along with
720:
Historians have investigated the era of Díaz's presidency as a cohesive historical period based on political transitions. In particular, this means separating the period of "order and progress" after 1884 from the tumultuous decade of the Mexican Revolution (1910–20) and post-Revolution developments,
1568:, and for the modern era commerce, industry, and banking. At 11 p.m. Diaz stood on the balcony of the National Palace and with the ringing of the bell from Father Hidalgo's church in Dolores, Diaz proclaimed "Viva Mexico." On 16 September, Diaz with an array of dignitaries attending inaugurated, the
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Liberals created a secular educational system to counter the religious influence of the Roman Catholic Church. Public schools had been established during the period of Benito Juárez, but expanded during the Porfiriato after the defeat of the French monarchy and their Mexican Catholic allies. Schools
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as his vice president. Reyes accepted exile and went to Europe, on a mission to study the military in Germany. Although Reyes had been a political rival, according to one historian, exiling him was a serious political miscalculation, since he was loyal and effective and the political opposition was
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Bicycles were imported from Paris and Boston to Mexico City in 1869, just after the French Intervention. A French company imported bicycles and set up a rental business, but the sport took off when the technology improved in the 1890s with wheels of equal size and pneumatic tires. Bicycle clubs and
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sought broader goals, including education for adult workers, compulsory education for children, and representation of their goals to authorities. The labor movement was not unified, including on whether to take political positions. During the late 1870s and early 1880s, journeyman artisans could no
934:
Construction of railway lines was a major factor in transforming the Mexican economy. Mexico is not endowed with a navigable river system that would have allowed for cheap water transport, and roads were often impassable during the rainy season, so the construction of railway lines overcame a major
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in October 1910, which denounced the election as fraudulent and called for a rebellion against what he considered Díaz's illegitimate regime. Fighting broke out in the state of Morelos, just south of Mexico City, as well as on the border with the U.S. in Ciudad Juárez. The Mexican Federal Army was
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The Porfiriato saw the growth of the urban middle class, with women entering the work force as teachers and office workers. Women's new roles not only added to household income but also contributed to major cultural changes as they shaped the identity of a middle-class household and as some became
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as the central repository of artifacts from Mexico's archeological sites, as well as asserting control over the sites themselves. The Law of Monuments (1897) gave jurisdiction over archeological sites to the federal government. This allowed the expropriation and expulsion of peasants who had been
1250:
in an attempt to prevent frequent flooding in the capital. Canals in Mexico City still had considerable boat traffic, such as on the Canal de la Viga, but canals were where sewage, trash, and animal carcasses were dumped. Access to potable water often meant drawing it from community fountains and
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Public health became an important issue for the Mexican government, which viewed a healthy population as important for economic development. Government investment in public health was seen as part of Mexico's overall project of modernization. In Mexico City, the government invested in large-scale
1143:
The liberal project sought to nurture a citizenry that adhered to civic virtues through improved public health, professional military training for men, a rehabilitative penal system, and secular public education. The state sought to replace traditional values based on religion and local loyalties
1037:
Craft artisan organizations already existed when Díaz came to power in 1876, as mutualist organizations or worker benevolent societies, and conducted strikes. The Gran Círculo de Obreros de México had nearly 30 branches in Mexico, calling for benefits beyond aiding of workers when they were sick,
840:
The construction of railways gave the government more effective control of many regions of Mexico that had maintained a level of independence due to their distance from the capital. The construction of telegraph lines alongside railroad tracks further facilitated the government's control, so that
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When Díaz came to power in 1876, the northern border of Mexico with the U.S. became a region of tension and conflict, which had to be resolved in order for Díaz's regime to be recognized as the sovereign government of Mexico. Indigenous groups and cattle thieves marauded in the border region. The
782:
Starting with Díaz's second term (1884–88), following the interregnum of President González, the regime has been characterized as a dictatorship, with no opponents of Díaz elected to Congress and Díaz staying in office with undemocratic elections. Congress was Díaz's rubber stamp for legislation.
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and Díaz also opened an exhibition of colonial-era Spanish art. The Spanish ambassador, the Marquis of Polavieja returned items of historical importance to Mexico, including the uniform of Father Morelos, a portrait, and other relics of independence in a ceremony at the National Palace, with the
1319:
During the Porfiriato, urban Mexican elites became more cosmopolitan, with their consumer tastes for imported fashion styles and goods being considered an indicator of Mexico's modernity, with France being the embodiment of the sophistication they admired. Since the French had invaded Mexico and
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emerged during the Liberal Reform and Porfiriato, with adherents critiquing inequality in Mexican society, as happened elsewhere in the hemisphere and Western Europe. A few women formed all-women's groups to discuss issues of inequality, they founded literary journals, and attended international
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being the best known. Railway workers were the best unionized in the late Porfiriatio, with some 50% of them being unionized. There was not a single union, but rather split along particular tasks, such as engineers and firemen. More highly skilled jobs were dominated by U.S. workers, and Mexican
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The development of industrial manufacturing aimed at a domestic market, primarily in textiles. Factories were built in urban areas by Mexican entrepreneurs in Orizaba and Guanajuato, which provided opportunities for workers to earn wages. These factories, many owned by French nationals, supplied
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An industry that expanded significantly during this time was mining. In the colonial era, Mexico had mined and refined silver, minting silver coinage that became the first global currency. This silver industry had declined after independence, as the prevalent refining processes in the early 19th
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was Inspector of Archeological Monuments and wielded considerable power. He garnered resources from the Díaz government funds to guard archeological sites in central Mexico and Yucatan, as well as to hire workers to excavate archeological sites of particular importance for creating an image of
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were concentrated in the month of September, but there were events during the centennial year outside of September. In September the central core of Mexico city was decorated and lit with electric lights many bedecked with flowers. Immediately following the centennial month, there was a book
1599:
ceremonially laid the first stone of a new penitentiary. On Sunday, September 4, there was a parade with allegorical floats, which Díaz and his whole cabinet viewed. On September 6 some 38,000 school children honored the Mexican flag. Diaz inaugurated the new building of the
1651:. But Diaz also laid the first stone to a monument to George Washington in the American Colony in Mexico City. The U.S. delegation hosted a sumptuous banquet for fellow delegates. There was a large number of journalists from the U.S. attending the celebrations, such as
736:
Díaz, after whom the period is named, was a liberal Mexican army general who had distinguished himself during the War of Reform and the French intervention. He had aspirations to be president of Mexico, which came to fruition when he rebelled against
1746:
in advance of new elections. Rebel forces were to demobilize. Díaz and most of his family sailed to France into exile. He died in Paris in 1915. As he left Mexico, he reportedly prophesied that "Madero has released a tiger, let us see if he can control it."
1391:, Díaz's closest advisors, and President González and Díaz himself as members. The Jockey Club had rooms for smoking, dining rooms, weapons, bowling, poker and baccarat. There were upscale gambling houses that were regulated by the government. One was in the
700:
in 1876, Díaz pursued a policy of "order and progress," inviting foreign investment in Mexico and maintaining social and political order, by force if necessary. There were significant economic, technological, social, and cultural changes during this period.
93:
953:
Along with the construction of railways, telegraph lines were built next to the tracks. This allowed instant communication between capital and distant cities, increasing the power of the central Mexican state over distant regions. Dispatching
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or "bread or bludgeon" policy. This allowed him to appoint state governors who could do what they wanted to local populations, so long as they did not interfere with Díaz's operations. This process is known for the state of Morelos before the
1604:(YMCA) in Mexico City, a Protestant voluntary association. A new normal school to train teachers was inaugurated with Diaz and foreign delegates attending. Also occurring during the festivities was the Nation Congress of Pedagogy.
1205:, founded in the early sixteenth century under religious authority, was suppressed in 1865. Teaching school was one of the few honorable professions open to women. Urban, educated women school teachers were in the forefront of
1595:
celebrations, including Japan, whose pavilion Díaz inaugurated. An important issue for the modernizing Mexican state was health and hygiene, and an exhibition was inaugurated on September 2. Díaz's Minister of the Interior,
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and industrialization largely benefited urban elites and foreigners, with the income and cultural gap with the poor widening. By far the largest sector of the Mexican population was rural with Mexico's cities, especially
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made a broadside of the incident. Rumors abounded that the son-in-law of Porfirio Díaz was one of those arrested, but released. A list of the arrested was never published and the government neither confirmed nor denied.
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had established separation of church and state, and there were strong anti-clerical articles of the constitution. As a pragmatic politician, Díaz did not want to re-open outright conflict between his regime and the
1713:
incapable of putting down these disparate uprisings. Opposition to Díaz grew, since his regime was not able to restore civil order. Díaz had failed to secure the presidential succession. Political rivals, General
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published, detailing the day by day events of the festivities, which included inaugurations of buildings and statues, receptions for dignitaries, military parades, and allegorical and historical processions.
1324:
in 1870, the way was opened to reestablish normal relations between the countries. With the resumption of diplomatic relations, Mexico enthusiastically embraced French styles. Department stores, such as the
1607:
The Spanish monarchy sent a special ambassador to the festivities, who was enthusiastically received. Diaz gave an enormous reception in his honor. On 9 September Díaz laid the first stone on a monument to
1271:, that was repurposed several times before becoming a prison for both women and men. It was filthy, poorly run, and a symbol of the order. Plans were drawn up for the construction of a new facility, a
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to defend village lands and rights. Since the Díaz regime aimed to reconcile foreign investors and large estate owners, foreign and domestic, indigenous villages suffered politically and economically.
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Díaz, Maria Elena. "The Satiric Penny Press for Workers in Mexico, 1900–1910: A Case study in the Politicisation of Popular Culture." Journal of Latin American Studies 22, no. 3, (Oct. 1990): 497–526.
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Pérez-Rayón Elizundia, Nora. "La publicidad en México a fines del siglo XIX: Expresión del progreso económico y la modernidad porfirista, trasmisor de nuevos valores y modelos culturales."
1449:
92:
1337:). French influence on culture in fashion, art, and architecture is evident in the capital and other major Mexican cities, with Mexican elites enthusiastic for French styles known as
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would be utilized to dispose of peasants, and the peasant effort to reclaim native land would be severely weakened given that they were often illiterate and could not hire lawyers.
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Barron Gavito, Miguel Ángel. "El baile de los 41: la representación de lo afeminado en la prensa porfiriana." Historia y grafía . 2010, n.34, pp. 47–73. ISSN 1405-0927
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Morgan, Tony. "Proletarians, Politicos, and Patriarchs: The Use and Abuse of Cultural Customs in the Early Industrialization of Mexico City, 1880-1910". In Beezley, et al.
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are usually seen as the end of the Porfiriato. Violence broke out, Díaz was forced to resign and go into exile, and Mexico experienced a decade of regional civil war, the
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Recuerdo del Primer Centenario de la Independencia Nacional: Efemérides de las fiestas, recepciones, actos políticos, inauguraciones de monumentos, y de edificios, etc.
1395:, which in the late nineteenth century was a hotel. Entertainment among men of the urban popular classes included traditional sports of cockfighting and bullfighting.
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The turmoil of over a decade of war (1857–1867) and economic disruption gave rise to banditry. To combat this, during the administration of civilian president
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As Díaz approached his 80th birthday in 1910, having been continuously elected since 1884, he still had not put in place a plan for his succession. The fraudulent
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in 1906 the most widely known, since the mine was owned by U.S. interests and armed men from Arizona crossed into Mexico to suppress the strike. Although the
1742:, which largely left the Porfirian state intact. The treaty specified that Diaz resign along with vice president Corral, and created an interim regime under
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Díaz himself was a pragmatic politician, but Mexican intellectuals sought to articulate a rationale for their form of liberalism. The advocates were called
648:
749:, became president for one term. In 1884, Díaz abandoned the principle of no reelection and returned to the presidency, not relinquishing it until 1911.
2037:
Coatsworth, John H. "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico," American Historical Review vol. 83, No. 1 (Feb. 1978), pp. 80–100
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occupied it during the 1860s, Mexico's turn toward France was not without controversy in Mexico. France was a major European power and with the fall of
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orders from Mexico City were instantly transmitted to officials elsewhere. The government could respond quickly to regional revolts by loading armed
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had been jailed during the 1910 presidential elections, but he escaped north across the U.S. border in Texas. While still in Mexico, he issued the
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was opened in 1900. Mexican officials were cognizant of changes in the idea of prison as well as newly focused on collecting crime statistics.
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1675:, as well as some from Toronto and Montreal in Canada, with the U.S. ambassador hosting a reception for these North American newspapermen.
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2348:. Calgary: University of Calgary Press; Boulder: University of Colorado Press; Mexico City: Instituto de Investigaciones Históricos 2003.
1524:, was transformed as a site of historical memory, with statues commemorating figures of Mexican history and important historical events.
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1022:. Although mechanization was taking hold during the Porfiriato, much labor was still performed by humans and animals in isolated areas.
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2192:
Rankine, Margaret. "The Mexican Mining Industry with Special Reference to Guanajuato." Bulletin of Latin American Research 11:1(1992).
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met in Mexico City, with Porfirio Díaz elected its honorary president. Prominent Americanists from many countries attended, including
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Tenenbaum, Barbara. "Streetwise History: The Paseo de la Reforma and the Porfirian State, 1876-1910". In Beezley, Martin and French,
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Pilcher, Jeffrey M. "Fajitas and the Failure of Refrigerated Meatpacking in Mexico: Consumer Culture and Porfirian Capitalism."
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1580:. Some 10,000 Mexican troops and contingents of foreign soldiers marched at the monument as part of the inaugural ceremonies.
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The high points of the celebrations were on 15 September, Diaz's 80th birthday, and 16 September, the centennial of Hidalgo's
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and their horses on trains to quell disturbances. By the end of the 19th century, violence had almost completely disappeared.
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During the Porfiriato a new type of public social life emerged. The Porfiriato was a period of unprecedented change in arts,
2569:. Mexico City: Rondero y Treppiedi 1910. The material below unless otherwise indicated is taken from this unpaginated work.
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Speckman Guerra, Elisa. "Disorder and Control: Crime, Justice, and Punishment in Porfirian and Revolutionary Society." In
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The mid-nineteenth century had been riven by conflict between the Catholic Church and the liberal State. The liberals'
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British Lions and Mexican Eagles: Business, Politics, and Empire in the Career of Weetman Pearson in Mexico, 1889-1919
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Schell, Patience A. "Nationalizing children through schools and hypgiene: Porfirian and Revolutionary Mexico City".
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Schell, Patience A. "Nationalizing Children through Schools and Hygiene: Porfirian and Revolutionary Mexico City.:
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to grant recognition in 1878. It was clear to Díaz that order was to be maintained over all other considerations.
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Beezley, William H. "The Porfirian Smart Set Anticipates Thornstein Veblen in Guadalajara" in Wm.Beezley et al.,
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Chowning, Margaret. "Culture Wars in the Trenches? Public Schools and Catholic Education in Mexico, 1867-1897".
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Chowning, Margaret. "Culture Wars in the Trenches? Public Schools and Catholic Education in Mexico, 1867-1897".
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was an important step, particularly in higher education with the establishment of the secular, state-controlled
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Buffington, Robert; Piccato, Pablo (1999). "Tales of two women: the narrative construal of Porfirian reality".
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Hibino, Barbara."Cervecería Cuauhtémoc: A Case Study of Technological and Industrial Development in Mexico."
1499:
During the Díaz regime, the state began to take control over the cultural patrimony of Mexico, expanding the
2148:
1372:
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75:
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domestic textile needs. Furthermore, these factories were steam-powered, capitalizing on modern invention.
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of the peasantry and child labor in new industrial enterprises. The defeat of Mexican conservatives in the
3218:
2766:, Victor M. Macias-Gonzalez and Anne Rubenstein, 79-100. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2012.
2762:
Garza, James A. "Dominance and Submission in Don Porfirio's Belle Epoque: The Case of Luis and Piedad" in
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Among the elites, horse racing became popular and purpose-built race tracks were constructed, such as the
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As part of the historical commemorations of the centennial, on September 8 there was homage paid to the
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Middle class Mexican women began addressing gender inequality before the law, as well as other issues.
859:, "men of science." They found a basis for such a philosophy by crafting to Mexico French philosopher
2732:
French, William. "Prostitutes and Guardian Angels: Women, Work, and the Family in Porfirian Mexico".
1768:
1757:
1383:. The club provided a place for elite social gatherings. Among the directors of the Jockey Club were
1380:
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833:, was a tool to impose order. When Díaz became president, he expanded the size and scope of the
566:
390:
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795:, often owned by foreign investors, expanded. Díaz used coercion to repress democratic power, using
3213:
2886:
Overmyer-Velázquez, Mark. "Portraits of a Lady: Visions of Modernity in Porfirian Oaxaca, Mexico."
1773:
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attended. Diaz and Justo Sierra went with Congress attendees to the archeological site of San Juan
1609:
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133:
2265:, Eds. Michael C. Meyer and William H. Beezley. New York: Oxford University Press 2000, pp. 401–07
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1223:
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A Culture of Everyday Credit: Housekeeping, Pawnbroking, and Governance in Mexico City, 1750-1920
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From Angel to Office Worker: Middle Class Identity and Female Consciousness in Mexico, 1890-1950
2225:
From Angel to Office Worker: Middle Class Identity and Female Consciousness in Mexico, 1890-1950
1665:
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1513:
Mexico's glorious past to foreign scholars and tourists, as well as patriotic fervor in Mexico.
904:
bag from the 19th century, one of main contemporary industrialized products produced by Mexico.
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1974:
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1188:, Díaz's Secretary of Education (1905–1911), who established the National University in Mexico
971:
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164:
2902:
The Sausage Rebellion: Public Health, Private Enterprise, and Meat in Mexico City, 1890-1917
2408:
2359:
The Sausage Rebellion: Public Health, Private Enterprise, and Meat in Mexico City, 1890-1917
2318:
Vaughan, Mary Kay. "Nationalizing the Countryside: Schools and Communities in the 1930s" in
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challenged Díaz in 1910, campaigning under the slogan "Effective suffrage, no reelection."
2787:
2776:
2322:, Vaughan, Mary Kay and Stephen E. Lewis, eds. Durham: Duke University Press 2006, p. 158
1824:
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1315:
María Villa, purportedly a prostitute, shot her rival and was imprisoned for twenty years.
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496:
2666:, Michael C. Meyer and Wm. Beezley, eds. 397-432. New York: Oxford University Press 2000.
1726:
1596:
1536:
Illustrated program of the official centennial festivities over 30 days in September 1910
1097:
1092:
3064:
2830:
2822:
2239:
Liberalism as Utopia: The Rise and Fall of Legal Rule in Post-Colonial Mexico 1820-1900
1928:
1763:
1731:
1714:
1704:
The centenary celebrations were the swansong of Díaz's regime. Presidential-challenger
1280:
1049:
1003:
997:
507:
47:
1686:. The German government had an honor guard for the monument of German naval officers.
3207:
3184:
2858:: Masculine Consumption and Homosexuality in Porfirian Mexico." In Irwin et al. eds.
1793:
1718:
1679:
1583:
Another major September activity included Díaz's inauguration on 18 September of the
1467:
1330:
1218:
963:
860:
855:
624:
2836:
Kuhn, Gary. "Fiestas and Fiascoes -- Balloon Flights in Nineteenth-Century Mexico".
2436:
692:
as president in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, coined by Mexican historian
1966:
1788:
1735:
1629:
1621:
1548:
photographed with others celebrating the centennial of Mexican independence in 1910
1437:
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1228:
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947:
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517:
2523:
Protestants and the Mexican Revolution: Missionaries, Ministers, and Social Change
1303:
1295:
2796:
Mexico and the Survey of Public Lands: The Management of Modernization, 1876–1911
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The Porfirian Interregnum: The Presidency of Manuel González of Mexico, 1880-1884
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Coatsworth, John H. "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico,"
2132:
Coatsworth, John H. "Obstacles to Economic Growth in Nineteenth-Century Mexico,"
1942:
The Porfirian Interregnum: The Presidency of Manuel González of Mexico, 1880-1884
1048:
laborers were paid less for the same work. Mine workers also organized, with the
91:
3128:
Imágenes del deseo: Arte y publicidad en la prensa ilustrada mexicana, 1894-1900
2843:
Lear, John. "Mexico City: Space and Class in the Porfirian Capital, 1884-1910."
2694:
Growth Against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico
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Monuments of Progress: Modernization and Public Health in Mexico City, 1876-1910
2346:
Monuments of Progress: Modernization and Public Health in Mexico City, 1876-1910
2121:
Growth Against Development: The Economic Impact of Railroads in Porfirian Mexico
1633:
1505:
1334:
1137:
809:
1344:
958:
quickly to troubled areas was a direct effect of more efficient communication.
103:
1625:
1276:
1247:
1074:
864:
726:
452:
446:
420:
116:
2320:
The Eagle and the Virgin: Nation and Cultural Revolution in Mexico, 1920-1940
1156:
congresses on women's rights. Although there was some political pressure for
1359:
1117:
939:
and their horses could be loaded on trains and dispatched to impose order.
380:
2867:
Land of Necessity: Consumer Culture in the United States-Mexico Borderlands
2428:
1901:
Bunker, Steven B. and William H. Beezley. "Porfiriato: Interpretations" in
1540:
661:
3007:
Historia Moderna de México. El Porfiriato Vida política interior 2.ª Parte
2808:
Irwin, Robert McKee, Edward J. McCaughan, and Michelle Rocío Nasser, eds.
2631:. Calgary: University of Calgary Press/University Press of Colorado 2003.
2554:
The Pursuit of Ruins: Archeology, History, and the Making of Modern Mexico
1504:
cultivating crops on the archeological sites, most systematically done at
1299:
House of Tiles, Mexico City, site of the Jockey Club during the Porfiriato
1181:
2771:
Industry and Underdevelopment: The Industrialization of Mexico, 1890-1940
1462:
1125:
1113:
926:
901:
790:
535:
2662:
Buffington, Robert and William E. French. "The Culture of Modernity" in
2657:
Tools of Progress: A German Merchant Family in Mexico City, 1865-Present
2261:
Buffington, Robert and William E. French, "The Culture of Modernity" in
1923:
Katz, Friedich, "The Liberal Republic and the Porfiriato, 1867-1910" in
827:, a small, efficient rural police force under his control, known as the
2917:
Working Women in Mexico City: Public Discourses and Material Conditions
2881:
The Allure of the Foreign: Imported Goods in Postcolonial Latin America
2420:
1227:
Esperanza Dam, Guanajuato was built in 1894 by Ponciano Aguilar. Photo
829:
2757:
The Imagined Underworld: Sex, Crime, and Vice in Porfirian Mexico City
2452:
The Imagined Underworld: Sex, Crime, and Vice in Porfirian Mexico City
689:
2412:
1030:
Mexico City Zócalo, with mule-drawn streetcars, ca. 1890. Photo by
992:
2780:
The Transformation of Liberalism in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexico
2061:
The Transformation of Liberalism in Late Nineteenth-Century Mexico
1539:
1531:
1478:
1423:
1403:
for riding. In 1898, cartoon montage in the satirical publication
1358:
1343:
1310:
1302:
1294:
1258:
1233:
1222:
1180:
1103:
1091:
1067:
1025:
1013:
1002:
991:
941:
919:
896:
888:
766:
660:
1520:, laid out by Emperor Maximilian between the National Palace and
733:
cleared a path for liberals to implement their vision of Mexico.
684:'Porfiriate') is a term given to the period when General
1367:
with bicyclists labeled with the names of Mexico City newspapers
2993:
Estados Unidos contra Julio Hernández Jalili Arriba el cultural
2643:
Judas at the Jockey Club and Other Episodes of Porfirian Mexico
2497:
Judas at the Jockey Club and other Episodes of Porfirian Mexico
2026:
Disorder and Progress: Bandits, Police, and Mexican Development
1678:
Other statues that were inaugurated were one honoring France's
1491:. It was previously on display in the open air, up against the
2924:
Positivism, Science, and 'The Scientists' in Porfirian Mexico
2671:
Creating Mexican Consumer Culture in the Age of Porfirio Díaz
2475:
Creating Mexican Consumer Culture in the Age of Porfirio Díaz
2048:
Positivism, Science, and 'The Scientists' in Porfirian Mexico
1246:
infrastructure project to drain the central lake system, the
2331:
Miller, Francesca. "Feminism and Feminist Organizations" in
2833:, ed. New York: Cambridge University Press 1991, pp.49-124.
2810:
The Famous 41: Sexuality and Social Control in Mexico, 1901
2227:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2018, pp. 1–7
2072:
Bunker and Beezley, "Porfiriato: Interpretations", p. 1170.
2028:. Revised edition. Wilmington DL: Scholarly Resources 1992.
1953:
Katz, "The Liberal Republic and the Porfiriato", pp. 81-83.
1931:, ed. New York: Cambridge University Press 1991, pp. 49–124
2825:, "The Liberal Republic and the Porfiriato, 1867-1910" in
2543:
Katz, "The Liberal Republic and the Porfiriato", pp. 86-87
2278:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2018 pp. 1-7
2015:
Katz, "The Liberal Republic and the Porfiriato", pp. 67–68
1993:
Katz, "The Liberal Republic and the Porfiriato", pp. 95–98
2534:
Katz,"The Liberal Republic and the Porfiriato", pp. 86–87
1892:, vol. 2, p. 378. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.
1843:
Historia Moderna de México. El porfiriato. La vida social
2335:. vol. 2, p. 550. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996
1831:, vol. 4, p. 440. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996
774:
on board a train. Photograph Manuel Ramos, published in
16:
Period of authoritarian rule in Mexico from 1876 to 1911
2947:, edited by William H. Beezley, 371-89. Blackwell 2011.
2727:
Posada's Broadsheets: Mexican Popular Imagery 1890-1910
2464:
Katz, "The Liberal Republic and the Porfiriato," p. 71.
1420:
Porfirio Díaz § Relations with the Catholic Church
1725:, were shut out of the succession, with Díaz choosing
1275:
designed to rehabilitate its prisoners. Designed as a
988:
Economic history of Mexico § Porfiriato 1876–1911
885:
Economic history of Mexico § Porfiriato 1876–1911
3036:
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Historia Moderna de México. El Porfiriato vida social
2696:. DeKalb: University of Northern Illinois Press 1981.
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Anderson, Rodney D. "Industrial Labor: 1876-1910" in
2123:. DeKalb: University of Northern Illinois Press 1981.
3051:
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2931:
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2912:
1879-1931. Tucson: University of Arizona Press 2003.
2904:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2006.
2712:. Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press 1981.
2673:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2012.
1944:. Fort Worth: Texas Christian University Press 1981.
2729:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 1998.
2659:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2004.
2556:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2016.
2361:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2006.
1689:
1444:
up against the cathedral wall under the bell tower.
245:
231:
218:
206:
192:
180:
170:
158:
146:
132:
110:
21:
2477:. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press 2012
2333:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
1890:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
1829:Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture
2595:. Stanford: Stanford University Press pp. 104-119
2386:City of Suspects: Crime in Mexico City, 1900–1931
1868:(in Spanish). El Colegio de México. p. 200.
1144:with abstract principles shared by all citizens.
1864:Speckman Guerra, Elisa (2011). "El Porfiriato".
1738:. Faced with this situation, Díaz agreed to the
1018:Shoeing Mules (Mexican Village Scene). Photo by
2883:. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press 1997.
2817:The City of Mexico and the Age of Porfirio Diaz
1905:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 1169–1173
1131:The increase of wealth due to increases in the
763:Mexican Revolution § Porfiriato, 1876–1911
1628:from the U.S. Mexican Secretary of Education,
1267:Mexico City's main jail was a former convent,
2926:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press 2016.
2782:. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1989.
2759:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2007.
2722:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 2006.
2645:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1987.
2063:. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1989.
2050:. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press 2016.
1853:] (in Spanish). México: Editorial Hermes.
1100:and family dressed in European-style fashions
642:
8:
2983:Historia de la educación durante el Porfiato
2525:. Urbana: University of Illinois Press 1990.
2499:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1987
2454:. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.
2179:Navarrete G., David. "Mining: 1821-1910" in
1690:Coup d'état and end of Porfiriato, 1910–1911
1108:"Dance of the 41" José Guadalupe Posada 1901
3053:México: Fondo de Cultura Económica (1991).
2798:. Northern Illinois University Press 1994.
2773:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 1989.
2745:. Stanford: Stanford University Press 2011.
2205:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, pp. 681–2
679:
2945:A Companion to Mexican History and Culture
2764:Masculinity and Sexuality in Modern Mexico
2652:. Wilmington DE: Scholarly Resources 1994.
2241:. Cambridge University Press. p. 65.
2085:, vol. 2. Cambridge University Press 1986.
1508:. Former cavalry officer and archeologist
1160:, it did not come to fruition until 1953.
649:
635:
325:
102:
18:
3191:México:Fondo de Cultura Económica (1995)
3144:México:Fondo de Cultura Económica (1973)
2985:. Mexico City: El Colegio de México 1993.
2933:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1988.
2819:. Austin: University of Texas Press 1997.
2183:. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn 1997, p. 919.
1647:from the invading U.S. forces during the
1238:Canal de la Viga, Mexico City – photo by
1148:visible as activists for women's rights.
2214:Anderson, "Industrial Labor," pp. 684–85
906:Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum
3179:Breve historia del porfirismo 1876-1911
3097:Krauze, Enrique; Zerón-Medina, Fausto:
3082:Krauze, Enrique; Zerón Medina, Fausto:
1817:
1007:Rioters in front of the factory during
339:
328:
3189:Apuntes de historia nacional 1808-1974
3142:Hacia el México moderno: Porfirio Díaz
3116:. México:Ediciones Pedagógicas. (1995)
2705:vol. 83, No. 1 (Feb. 1978), pp. 80–100
2650:Rituals of Rule, Rituals of Resistance
2138:vol. 83, No. 1 (Feb. 1978), pp. 80–100
1618:International Congress of Americanists
1516:Along the wide, tree-lined boulevard,
1355:mocks the style of elite Mexican women
3172:El porfirismo: historia de un régimen
2869:. Durham: Duke University Press 2009.
1961:
1959:
1393:former Palace of the Emperor Iturbide
1064:Social class, gender roles, citizenry
996:Rioters burning company store during
244:
230:
217:
213:
191:
179:
169:
157:
145:
141:
131:
7:
3181:México: Eds mexicanos unidos (1971).
2812:. New York: Palgrave MacMillan 2003.
2388:. Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
1072:Entrepreneurs on horseback in their
946:Dos Estrellas mine, ca. 1905. Photo
2888:Mexican Studies/ Estudios Mexicanos
2735:Hispanic American Historical Review
2686:Hispanic American Historical Review
2582:. New York: Longman 2001, pp.217-18
2307:Hispanic American Historical Review
2099:. West Sussex: Wiley. p. 163.
1973:. West Sussex: Wiley. p. 162.
1307:Posada mocks the style of elite men
3137:9, no. 1 (Sept-Dec 1994): 195-226.
2738:72, ano. 4 (November 1992):529-52.
2593:The Life and Times of Pancho Villa
1544:Porfirio Díaz and his second wife
1493:Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
1430:Mexico City Metropolitan Cathedral
1329:, were modeled on those in Paris (
1263:Blueprint of the Lecumberri Prison
14:
3069:Porfirio Díaz Biografía del Poder
2752:. Harlow: Pearson Education 2001.
2097:A History of Modern Latin America
2004:Zapata and the Mexican Revolution
1971:A History of Modern Latin America
1888:Stevens, D.F. "Porfirio Díaz" in
1602:Young Men's Christian Association
716:Porfiriato as a historical period
3121:L'Exposition Universelle de 1889
2850:Macias-González, Victor M. "The
1643:, the cadets who died defending
618:
350:
308:
283:
89:
54:
40:
3130:. Hamden CT: Archon Books 1997.
2840:13, no. 2 (Summer 1986):111–18.
1866:Nueva historia mínima de México
1841:Cosío Villegas, Daniel (1955).
1554:official centennial festivities
1528:1910 Centennial of Independence
1501:National Museum of Anthropology
1485:National Museum of Anthropology
1203:Pontifical University of Mexico
1038:injured, or died. In 1875, the
2689:97:4 (Nov. 2017), pp. 613–650.
2565:Díaz Flores Alatorre, Manuel.
2374:60:4, April 2004, pp. 559–587.
2309:97:4 (Nov. 2017), pp. 613–650.
1806:History of democracy in Mexico
1199:Universidad Nacional de México
893:Mexican National Railroad 1891
1:
3155:Torre Villar, Ernesto de la:
2897:60, no. 3 (Jan. 2004):411–29.
2847:22, no. 4. (May 1996) 454–92.
1483:Porfirio Díaz in 1910 at the
1433:
1083:
731:French intervention in Mexico
3023:México: El caballito (1971)
2970:México: Eds Coyoacán (2003)
2791:8.no. 1 (Winter 1992):23–43.
2664:The Oxford History of Mexico
2263:The Oxford History of Mexico
1450:Mexican Constitution of 1857
1087: between 1875 and 1899
665:President Gen. Porfirio Díaz
3159:México: McGRAW-HILL (1992)
3034:González Gómez, Francisco:
1219:Public health § Mexico
83:"National Anthem of Mexico"
3235:
3038:México: Quinto sol (1990)
3021:La revolución interrumpida
2702:American Historical Review
2450:Garza, James Alex (2007).
2135:American Historical Review
1914:Camp, "Porfiriato", p. 440
1847:Modern History of Mexico.
1799:Economic history of Mexico
1744:Francisco León de la Barra
1693:
1417:
1216:
1158:women's suffrage in Mexico
985:
882:
760:
3049:Guerra, François-Xavier.
2968:Breve historia de México
2838:Journal of Sports History
2827:Mexico Since Independence
2237:Timo H. Schaefer (2017).
2006:. New York: Vintage 1968.
1925:Mexico Since Independence
1585:monument to Benito Juárez
1572:at a major intersection (
1455:Catholic Church in Mexico
739:Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada
674:
546:Petroleum nationalization
262:
258:
214:
202:
142:
101:
82:
70:
36:
31:
3005:Cosío Villegas, Daniel.
2998:Cosío Villegas, Daniel.
2940:60, no. 4 (2004) 559-87.
2890:23, no. 1 (2007) 63-100.
2845:Journal of Urban History
2718:Francois, Marie Eileen.
2510:Judas at the Jockey Club
1570:Monument to Independence
1373:Hippodrome of Peralvillo
1124:were connected when the
561:Mexican Movement of 1968
381:Viceroyalty of New Spain
3126:Ortiz Gaitán, Julieta.
3123:París: E. Dentu (1890).
3016:. Oxford: Harla. (1996)
2865:McCrossen, Alexis, ed.
2384:Piccato, Pablo (2001).
2274:Porter, Susie S.
2223:Porter, Susie S.
1740:Treaty of Ciudad Juárez
1710:Plan of San Luis Potosí
1696:Treaty of Ciudad Juárez
1285:Lecumberri penitentiary
1096:Diaz's Vice President,
1054:Liberal Party of Mexico
808:emerged as a leader in
439:Second Federal Republic
76:Himno Nacional Mexicano
3101:México:Ed Clio (1993)
3086:México:Ed Clio (1993)
3071:México:Ed Clio (1991)
3009:México: Hermes (1972).
3002:México: Hermes (1972).
2995:México: Hermes (1956).
2989:Cosío Villegas, Daniel
2879:Orlove, Benjamin, ed.
2203:Encyclopedia of Mexico
2181:Encyclopedia of Mexico
2095:Meade, Teresa (2016).
2083:The Mexican Revolution
1903:Encyclopedia of Mexico
1684:Alexander von Humboldt
1549:
1537:
1496:
1465:issued the encyclical
1445:
1368:
1356:
1316:
1308:
1300:
1264:
1242:
1231:
1189:
1166:Dance of the Forty-One
1109:
1101:
1089:
1034:
1023:
1011:
1000:
950:
931:
909:
894:
779:
776:La Revista de Revistas
666:
513:Occupation of Veracruz
3157:Historia de México II
2929:Saragoza, Alexander.
2153:"9.04 The Porfiriato"
1694:Further information:
1660:New York Evening Post
1543:
1535:
1482:
1427:
1365:José Guadalupe Posada
1362:
1353:José Guadalupe Posada
1347:
1314:
1306:
1298:
1262:
1237:
1226:
1184:
1170:José Guadalupe Posada
1128:were constructed.
1107:
1095:
1071:
1029:
1017:
1006:
995:
945:
923:
900:
892:
770:
694:Daniel Cosío Villegas
664:
476:Second Mexican Empire
127:military dictatorship
120:presidential republic
3174:México: UNAM (1999).
3084:Porfirio La Ambición
2900:Pilcher, Jeffrey M.
2692:Coatsworth, John H.
2641:Beezley, William H.
2521:Baldwin, Deborah J.
2495:Beezley, William H.
2486:accessed 10 May 2019
2357:Pilcher, Jeffrey M.
2151:(2 September 2018).
2119:Coatsworth, John H.
2024:Vanderwood, Paul J.
1758:El hijo del Ahuizote
1649:Mexican–American War
1410:through technology.
1406:El Hijo del Ahuizote
598:Coronavirus pandemic
573:1982 economic crisis
426:Mexican–American War
304:Revolutionary Mexico
2627:Agostoni, Claudia.
2344:Agostoni, Claudia.
1774:John Kenneth Turner
1723:José Yves Limantour
1706:Francisco I. Madero
1672:The Washington Post
1610:Isabel the Catholic
1587:at the edge of the
1578:Paseo de la Reforma
1546:Carmen Romero Rubio
1518:Paseo de la Reforma
1459:Carmen Romero Rubio
1389:José Yves Limantour
1385:Manuel Romero Rubio
1363:Satirical print by
1349:La Calavera Catrina
1207:feminists in Mexico
818:Rutherford B. Hayes
751:Francisco I. Madero
696:. Seizing power in
583:Mexican peso crisis
458:French intervention
411:Centralist Republic
386:War of Independence
3114:Historia de México
3014:Historia de México
2769:Haber, Stephen H.
2669:Bunker, Steven B.
2655:Buchenau, Jürgen.
2473:Bunker, Steven B.
1827:, "Porfiriato" in
1700:Mexican Revolution
1654:The New York Times
1645:Chapultepec Castle
1566:José María Morelos
1550:
1538:
1522:Chapultepec Castle
1497:
1457:. His marriage to
1446:
1381:House of the Tiles
1369:
1357:
1317:
1309:
1301:
1279:based on plans by
1265:
1243:
1232:
1190:
1153:Feminism in Mexico
1133:export agriculture
1110:
1102:
1090:
1035:
1024:
1012:
1001:
970:process) required
951:
932:
910:
895:
802:Mexican Revolution
780:
710:Mexican Revolution
667:
235:Mexican Revolution
26:República Mexicana
3177:Valadés, José C:
3170:Valadés, José C:
3099:Porfirio El Poder
2922:Priego, Natalia.
2915:Porter, Susie S.
2910:978-0-8263-3796-2
2679:978-0-8263-4454-0
2591:Katz, Friedrich,
2552:Bueno, Christina
2059:Hale, Charles A.
2046:Priego, Natalia.
2002:Womack, John Jr.
1875:978-968-12-1139-4
1769:Río Blanco strike
1624:from Germany and
1475:Historical memory
1327:Palacio de Hierro
1045:Río Blanco strike
1009:Río Blanco strike
727:War of the Reform
683:
675:Porfirio Díaz Era
659:
658:
625:Mexico portal
567:La Década Perdida
556:Mexican Dirty War
540:(1928–1934)
503:Plan of Guadalupe
497:La decena trágica
481:Restored Republic
376:Spanish-Aztec War
324:
323:
320:
319:
316:
315:
296:
295:
291:Restored Republic
194:• 1884–1911
182:• 1880–1884
172:• 1877–1880
160:• 1876–1877
94:
3226:
3152:(obra completa).
3061:(obra completa).
2981:Bazant, Mílada.
2815:Johns, Michael.
2794:Holden, Robert.
2777:Hale, Charles A.
2755:Garza, James A.
2725:Frank, Patrick.
2609:
2602:
2596:
2589:
2583:
2576:
2570:
2563:
2557:
2550:
2544:
2541:
2535:
2532:
2526:
2519:
2513:
2506:
2500:
2493:
2487:
2484:
2478:
2471:
2465:
2462:
2456:
2455:
2447:
2441:
2440:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2381:
2375:
2368:
2362:
2355:
2349:
2342:
2336:
2329:
2323:
2316:
2310:
2303:
2297:
2294:
2288:
2285:
2279:
2272:
2266:
2259:
2253:
2252:
2234:
2228:
2221:
2215:
2212:
2206:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2184:
2177:
2171:
2170:
2168:
2166:
2145:
2139:
2130:
2124:
2117:
2111:
2110:
2092:
2086:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2064:
2057:
2051:
2044:
2038:
2035:
2029:
2022:
2016:
2013:
2007:
2000:
1994:
1991:
1985:
1984:
1963:
1954:
1951:
1945:
1938:
1932:
1921:
1915:
1912:
1906:
1899:
1893:
1886:
1880:
1879:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1838:
1832:
1825:Camp, Roderic Ai
1822:
1779:Plan of Tuxtepec
1562:Grito de Dolores
1435:
1088:
1085:
968:pan amalgamation
930:Waterfront built
873:social Darwinism
743:Plan of Tuxtepec
681:
678:
676:
651:
644:
637:
623:
622:
621:
593:Mexican drug war
578:Chiapas conflict
541:
416:Texas Revolution
354:
344:
326:
312:
311:
300:
299:
287:
286:
280:
279:
264:
263:
241:20 November 1910
106:
96:
95:
86:
84:
58:
44:
23:Mexican Republic
19:
3234:
3233:
3229:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3223:
3204:
3203:
3202:
3140:Roeder, Ralph:
3065:Krauze, Enrique
3019:Gilly, Adolfo:
3012:Esquivel, G.:.
2962:
2957:
2952:Rituals of Rule
2874:Rituals of Rule
2823:Katz, Friedrich
2788:Mexican Studies
2708:Coever, Don M.
2623:
2618:
2616:Further reading
2613:
2612:
2603:
2599:
2590:
2586:
2577:
2573:
2564:
2560:
2551:
2547:
2542:
2538:
2533:
2529:
2520:
2516:
2507:
2503:
2494:
2490:
2485:
2481:
2472:
2468:
2463:
2459:
2449:
2448:
2444:
2413:10.2307/1007648
2398:
2397:
2393:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2369:
2365:
2356:
2352:
2343:
2339:
2330:
2326:
2317:
2313:
2304:
2300:
2295:
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2269:
2260:
2256:
2249:
2236:
2235:
2231:
2222:
2218:
2213:
2209:
2200:
2196:
2191:
2187:
2178:
2174:
2164:
2162:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2131:
2127:
2118:
2114:
2107:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2080:
2076:
2071:
2067:
2058:
2054:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2010:
2001:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1981:
1965:
1964:
1957:
1952:
1948:
1940:Coever, Don M.
1939:
1935:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1900:
1896:
1887:
1883:
1876:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1840:
1839:
1835:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1753:
1702:
1692:
1666:Harper's Weekly
1589:Alameda Central
1530:
1510:Leopoldo Batres
1489:Aztec sun stone
1477:
1442:Aztec sun stone
1436:1880. Photo by
1422:
1416:
1377:Manuel González
1293:
1257:
1221:
1215:
1179:
1168:. Caricaturist
1122:Local economies
1116:, and material
1086:
1066:
1040:Congreso Obrero
990:
984:
887:
881:
869:Herbert Spencer
851:
806:Emiliano Zapata
785:jefes políticos
765:
759:
757:Political order
747:Manuel González
741:under the
718:
655:
619:
617:
603:
602:
551:Mexican miracle
539:
531:
523:
522:
471:
463:
462:
441:
431:
430:
406:
396:
395:
371:
363:
342:
335:
309:
284:
251:
238:
227:10 January 1876
224:
195:
183:
173:
161:
149:
97:
90:
87:
80:
79:
66:
65:
64:
59:
51:
50:
45:
27:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3232:
3230:
3222:
3221:
3216:
3206:
3205:
3201:
3200:
3185:Zavala, Silvio
3182:
3175:
3168:
3153:
3138:
3131:
3124:
3119:Monod, Émile:
3117:
3110:
3095:
3080:
3062:
3047:
3032:
3017:
3010:
3003:
2996:
2986:
2979:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2955:
2948:
2941:
2934:
2927:
2920:
2913:
2898:
2891:
2884:
2877:
2870:
2863:
2848:
2841:
2834:
2831:Leslie Bethell
2820:
2813:
2806:
2804:978-0875801810
2792:
2783:
2774:
2767:
2760:
2753:
2748:Garner, Paul.
2746:
2741:Garner, Paul.
2739:
2730:
2723:
2716:
2713:
2706:
2697:
2690:
2681:
2667:
2660:
2653:
2646:
2639:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2611:
2610:
2597:
2584:
2578:Garner, Paul.
2571:
2558:
2545:
2536:
2527:
2514:
2501:
2488:
2479:
2466:
2457:
2442:
2407:(3): 391–424.
2391:
2376:
2363:
2350:
2337:
2324:
2311:
2298:
2289:
2280:
2267:
2254:
2247:
2229:
2216:
2207:
2194:
2185:
2172:
2140:
2125:
2112:
2105:
2087:
2081:Knight, Alan,
2074:
2065:
2052:
2039:
2030:
2017:
2008:
1995:
1986:
1979:
1955:
1946:
1933:
1929:Leslie Bethell
1916:
1907:
1894:
1881:
1874:
1856:
1833:
1816:
1815:
1813:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1802:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1764:Cananea strike
1761:
1752:
1749:
1732:Pascual Orozco
1715:Bernardo Reyes
1691:
1688:
1682:and Germany's
1529:
1526:
1476:
1473:
1418:Main article:
1415:
1412:
1333:) and London (
1292:
1289:
1281:Jeremy Bentham
1256:
1253:
1214:
1211:
1178:
1175:
1065:
1062:
1050:Cananea Strike
998:Cananea strike
983:
980:
966:and later the
880:
877:
850:
847:
758:
755:
729: and the
717:
714:
706:1910 elections
657:
656:
654:
653:
646:
639:
631:
628:
627:
614:
613:
605:
604:
601:
600:
595:
590:
585:
580:
575:
570:
563:
558:
553:
548:
543:
532:
529:
528:
525:
524:
521:
520:
515:
510:
508:Tampico Affair
505:
500:
493:
488:
486:The Porfiriato
483:
478:
472:
469:
468:
465:
464:
461:
460:
455:
450:
442:
437:
436:
433:
432:
429:
428:
423:
418:
413:
407:
404:First Republic
402:
401:
398:
397:
394:
393:
388:
383:
378:
372:
369:
368:
365:
364:
359:
356:
355:
347:
346:
337:
336:
329:
322:
321:
318:
317:
314:
313:
306:
297:
294:
293:
288:
276:
275:
270:
260:
259:
256:
255:
252:
249:Disestablished
246:
243:
242:
239:
232:
229:
228:
225:
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212:
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204:
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155:
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144:
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136:
130:
129:
114:
108:
107:
99:
98:
88:
68:
67:
60:
53:
52:
46:
39:
38:
37:
34:
33:
29:
28:
25:
22:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3231:
3220:
3219:Modern Mexico
3217:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3209:
3198:
3197:968-16-3442-X
3194:
3190:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3176:
3173:
3169:
3166:
3165:968-451-971-0
3162:
3158:
3154:
3151:
3150:968-16-0764-3
3147:
3143:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3129:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3115:
3111:
3108:
3107:968-6932-16-X
3104:
3100:
3096:
3093:
3092:968-6932-15-1
3089:
3085:
3081:
3078:
3077:968-16-2286-3
3074:
3070:
3066:
3063:
3060:
3059:968-16-2971-X
3056:
3052:
3048:
3045:
3044:968-6136-95-9
3041:
3037:
3033:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3015:
3011:
3008:
3004:
3001:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2987:
2984:
2980:
2977:
2976:970-633-057-7
2973:
2969:
2966:Bazant, Jan:
2965:
2964:
2959:
2953:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2939:
2935:
2932:
2928:
2925:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2896:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2882:
2878:
2875:
2871:
2868:
2864:
2861:
2857:
2856:The High Life
2853:
2849:
2846:
2842:
2839:
2835:
2832:
2828:
2824:
2821:
2818:
2814:
2811:
2807:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2790:
2789:
2784:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2761:
2758:
2754:
2751:
2750:Porfirio Diaz
2747:
2744:
2740:
2737:
2736:
2731:
2728:
2724:
2721:
2717:
2714:
2711:
2707:
2704:
2703:
2698:
2695:
2691:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2665:
2661:
2658:
2654:
2651:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2638:
2637:0-87081-734-5
2634:
2630:
2626:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2607:
2606:Porfirio Díaz
2601:
2598:
2594:
2588:
2585:
2581:
2580:Porfirio Díaz
2575:
2572:
2568:
2562:
2559:
2555:
2549:
2546:
2540:
2537:
2531:
2528:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2511:
2505:
2502:
2498:
2492:
2489:
2483:
2480:
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2470:
2467:
2461:
2458:
2453:
2446:
2443:
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2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
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2402:
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2334:
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2325:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2308:
2302:
2299:
2293:
2290:
2284:
2281:
2277:
2271:
2268:
2264:
2258:
2255:
2250:
2248:9781108121415
2244:
2240:
2233:
2230:
2226:
2220:
2217:
2211:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2195:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2176:
2173:
2160:
2159:
2154:
2150:
2144:
2141:
2137:
2136:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2116:
2113:
2108:
2106:9781118772485
2102:
2098:
2091:
2088:
2084:
2078:
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2069:
2066:
2062:
2056:
2053:
2049:
2043:
2040:
2034:
2031:
2027:
2021:
2018:
2012:
2009:
2005:
1999:
1996:
1990:
1987:
1982:
1980:9781118772485
1976:
1972:
1968:
1967:Meade, Teresa
1962:
1960:
1956:
1950:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1920:
1917:
1911:
1908:
1904:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1882:
1877:
1871:
1867:
1860:
1857:
1852:
1851:, social life
1849:El Porfiriato
1848:
1844:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1821:
1818:
1811:
1807:
1804:
1803:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1784:Porfirio Díaz
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1770:
1767:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1759:
1755:
1754:
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1733:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1711:
1707:
1701:
1697:
1687:
1685:
1681:
1680:Louis Pasteur
1676:
1674:
1673:
1668:
1667:
1662:
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1656:
1655:
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1642:
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1581:
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1527:
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1514:
1511:
1507:
1502:
1494:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1474:
1472:
1470:
1469:
1468:Rerum Novarum
1464:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1443:
1439:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1413:
1411:
1408:
1407:
1402:
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1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1366:
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1274:
1270:
1261:
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1252:
1249:
1241:
1236:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1213:Public health
1212:
1210:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1187:
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1174:
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1041:
1033:
1028:
1021:
1016:
1010:
1005:
999:
994:
989:
981:
979:
975:
973:
969:
965:
964:patio process
962:century (the
959:
957:
949:
944:
940:
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198:Porfirio Díaz
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187:Manuel Flores
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176:Porfirio Díaz
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153:Porfirio Díaz
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3112:Moreno, S.:
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2895:The Americas
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2512:, pp. 41–52.
2509:
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2445:
2404:
2401:The Americas
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2372:The Americas
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2197:
2188:
2180:
2175:
2163:. Retrieved
2156:
2149:Duncan, Mike
2143:
2133:
2128:
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2096:
2090:
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2077:
2068:
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2055:
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2025:
2020:
2011:
2003:
1998:
1989:
1970:
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1941:
1936:
1924:
1919:
1910:
1902:
1897:
1889:
1884:
1865:
1859:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1836:
1828:
1820:
1789:Porfirionism
1756:
1736:Pancho Villa
1727:Ramón Corral
1703:
1677:
1670:
1664:
1658:
1652:
1641:Niños Héroes
1638:
1630:Justo Sierra
1622:Eduard Seler
1615:
1606:
1597:Ramón Corral
1593:
1582:
1573:
1559:
1551:
1515:
1498:
1466:
1447:
1438:Abel Briquet
1404:
1397:
1370:
1348:
1339:Afrancesados
1338:
1322:Napoleon III
1318:
1273:penitentiary
1269:Belem Prison
1266:
1255:Penal reform
1244:
1240:Abel Briquet
1229:Abel Briquet
1195:Justo Sierra
1191:
1186:Justo Sierra
1162:
1150:
1146:
1142:
1130:
1111:
1098:Ramón Corral
1080:Iztaccihuatl
1078:in front of
1073:
1058:
1039:
1036:
1032:Abel Briquet
1020:Abel Briquet
976:
960:
955:
952:
948:Abel Briquet
936:
933:
925:
914:
911:
854:
852:
842:
839:
834:
828:
822:
814:
796:
788:
784:
781:
775:
771:
735:
723:debt peonage
719:
703:
670:
668:
608:
588:PRI downfall
565:
536:
518:Cristero War
495:
485:
445:
391:First Empire
273:Succeeded by
272:
267:
148:• 1876
71:
62:Coat of arms
3135:Sociológica
2158:Revolutions
1794:Científicos
1719:Científicos
1634:Teotihuacan
1506:Teotihuacan
1440:. Note the
1138:Mexico City
856:Científicos
810:Anenecuilco
341:History of
268:Preceded by
254:25 May 1911
222:Established
165:Juan Méndez
3214:Porfiriato
3208:Categories
3029:9686011021
1812:References
1626:Franz Boaz
1331:Bon Marché
1277:panopticon
1217:See also:
1075:latifundio
986:See also:
883:See also:
865:Positivism
849:Philosophy
797:pan o palo
778:, May 1912
761:See also:
673:(English:
671:Porfiriato
491:Revolution
453:Reform War
447:La Reforma
421:Pastry War
112:Government
81:(English:
2954:, 127-51.
2876:, 151–71.
2862:, 227-50.
2860:Famous 41
2852:Lagartijo
2608:, p. 220.
2508:Beezley,
2161:(Podcast)
1487:with the
1177:Education
1126:railroads
1118:wellbeing
791:haciendas
470:1864–1928
134:President
122:under an
32:1876–1911
2604:Garner,
2437:23223676
2429:19746582
1969:(2016).
1751:See also
1574:glorieta
1463:Leo XIII
1414:Religion
1401:Bloomers
1335:Harrod's
1114:vitality
1082:volcano
927:El Boleo
924:Mine of
902:Henequen
610:Timeline
537:Maximato
332:a series
330:Part of
2960:Spanish
2621:English
2421:1007648
2165:17 July
1291:Culture
1248:desagüe
972:mercury
956:Rurales
937:Rurales
915:Rurales
879:Economy
843:Rurales
835:Rurales
830:Rurales
682:
247:•
237:begins
233:•
220:•
207:History
117:Federal
74: "
72:Anthem:
3195:
3163:
3148:
3105:
3090:
3075:
3057:
3042:
3027:
2974:
2908:
2802:
2677:
2635:
2435:
2427:
2419:
2245:
2103:
1977:
1872:
1657:, the
1201:. The
698:a coup
690:Mexico
688:ruled
530:Modern
343:Mexico
334:on the
210:
138:
2433:S2CID
2417:JSTOR
1845:[
1576:) of
1495:wall.
982:Labor
804:when
772:Rural
3193:ISBN
3161:ISBN
3146:ISBN
3103:ISBN
3088:ISBN
3073:ISBN
3055:ISBN
3040:ISBN
3025:ISBN
2972:ISBN
2906:ISBN
2800:ISBN
2675:ISBN
2633:ISBN
2425:PMID
2243:ISBN
2167:2022
2101:ISBN
1975:ISBN
1870:ISBN
1734:and
1698:and
1616:The
1552:The
1428:The
1387:and
867:and
680:lit.
669:The
48:Flag
2854:at
2409:doi
871:'s
863:'s
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3187::
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2829:,
2431:.
2423:.
2415:.
2405:55
2403:.
2155:.
1958:^
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1721:,
1669:,
1663:,
1636:.
1434:c.
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1351:,
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3079:.
3067::
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2169:.
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1983:.
1878:.
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