Port Chicago disaster - Knowledge (XXG)

654:) per hatch per hour. The desired level had been set by Captain Nelson Goss, Commander Mare Island Navy Yard, whose jurisdiction included Port Chicago Naval Magazine. Most loading officers considered this goal too high. On a chalkboard, Kinne tallied each crew's average tonnage per hour. The junior officers placed bets with each other in support of their own 100-man crews—called "divisions" at Port Chicago—and coaxed their crews to load more than the others. The enlisted men were aware of the bets and knew to slow down to a more reasonable pace whenever a senior officer appeared. The average rate achieved at Port Chicago in the months leading up to July 1944 was 8.2 short tons (7.4 t) per hatch per hour—commercial stevedores at Mare Island performed only slightly better at 8.7 short tons (7.9 t) per hatch per hour. 1418:

blacks were assigned the task of loading munitions, why they had not been trained for that task, why they were forced to compete for speed, why they were not given survivor's leaves, and why they had not been allowed to rise in rank. Forrestal replied weakly, saying that a predominance of black men were stationed at Port Chicago so of course they would be working there to load munitions. Forrestal pointed out that there was no discrimination because other naval weapons stations were manned by white crews loading munitions. The Navy Secretary said that the men had not been promoted because their time at Port Chicago had been a "trial period", and that they were not given 30-day leaves because he thought it best for men to get quickly back to duty to prevent them from building up mental and emotional barriers.

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several points: that there had been talk among them of a mass work-stoppage leading up to August 9, that some men (none of the accused 50) had passed around and signed a petition to avoid loading ammunition, and that Joe Small had spoken at the meeting on the prison barge and had urged the men to obey their officers and to conduct themselves in an orderly fashion. Some men said Small's speech included words to the effect of having the officers "by the tail" or "by the ass". Coakley was challenged by Veltmann when he attempted to bring the men's signed statements in as evidence but the court allowed the statements to be used to refresh the men's memories of their answers to interrogation.

1167:. Each of was interviewed by officers, sometimes in the presence of an armed guard. Questions focused on identifying "ringleaders" of the work-stoppage and on what was said by whom at the meeting on the prison barge. The men were asked to sign statements summarizing the interrogation, but the officer's version rarely matched the enlisted man's recollection of the interview. Some men, upon seeing that the written statements did not reflect what they had said, refused to sign. Others felt they had no choice but to sign‍—‌they were being ordered to do so by an officer. Several men refused to give any statement at all. Others spoke freely, thinking that the officer was their 1299:

explosion, and none had been approached by "ringleaders" persuading them not to work‍—‌each had made his own decision. Each man said that he himself had not coerced others to refuse to work. Some of the men related how, following the official interrogation at Camp Shoemaker, they had been under great pressure to sign statements containing things they had not said. Some men said that, at the meeting on the barge, Joe Small had not urged a mutiny and had not uttered any phrase to the effect of having the officers "by the balls". On the witness stand, Small himself denied saying any such thing, though he would admit to it decades later in interviews.

662:(ILWU) responded to word of unsafe practices by offering to bring in experienced men to train the battalion; the Navy leadership declined the offer, fearing higher costs, slower pace, and possible sabotage from civilian longshoremen. No enlisted man stationed at Port Chicago had received formal training in the handling and loading of explosives into ships. Even the officers did not receive training: Lieutenant Commander Alexander Holman, loading officer at Port Chicago whose duties included officer training, had initiated a search for training materials and samples, but did not organize a training class before disaster struck. 3585:"While the pardon was an important thing to do, and called attention to the injustice, a pardon is like saying, 'You did something wrong, but we are going to forgive you for it.' But whatever it was that you may call it, there was not a mutiny. There was never an attempt to usurp military authority. I think of it as a strike, or a protest at the unsafe working conditions and the racial discrimination on the base. And the trauma itself was passed on in the families. So even for today it's important to have these convictions set aside. For the surviving families, but also for the historical record."—Robert L. Allen. 1258:

munitions on August 9 but was unable to verify if any others were so ordered. He said that the men he had spoken with were willing to follow any order except to load munitions; that each man expressed fear of another explosion. Tobin verified that the men were not aggressive or disrespectful. Lieutenant Ernest Delucchi, Commander of Division Four at Port Chicago, testified that he personally ordered only four of the 50 defendants to load munitions. Delucchi described overhearing men of Division Eight say to his men, "Don't go to work for the white motherfuckers" but, under

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trying to understand what had happened, and that these discussions were not mutinous nor could they provide the groundwork for conspiracy. Veltmann argued that Small's brief four- or five-minute speech to the men on the barge was given in the performance of his duty to maintain order, a duty placed upon him by his superiors. Veltmann restated that the established legal definition of mutiny was a concerted effort to usurp, subvert or override military authority, and that there had been no such action or intent. Refusal to obey an order was not mutiny.

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were sent to the prison barge, but all of these men agreed to work after hearing Admiral Wright's speech on August 11; none of Morehouse's men were on trial for mutiny. Morehouse confirmed to Veltmann that some of his men had said they were afraid to handle ammunition. Following Morehouse, Lieutenant James E. Tobin, Commander of Division Two, took the stand. Lieutenant Tobin (no relation to Commander Joseph R. Tobin) related that 87 of his men initially refused to work but that number was reduced to 22 after Admiral Wright talked about the

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to get out of loading ammunition was the root of their August 9 mass refusal. Coakley described how the mutiny continued in the barge when Joe Small spoke to the men and asked them to stick together. Coakley entered into the record his definition of mutiny: "Collective insubordination, collective disobedience of lawful orders of a superior officer, is mutiny." He gave his opinion that men who admitted in time of war that they were afraid to load ammunition were of a low moral character and were likely to give false testimony.

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he was ineligible to take an official role in the men's defense. After hearing five of the men defend themselves, Marshall spoke to the 50 men and then conferred with Veltmann's defense team. The next day, Marshall held a press conference, charging that Judge Advocate Coakley was handling the case in a prejudicial manner. Marshall said, that from a review of the proceedings and his conversations with the accused, he could see these men being tried only for lesser charges of individual insubordination, not mass mutiny.

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segregated shore duty, the unsafe munitions handling practices and lack of training that had led to the catastrophic detonation‍—‌and the unfair manner in which 50 of 258 men had been singled out as mutineers, when their actions concerning loading ammunition after the explosion were not significantly different from the other 208 men. Marshall pointed to the men of Division One who had refused to load ammunition prior to August 9, but had been shipped out and given other duty, not arrested and court-martialed.

777: 1618: 1561:. Gordon Koller, Chief Petty Officer at the time of the explosion, was interviewed in 1990. Koller stated that the hundreds of men like him who continued to load ammunition in the face of danger were "the ones who should be recognized". In 1994, the Navy rejected a request by four California lawmakers to overturn the courts-martial decisions. The Navy found that racial inequities were responsible for the sailors' ammunition-loading assignments but that no prejudice occurred at the courts-martial. 1033: 970:, where they were assigned barracks duties with no ship-loading. The men were in a state of shock; all were nervous. Many of them inquired about obtaining a 30-day "survivor's leave" sometimes given by the Navy to sailors who had survived a serious incident where their friends or shipmates had died, but no 30-day leaves were granted, not even to those who had been hospitalized with injuries. White officers, however, received the leave, causing a major grievance among the enlisted men. 1198: 499: 1568:. Others of the Port Chicago 50 had refused to ask for a pardon, reasoning that a pardon is for guilty people receiving forgiveness; they continued to hold the position that they were not guilty of mutiny. Meeks pushed for a pardon as a way to get the story out, saying "I hope that all of America knows about it... it's something that's been in the closet for so long." In September 1999, the petition by Meeks was bolstered by 37 members of Congress including 1356:

taken place with an armed sentry standing guard; that very few of the prisoners' explanations that they had been afraid of another explosion had been included in the statements; and that the officers had emphasized portions of the interrogations that would satisfy Coakley's requirement for evidence of conspiracy. Coakley's last rebuttal witness testified on October 19, and the whole court took October 20 off to allow both sides to prepare closing arguments.

678:. During loading operations, the winches were worked hard and required maintenance to remain operable. Winch brakes‍—‌a safety feature provided for stopping the load from falling if the winch's main power was lost‍—‌were not often used by skilled winch operators, as loads could be more quickly maneuvered using power settings rather than by application of the brakes. Disused brakes sometimes seized up and stopped working. The winches on the SS 982: 1865: 962:, about 30 mi (48 km) south, where they were assigned barracks duty until July 31, 1944. The men of Divisions One, Five and Seven were reassigned other duty in distant locations and shipped out. The cleanup detail from Division Two dug into the wreckage of the pier and began tearing out the damaged portions. Beginning in August, Divisions Four and Eight and both sections of Division Two moved to the Ryder Street Naval Barracks in 1837: 1393:. The men were held under guard while their sentences were passed to Admiral Wright for review. On November 15, Wright reduced the sentences for 40 of the men: 24 were given 12 years, 11 were given 10 years and the five youngest sailors were given eight-year sentences. The full 15-year sentences remained in place for ten of the men including Joe Small and Ollie Green. In late November, the 50 men were transferred to the 491: 1451:. On April 3, 1945, he appeared to present his arguments. Marshall's appeal made the case that no direct order was given to all 50 of the defendants to load munitions and that even if orders had been given to certain individuals, disobeying the orders could not constitute mutiny. He said that Coakley deliberately misled the court on the definition of "mutiny" and that the mass of evidence he introduced was hearsay, thus 1137:

that evening aboard the crowded barge and told the prisoners to "knock off the horseplay", stay out of trouble and obey the shore patrol guards (who were black) and the officers, because the alternative (white Marines as guards) would be worse. He said to the men, "We've got the officers by the balls‍—‌they can do nothing to us if we don't do anything to them. If we stick together, they can't do anything to us."

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chose to form a group unwilling to obey every order. These 44 were taken back to the brig and the remaining 214 were sent to barracks. On the morning of August 12, six men from Divisions Two and Four who had put themselves in the obey-all-orders group failed to show up for work call; these six were confined to the brig, making 50 prisoners in all. These 50 were identified by the Navy as mutineers.

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short distance from Port Chicago, and will join the park system of the East Bay Regional Park District. A visitor's center is planned to describe the dangers of weapons cargo loading, and the racism experienced by African-American dock workers. The regional park will partner with the National Park Service to tell the story of the Port Chicago disaster, providing easier access to the public.

1651:), if the land was judged safe for human health and was excess to the Navy's needs. The Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial Enhancement Act of 2008 was not put to a vote. On February 12, 2009, Miller introduced a similar bill, the Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial Enhancement Act of 2009 (H.R. 1044), which, in addition to calling for another five acres, allowed for the 5356: 1608: 1178:).) Each was subject to forfeiture of three months' pay. A few of them were held as witnesses for the upcoming mutiny trial. The rest were split into smaller groups and shipped out to the Pacific Theater. Carl Tuggle, one of the 208, said in 1998 that a group of prisoners, including himself. were assigned menial tasks. After returning from active duty, they each received 1240:

responded "no" when asked if they would load munitions. Another of the 50, who had a broken wrist in a sling, was asked if he would load ammunition, to which he replied that he would not. More importantly, Veltmann sensed that the men had not conspired to seize command from their superior officers. In a pre-trial brief, Veltmann cited the definition of mutiny from

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that few of the accused had been ordered to load ammunition, meaning that they could not all be guilty of the charge of disobeying orders. Veltmann stressed that much of the testimony was hearsay and failed to establish a conspiracy or a mutiny. The court, however, seemed to side with Coakley on all points, settling each objection in favor of the prosecution.

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aboard Navy vessels in the Pacific Theater, where the men were assigned menial duties associated with post-war base detail. Two of the 50 prisoners remained in the prison's hospital for additional months recuperating from injuries, and one was not released because of a bad conduct record. Those of the 50 who had not committed later offenses were given a

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African Americans were questioned, none of whom later refused to load ammunition. Captain Kinne's posted division tonnage results came to light in the inquiry but Kinne stated that the competition to load the most tonnage did not make for unsafe conditions; he implied that any junior officers who said so did not know what they were talking about.

1224:. Reporters were invited to watch the proceedings; Navy public relations officers gave reporters copies of photographs and press statements describing the trial as the first mutiny trial in World War II and the largest mass trial the Navy had ever convened. Chosen to head the seven-man court was Rear Admiral Hugo Wilson Osterhaus, 1249:, a persistent refusal to work by two or more men‍—‌something that might be called a "strike" among civilians‍—‌was sufficient proof of a conspiracy to override superior military authority and was equivalent to mutiny. Osterhaus agreed with Coakley and refused Veltmann's motion; the trial would proceed as planned. 1278:. Tobin said he put three additional men in the brig the next morning when they, too, refused to work, saying they were afraid. Tobin affirmed that one of the accused men from Division Two was permanently assigned the job of cook because he weighed 104 lb (47 kg) and was considered too small to safely load ammo. 1063:

desegregation. This was the start of the Port Chicago Mutiny. Wright sent an incident report of this mutiny to Washington, D.C., telling his superior officers that the men's "refusal to perform the required work arises from a mass fear arising out of the Port Chicago explosion." Wright's report was passed to President

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In 2021, a new park was planned to honor Thurgood Marshall's invaluable work with the 50 African American sailors. The future "Thurgood Marshall Regional Park – Home of the Port Chicago 50" will be formed from a 2,540-acre (1,030 ha) section of the decommissioned Concord Naval Weapons Station, a

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and its dilapidated condition. Keibel called attention to the stained glass windows, which were crafted in 1991 as a tribute to the disaster, noting that they could be dismantled and remounted at the memorial site. In March 2008, NPS was directed by Congress to manage the memorial, after passage of a

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In his closing argument, Coakley described a chronological sequence of mutinous occurrences, beginning at Camp Shoemaker shortly after the explosion when two and a half companies were mixed together for two weeks. Coakley stated that conspiratorial talk among the men about refusing to work and trying

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on a special wartime travel priority arranged by Navy Secretary Forrestal. The NAACP had given the mutiny trial top importance due to the U.S. Navy's policy of putting Negroes into dirty and dangerous jobs with no hope of advancement. Although Marshall was allowed to observe the trial, as a civilian

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At the end of his testimony, Green told the court that he was afraid to load ammunition because of "them officers racing each division to see who put on the most tonnage, and I knowed the way they was handling ammunition it was liable to go off again. If we didn't want to work fast at that time, they

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Veltmann scored a victory at the beginning of his defense: he moved and was granted that each officer's testimony could be applied only to the men they had specifically named as having been given the order to work. In principle, this ruling was favorable, but in practice it would benefit the men only

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On September 15, Delucchi continued his testimony, saying that some of his men told him they would obey all orders and perform all work except loading ammunition because they were afraid of it. Delucchi confirmed that a cook and a man with a broken wrist were among the 25 men in his division that now

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hall for meals. There was also a brief fight in the mess hall, and some prisoners were seen sharpening spoons into makeshift knives. Small sensed a general air of rebelliousness among the prisoners. To counteract the rising tension and offset the disaster he saw coming, Small convened a short meeting

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or "brig", despite having been built to accommodate only 75 men. Most of the men in the brig had not been given a direct order‍—‌they had simply been asked if they were going to load ships or not, and to step to one side if not. All said they were afraid of another explosion. Civilian stevedore

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docked to be loaded with naval mines and other munitions. The next day, 328 men were assembled and marched off. When they heard the orders "Column left" and "Forward March" to march toward the ammunition loading dock, the entire group stopped and would not continue. All said they were afraid and that

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warned that "the loading of explosives should never be a matter of competition." The officers in charge were cleared of guilt. The report stated that the cause of the explosion could not be determined, but implied that a mistake made by the enlisted men in the handling of the ordnance was most likely

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winch brakes were found stuck in the "off" position. This meant the winch could be operated freely, but lacked critical stopping capability if steam pressure was interrupted. The ship's chief mate and chief engineer examined the winch, but it was not determined whether the brake was made operational.

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Black enlisted men at Port Chicago were led by black petty officers who were regarded by some workers as incompetent and ineffective in voicing their men's concerns to higher authority. Petty officers were seen as having aims fundamentally different from those of their men‍—‌they were described

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status in 2002, in the knowledge that such status would help the site "become more competitive for federal funds to upgrade and enhance facilities and education materials". This effort did not result in a change of status. In 2006, a local newspaper article highlighted the precarious position of the

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During the 12 days that he watched the court-martial proceedings, Thurgood Marshall began to formulate an appeal campaign, having noticed that none of the men's grievances had been aired in court. Directly after the court closed the case, Marshall sent a letter to Secretary Forrestal asking why only

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came down on the docks, they wanted us to slow up." This was the first that the newspaper reporters had heard of speed and tonnage competition between divisions at Port Chicago, and each reporter filed a story featuring this revelation to be published the next day. Naval authorities quickly issued a

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At 10:18 p.m., witnesses reported hearing a noise described as "a metallic sound and rending timbers, such as made by a falling boom." Immediately afterward, an explosion occurred on the pier and a fire started. Five to seven seconds later a more powerful explosion took place as the majority of

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Merrill T. Kinne‍—‌commander of the Port Chicago facility at the time of the explosion‍—‌had served in the U.S. Navy from 1915 to 1922 and then returned to the Navy in 1941 to be posted aboard a general cargo ship. Prior to his being sent to command Port Chicago, Kinne had no training in

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at Port Chicago suffered because of the absence of high-scoring black men, and that overall levels of competence were further reduced by the occasional requirement for Port Chicago to supply drafts of men with clear records for transfer to other stations. The Navy's General Classification Test (GCT)

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Coakley's rebuttal witnesses consisted of officers who had interrogated the prisoners at Camp Shoemaker. The rebuttal fared poorly, as Veltmann was able to elicit from them: that some of the accused men had not been informed they could refuse to make a statement; that some of the interrogations had

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Coakley summed up his prosecution case on September 22. His aim was to show the court that a conspiracy had taken place‍—‌the mass of accounts from officers and men appeared to support the conclusion that ringleaders and agitators had forced a rebellion against authority. Veltmann pointed out

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The trial started on September 14 with each of the 50 men pleading "not guilty". Coakley began his prosecution by calling officers from Port Chicago and Mare Island as witnesses. Commander Joseph R. Tobin of Ryder Street Naval Barracks said that he personally ordered six or seven of the men to load

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The Navy would not countenance such conduct. Seventy of the men changed their minds after their officers made it clear that loading ammunition was their duty. The 258 African-American sailors in the ordnance battalion who continued to refuse to load ammunition were taken under guard to a barge that

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Veltmann denied that there was a mutinous conspiracy, saying the men were in a state of shock stemming from the horrific explosion and the subsequent cleanup of human body parts belonging to their former battalion mates. He said the conversations at Camp Shoemaker were simply those of men who were

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Later in the trial, Lieutenant Carleton Morehouse‍—‌Commander of Division Eight at Port Chicago‍—‌took the stand to say that at the first sign of problems on August 9, he assembled his men and read their names off alphabetically, ordering each man to work. Ninety-six of 104 refused and

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After the fires had been contained there remained the task of cleaning up‍—‌body parts and corpses littered the bay and port. Of the 320 dead, only 51 could be identified. Most of the uninjured sailors volunteered to help clean up and rebuild the base; Division Two was separated into a group

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There was no system at Port Chicago to ensure officers and men were familiar with safety regulations. Two formal lectures and several informal lectures were given to the enlisted men by commanding officers, but follow-up confirmation of retained knowledge was not performed. Safety regulations were

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ordered Admiral Wright to reconvene the courts-martial, this time with instructions to disregard the hearsay testimony. Admiral Osterhaus once again called the court to session for deliberation and on June 12, 1945, the court reaffirmed each of the mutiny convictions and sentences. Admiral Wright

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who verified that the immense explosion would generate fear in each man. A black petty officer under Delucchi testified that he had heard no derogatory remarks or conspiratorial comments and that it had been a surprise to everybody when all of the men suddenly refused to march toward the docks on

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The next few days of testimony were filled with accounts from African-American enlisted men from Divisions Two, Four, and Eight, who were not standing accused of mutiny. Some of these men had already been convicted of disobeying orders in summary courts-martial. The testimony of the men agreed on

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was convened on July 21, 1944, to find out what had happened. The official proceeding lasted for 39 days and included interviews with witnesses who were officers, civilians, and enlisted men. Ordnance experts were questioned as well as inspectors who had overseen previous loading procedures. Five

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recommended in October that the Navy reduce the sentences to just two years for men with good conduct records and three years for the rest, with credit for time served. Finally, on January 6, 1946, the Navy announced that 47 of the 50 men were being released. These 47 were paroled to active duty

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Marshall held another press conference on October 17 to announce that the NAACP was requesting a formal government investigation into the working conditions that had led the men to strike. He called attention to three aspects: the Navy policy that put the great majority of African Americans into

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After the admiral departed, the men were ordered to separate themselves into two groups, one for those willing to obey all orders and one for those not willing. To a man, Division Eight chose to obey all orders. Divisions Two and Four were split by the decisions of their men: Small and 43 others

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Wright soon began implementing a plan to have two groups of white sailors load ammunition in rotation with black sailors: one division of 100 men at Mare Island and another at Port Chicago. No plan was forwarded to use black officers to command the black sailors, and no plan included any form of

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The government announced on August 23, 1951, that it had settled the last in a series of lawsuits relating to the disaster, when it awarded Sirvat Arsenian of Fresno, California, $ 9,700 for the death of her 26-year-old son, a merchant marine crewman killed in the blast. She had sought $ 50,000.

1017:) insisted the amount be reduced to $ 2,000 when he learned most of the dead were black men. Congress settled on $ 3,000 in compensation. Years later, on March 4, 1949, the heirs of eighteen merchant seamen killed in the explosion were granted a total of $ 390,000 after gaining approval of their 907:

was blown out of the water, torn into sections and thrown in several directions; the stern landed upside down in the water 500 ft (150 m) away. The Coast Guard fire boat CG-60014-F was thrown 600 ft (180 m) upriver, where it sank. The pier, along with its boxcars, locomotive,

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In response, the four lawmakers said in a statement: "We believe that the Navy did not apply a broad enough view to this extraordinary case. We will continue to search for other means to address this issue in the belief that the surviving sailors and their families and the families of those now

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Veltmann and his team talked to their clients—they discovered that not all of the 50 were experienced ship loaders. Two of the men had never before loaded ammunition‍—‌they were permanently assigned as cooks because of physical conditions making them unsuited to loading. The two cooks had

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to be unloaded ‍—‌were bent inward and crumpled by the force of the shock. The port's barracks and other buildings and much of the surrounding town were severely damaged. Shattered glass and a rain of jagged metal and undetonated munitions caused more injuries among military personnel and

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Some of the men who had been named as having been given direct orders to work testified that they had not been given any such order. Seaman Ollie E. Green‍—‌who had accidentally broken his wrist one day prior to the first work-stoppage on August 9‍—‌said that though he had heard an

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began with an attempt to have the signed statements admitted as evidence. Veltmann objected that each statement was obtained under duress and was not voluntary. Coakley characterized the statements as not being confessions requiring voluntary conditions but merely "admissions" that had no such

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the remaining 256 men, including the "Port Chicago 50". The General Counsel of the Navy determined that multiple errors had occurred during the court-martials, including that the sailors were denied a meaningful right to counsel. Due to the exoneration, all dishonorable discharges tied to the

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Starting on September 23 and continuing for over three weeks, each of the accused men was brought to the witness stand to testify in his defense. The general trend of the men's responses was that all of them were willing to obey any order except to load ammunition, all were afraid of another

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Another one of the men gave the surprising testimony that Lieutenant Commander Coakley had threatened to have him shot after he refused to answer some questions during interrogation at Camp Shoemaker. Seaman Alphonso McPherson held fast to his testimony even when faced by Coakley in

1591:. The resolution is intended to recognize the victims of the explosion and officially exonerate the 50 men court-martialed by the Navy. The resolution has been reintroduced in later Congresses; it was still marked as introduced in July 2024 when the Navy exonerated those convicted. 848:

to external shock and container dents. On the pier, resting on three parallel rail spurs, were 16 rail cars holding about 430 short tons (390 t) of explosives. In all, the munitions on the pier and in the ship contained the equivalent of 2,000 short tons (1,800 t) of TNT.

805:. At 10 a.m. that same day, seamen from the ordnance battalion began loading the ship with munitions. After four days of loading, about 4,600 tons (4,173 tonnes) of explosives had been stored in its holds. The ship was about 40% full by the evening of July 17. 1687:, about the explosion and trial. They interviewed mutiny convict Joe Small, his defense lawyer Gerald Veltmann, as well as Percy Robinson, a seaman who returned to loading ammunition after the first work-stoppage, and Robert Routh Jr., a seaman who was blinded in the blast. 1074:

who added his opinion that it was "mass fear" motivating the work stoppage. Forrestal told Roosevelt that white units of munitions loaders were to be added to the rotation "...to avoid any semblance of discrimination against negroes." Roosevelt forwarded a copy to his wife

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cross-examination. Coakley denied threatening anyone, exclaiming that such an idea was a personal affront. Veltmann responded that this line of evidence was news to him, too. The next day, Coakley gave the press a statement accusing Veltmann of coaching McPherson.

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detonated in a fireball seen for miles. An Army Air Forces pilot flying in the area reported that the fireball was 3 mi (4.8 km) in diameter. Chunks of glowing hot metal and burning ordnance were flung over 12,000 ft (3,700 m) into the air. The

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and the cessation of hostilities, the Navy was no longer able to justify such severe sentences as a warning to other potentially dissident servicemen and labor battalions. In September 1945, the Navy shortened each of the 50 mutiny sentences by one year. Captain

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and asked that the mutiny charges be dismissed as the formal charges against the 50 men failed to allege that they conspired together deliberately to "usurp, subvert or override superior military authority". Coakley opposed with a brief stating that, under

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Sixty-seven officers and crew of the two ships were at their stations, and various support personnel were present, such as the three-man civilian train crew and a Marine sentry. In total, nine Navy officers and 29 armed guards watched over the procedure. A

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results for the enlisted men at Port Chicago averaged 31, putting them in the lowest twelfth of the Navy. Officers at Port Chicago considered the enlisted men unreliable, emotional, and lacking the capacity to understand or remember orders or instructions.

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docked at the inboard, landward side of Port Chicago's single 1,500 ft (460 m) pier at 8:15 a.m. on July 13, 1944. The ship arrived at the dock with no cargo, but was carrying a full load of 5,292 barrels (841,360 liters) of

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The Port Chicago disaster highlighted systemic racial inequality in the Navy. A year before the disaster, in mid-1943, the U.S. Navy had over 100,000 African Americans in service but not one black officer. In the months following the disaster, the

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disused chapel within the grounds of the Concord Naval Weapons Station, a chapel that had been previously dedicated to the memory of those fallen in the explosion. The 1980 chapel was said by local historian John Keibel to be unsalvageable due to

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in January 1945. Petitions began to circulate, collecting thousands of names of citizens who demanded a reversal of the mutiny verdict. Protest meetings were held and powerful people in sympathy to the cause were asked to bring pressure to bear.

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in a situation brought about by a combination of circumstances. Justice can only be done in this case by a complete reversal of the findings." Marshall said "I can't understand why whenever more than one Negro disobeys an order it is mutiny."

2910:". Retrieved March 5, 2009. "They called it active duty. You know, going from island to island, doing general detail, picking up cigarette butts and cleaning out latrines, fallen trees. That's what we were doing overseas." —Carl Tuggle 613:

At NSGL, the enlisted African Americans who tested in the top 30% to 40% were selected for non-labor assignments. Port Chicago was manned by workers drawn from those remaining. The Navy determined that the quality of African American

1917: 1716:. The men described how they were initially trained for action on ships and were disappointed when they were not assigned to ocean-going ships. Collison interspersed interviews with contemporary news reports about the explosion. 3615:

Recognizing the victims of the Port Chicago explosion of July 17, 1944, the 79th anniversary of the greatest homeland loss of life of World War II, and exonerating the 50 African-American sailors unjustly court-martialed by the

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Recognizing the victims of the Port Chicago explosion of July 17, 1944, the 75th anniversary of the greatest homeland loss of life of World War II, and exonerating the 50 African-American sailors unjustly court-martialed by the

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The site is contained within an active military base and requires prior reservation to visit. Visitors with prior reservations are asked to allow 90 minutes per visit and are shuttled to the site in NPS vehicles from the

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hold. Incendiary bombs were being loaded as well; these bombs weighed 650 lb (290 kg) each and were "live"‍—‌they had their fuzes installed. The incendiary bombs were being loaded carefully one at a time into

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All 320 of the men at the pier died instantly, and 390 or more civilians and military personnel were injured, many seriously. Among the dead were the five Coast Guard personnel posted aboard the fire barge. African-American

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called it "just as suitable for adults" and noted that the "seriousness and breadth of Sheinkin’s research can be seen in his footnotes and lists of sources, which include oral histories, documentaries and Navy documents."

760:, lowering the bundle into the hold, then dropping individual munitions by hand into place. This series of actions was rough enough that damaged naval shells sometimes leaked identification dye from their ballistic caps. 464:

reconvened the courts-martial board in 1945—that board re-affirmed convictions. Those convictions stood until 2024, when the Navy exonerated all 256 men convicted during the courts-martial, including the Port Chicago 50.

1425:‍—‌determined that the first course of action should be a publicity campaign mounted with the aim of gathering public support for the release of the men. In November 1944, Marshall wrote an incendiary piece for 731:

shell two feet onto the wooden pier, but there was no detonation. Carr waited until the African-American winch operator tested the repaired winch and then left the pier, thinking that the operation appeared unsafe.

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sat among the 50 accused. Delucchi added that the cook and a second man were sailors he did not consider "up to par"; the cook in particular was prone to nervous attacks and was seen as a liability at the pier.

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explosives-loading detail tasked with supervision of the working dock, warned the Navy that conditions were unsafe and ripe for disaster. The Navy did not change its procedures and Cronk withdrew the detail.

941:. Naval personnel worked to contain the fires and to prevent other explosions. Injuries were treated, those seriously injured were hospitalized, and uninjured servicemen were evacuated to nearby stations. 913:

civilians, although no one outside the immediate pier area was killed. Nearly $ 9.9 million worth of damage ($ 171.4 million in 2023) was caused to U.S. government property. Seismographs at the

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hold began making a hammering noise. An application of grease quieted it through the night until its main bearing could be replaced the next morning. On the afternoon of July 17, a bleeder valve on winch

2105: 5396: 5391: 2558: 2469:, p. 63 "seismograph machines at the University of California at Berkeley recorded two jolts with the force of a small earthquake. They occurred about seven seconds apart shortly before 10:19 p.m." 1471:

Only two of the 258 men had their convictions set aside during the reviews; one for insufficient evidence against them and one for "mental incompetency" regarding understanding the refusal of orders.

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requirement. Osterhaus ruled that Coakley could not introduce the statements as evidence but that he could ask the defendants questions based on what each man's signed statement contained.

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The enlisted men were leery of working with deadly explosives, but were told that the larger munitions were not active and could not explode‍—‌that they would be armed with their

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deceased deserve the chance to clear their names." The four who asked that the Navy review the case with a view toward erasing an unsavory chapter in Navy history were Representatives

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Among the prisoners, Seaman First Class Joseph Randolph "Joe" Small, a winch operator in Division Four, was asked by officers to assemble a handful of reliable men as a team of acting

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The Coast Guard personnel who died: Broda, Peter G. SN1; Degryse, William G. MM1; Portz, Edward J. MOMM3; Riley, Charles H. SN1; and Sullivan, James C. SN2. Retrieved March 31, 2009.

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is in the upper right. The lower left shows utility and personnel piers extending toward the two sections of Seal Island. The munitions loading pier curves to the left beyond 20-odd

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the loading of munitions and little experience in handling them. Loading officers serving underneath Kinne had not been trained in handling munitions until they had been posted to

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After the interviews concluded, the 208 men were convicted in summary courts-martial of disobeying orders, Article 4 of the Articles for the Government of the United States Navy (

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for bravery to four officers and men who had successfully fought a fire in a rail car parked within a revetment near the pier. The remains of 44 of the victims were interred at

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among Americans opposing discrimination targeting African Americans; it and other race-related Navy protests of 1944–45 led the Navy to change its practices and initiate the

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officer in prior testimony name him as one who had been given a direct order, the officer had only asked him how his wrist was doing, to which he responded "not so good."

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Throughout August, all 258 sailors were taken to Camp Shoemaker and questioned. Forty-nine of the 50 mutineers were imprisoned in the camp's brig. Joe Small was placed in

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if the court had been attentively keeping notes for each accused man. Instead, reporters observed the court to be drowsy at times, with one judge regularly nodding off.

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The 50 remaining men‍—‌soon to be known as the "Port Chicago 50"‍—‌were formally charged in early September 1944 with disobeying orders and making a mutiny.

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out of the bleeder valve and replaced both the nipple and the valve from new stock taken from Port Chicago's shop. While at work he witnessed a man accidentally drop a

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and to keep the other prisoners on good behavior. On August 10, there had been conflicts between the prisoners and their guards as the prisoners were marched to the

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seriousness and breadth of Sheinkin's research can be seen in his footnotes and lists of sources, which include oral histories, documentaries and Navy documents.

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Marshall obtained written permission from each of the 50 convicted men for him to appeal their case when it came up for review in Washington, DC in front of the

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provided narration for the story, which included dramatized scenes depicting events as they might have occurred in 1944. The documentary was nominated for the

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desperately needed the ammunition they were supposed to be loading and that continued refusal to work would be treated as mutinous conduct, which carried the

546:. In 1944, the town was a little more than a mile from a U.S. Navy munitions depot, the Port Chicago Naval Magazine, which was later expanded and renamed the 5381: 1503:, a newspaper with a large, nationwide subscriber base made up primarily of African Americans, related the incident and the subsequent mutiny trial in their 890:

was slowly turning over and that the men of Division Three were having trouble pulling munitions from the rail cars because they had been packed so tightly.

237: 5461: 5456: 4915: 4800: 3791: 2163: 659: 135: 3936: 3567: 5406: 3594: 1659:"...to establish and operate a facility for visitor orientation and parking, administrative offices, and curatorial storage for the Memorial." President 2635: 3297: 958:

that would stay and clean up and a group that would be moved out. This section of Division Two and all of Divisions Four and Eight were transferred to

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On August 11, 1944, the 258 men from the prison barge were marched to a nearby sports field and lectured by Admiral Wright, who told them that troops

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had an article on the disaster entitled "A Deadly World War II Explosion Sparked Black Soldiers to Fight for Equal Treatment", written by historian

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On October 24, 1944, Admiral Osterhaus and the other six members of the court deliberated for 80 minutes and found all 50 defendants guilty of

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had a partial load of fuel oil, some of which was of a type that released flammable vapors as it sat, or upon agitation. The fuel, taken aboard at

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on a plan for total integration of the races within the Navy. The Port Chicago disaster had helped catalyze the drive to implement new standards.

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In April 1944, when Captain Kinne assumed command of Port Chicago, the loading officers had been pushing to load the explosive cargoes quickly—10

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and in December 1999, Clinton pardoned Meeks, who died in June 2003. Efforts to posthumously exonerate all 50 sailors continued. In 2004, author

550:. It is now called the Military Ocean Terminal Concord. The original magazine was planned in 1941 with construction beginning shortly after the 1236:. Defending the men were six Navy lawyers, with a leader and one attorney for every 10 men. Lieutenant Gerald E. Veltmann headed the defense. 1080: 658:

posted at a single location at the pier, but not in the barracks; Kinne did not think the enlisted men would understand such lists. Later the

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None of the black sailors were granted leaves... I requested 30 days of leave, which you're entitled to if you're wounded. I was turned down.

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by Sarah Sundin. One of the lead characters works in the arsenal and assists the wife of an imprisoned "mutineer" in her fight for justice.

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they would not load munitions under the same officers and conditions as before. It was a mass work stoppage, which would have been called a

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Graphic reconstruction of the pier, boxcars and ships at Port Chicago just before the explosion, with estimates of type and weight of cargo

756:‍—‌lifting the heavy, grease-coated cylinders, rolling them along the wooden pier, packing them into nets, lifting them by winch and 456:. Forty-seven of the 50 were released in January 1946; the remaining three served additional months in prison. During and after the mutiny 383: 3272: 1228:, class of 1900. The prosecution was led by Lieutenant Commander James F. Coakley, who had recently served as deputy chief prosecutor in 2587: 1068: 4972: 4497: 4396: 4213: 3879: 2043: 1448: 959: 914: 594: 475: 3706: 5466: 5082: 5078: 4527: 4276: 4255: 4234: 4182: 4161: 2614:

Port Chicago Naval Magazine Explosion on 17 July 1944: Court of Inquiry: Finding of Facts, Opinion and Recommendations, continued...

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Port Chicago Naval Magazine Explosion on 17 July 1944: Court of Inquiry: Finding of Facts, Opinion and Recommendations, continued...

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Port Chicago Naval Magazine Explosion on 17 July 1944: Court of Inquiry: Finding of Facts, Opinion and Recommendations, continued...

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fire barge with a crew of five was docked at the pier. An officer who left the docks shortly after 10 p.m. noticed that the

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African American sailors of an ordnance battalion preparing 5-inch shells for packing at the Port Chicago Naval Magazine in 1943

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October 9, 1944, was another in a string of days consisting of accused men testifying on the witness stand. This day, however,

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The inquiry covered possible explosion scenarios involving sabotage, faulty fueling procedures, failure of the moorings of the

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Divisions Two, Four, and Eight‍—‌reinforced with replacement sailors fresh from training at NSGL‍—‌were taken to

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Press Release: The Secretary of the Navy Exonerates 256 Defendants from 1944 Port Chicago General and Summary Courts-martial

1633:(NPS) was directed to design and maintain the memorial. Congressman George Miller pushed for the memorial to be upgraded to 4021: 3643: 2617: 2494: 4569: 4444: 4389: 1842: 1539: 1488:

from the Navy "under honorable conditions". In all, the Navy granted clemency to about 1,700 imprisoned men at this time.

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sent Secretary Forrestal a copy of NAACP's "Mutiny" pamphlet in April 1945, asking him to take special care in this case.

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In the 1990s, Freddie Meeks, one of the few still alive among the group of 50, was urged to petition the president for a

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upon arrival at the combat theater. Handling of larger munitions, such as bombs and shells, involved using levers and ,

694: 2397: 1572:, the U.S. representative for the district containing the disaster site. The 37 congressmen sent a letter to President 5411: 5386: 5106: 4853: 4553: 2451: 1436: 1225: 1052: 698: 436:

A month later, the unsafe conditions prompted hundreds of servicemen to refuse to load munitions, an act known as the

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One hundred and two men of the Sixth Division, many fresh from training at NSGL, were busy rigging the newly built

635: 510:. Marshy tidal zones separate the munitions pier from barracks buildings near the personnel pier and near the town. 199: 5329: 5178: 4645: 4537: 1726: 1531: 1153: 764: 674:

were used on cargo ships to speed the handling of heavy loads. One winch was operated at each of the ship's five

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Breaking the Color Barrier: The U.S. Naval Academy's First Black Midshipmen and the Struggle for Racial Equality

2160: 4734: 4684: 1535: 1422: 503: 414: 301: 67: 3611: 3298:"50 Navy Sentences Reported Voided; Negro Sailors, Convicted of 'Mutiny' in 1944, Are Said to Have Been Freed" 2645: 5194: 5019: 4836: 4817: 4794: 4663: 4625: 4460: 4450: 4329: 3539: 1168: 967: 926: 578: 422: 180: 4191:

Clabough, Jeremiah, and Deborah Wooten. "Bias, bigotry, and bungling: Teaching about the Port Chicago 50."

5349: 5240: 5183: 5099: 5029: 4991: 4884: 4862: 4830: 4788: 4768: 4728: 4718: 4712: 4702: 4696: 4652: 4635: 4582: 4559: 4521: 4515: 4509: 4503: 4434: 1948: 1903: 1813: 1336: 1149: 1006: 974: 551: 460:, questions were raised about the fairness and legality of the proceedings. Owing to public pressure, the 453: 345: 259: 173: 589:

onto cargo ships for further transport. Most of the enlisted men working as loaders at Port Chicago were

5359: 5001: 4355: 3941: 3572: 1630: 1617: 1464: 1064: 1051:, spoke of the unfortunate deaths and the need to keep the base operating during a time of war. He gave 871: 776: 720: 269: 216: 204: 2373: 1945:– 1944 munitions explosion causing 70+ deaths, and an explosive equivalent of the Port Chicago disaster 1183: 1032: 5285: 5248: 5035: 4926: 4428: 4120: 3996: 3752: 3661:

Representative Miller Introduces Legislation to Activate Port Chicago's Bid to Become a National Park

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Navy exonerates 256 Black sailors unjustly punished in 1944 after a deadly California port explosion

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totaled 202 dead and 233 injured, which accounted for 15% of all African-American casualties during

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Joe Meeks; Percy Robinson; Robert Routh, Jr.; Joe Small; Albert Williams, Jr (September 27, 1996).

3792:"New East Bay Park to Be Named for Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall and the Port Chicago 50" 1969: 1942: 1895: 1652: 1452: 1402: 1217: 963: 856: 498: 335: 274: 874:

mid-day on July 17, would normally be sluiced to other fuel tanks in the following 24 hours.

470: 4575: 4381: 4026: 3884: 3480: 3453: 3359: 3330: 3302: 2740: 1982: 1977: 1712: 1557:

Beginning in 1990, a campaign led by 25 U.S. congressmen was unsuccessful in having the convicts

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Wagner, Margaret E.; Barrett Osborne, Linda; Reyburn, Susan; Library of Congress staff (2007).

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was reported as saying "...even for today it's important to have these convictions set aside."

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In America, all men are created equal, but at Port Chicago, some were more equal than others.

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Navy exonerates 256 Black sailors unjustly court-martialed in WWII-era Port Chicago explosion

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U.S. Navy exonerates Black sailors unjustly punished in WWII Port Chicago explosion aftermath

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but also over racial inequality at home. The mutiny trial was seen as underscoring the tense

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Half American – The Epic Story of African Americans Fighting World War II at Home and Abroad

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The disaster and the issues involved were featured in "Port Chicago", a 2002 episode of the

1720: 1527: 1435:. Pamphlets were printed and distributed, and editorials denouncing the trial appeared from 1175: 1141: 981: 908:

rails, cargo, and men, was blasted into pieces. Nearby boxcars‍—‌waiting within their

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Half American: The Epic Story of African Americans Fighting World War II at Home and Abroad

2040: 866:) in preparation for loading it with explosives, a task that was to begin at midnight. The 4110: 3968: 3739: 3668: 3647: 2907: 2621: 2498: 2167: 2109: 2047: 1956: 1926: 1883: 1805: 1766: 1584: 1577: 1523: 1117: 1071: 1002:

at root. No mention was made of the men's lack of training in the handling of explosives.

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traveling through the ground, determining the second, larger event to be equivalent to an

879: 845: 728: 630: 440:. More than 200 were convicted of various charges. Fifty of these men‍—‌called the " 4051: 2900: 3777: 1647:

introduced legislation that would expand the memorial site by five acres (two

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A memorial ceremony was held for the victims on July 31, 1944, at Port Chicago. Admiral

490: 5008: 4757: 4288: 3988: 3964: 3824: 3763: 1856: 1781: 1734: 1546: 1538:, in protest of discriminatory conditions. In the weeks following the latter incident, 1480: 1018: 1010: 757: 1607: 723:, was called to replace it—it was his first day at Port Chicago. Carr pulled a broken 5375: 5189: 4075:"A Deadly World War II Explosion Sparked Black Soldiers to Fight for Equal Treatment" 3852: 3732: 3641:

Statement of William D. Shaddox, ...National Park Service, ...Concerning H.R. 3111...

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at Port Chicago. None of the new recruits had been instructed in ammunition loading.

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in times of war. Wright, who had seen nearly 400 of his men killed in 1942 in the

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A Chronology of African American Military Service. From WWI through WWII. Part II

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hold‍—‌the hold with a winch brake that might still have been inoperative.

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H.R. 1044: Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial Enhancement Act of 2009

3640: 3504: 2612: 2491: 1892:– 43 African American defendants in the largest World War II Army courts-martial 1730: 1594:

On July 17, 2024, the 80th anniversary of the explosion, the United States Navy

1558: 1542: 1508: 1233: 1100:, where there was an ammunition depot and loading piers. On August 8, 1944, the 1014: 675: 3540:"Freddie Meeks, 83; Mutiny Conviction Focused Attention on Segregation in Navy" 5313: 5200: 4823: 4668: 4342: 3660: 3500: 3326:"83 Sailors Back On Duty; Forrestal Reinstates Negroes Convicted in Two Cases" 2161:.http://www.jag.navy.mil/library/investigations/PORT%20CHICAGO%20EXPLOSION.pdf 1832: 1800:

In 2017, the events of Port Chicago were the subject of the short documentary

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battalion of 1,000 African-American men staged a hunger strike at their base,

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Aerial photograph, looking eastward, taken between 1942 and 1944. The town of

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S.3253: Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial Enhancement Act of 2008

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but was overruled after Coakley explained it was evidence toward conspiracy.

89: 76: 5307: 5301: 4873: 4609: 4142: 3820:"Park It: Biden signs bill to fund East Bay Regional Park District programs" 3796: 3757: 2901:

Q&A with Carl Tuggle, one of the sailors serving at Port Chicago in 1944

1918:

List of accidents and incidents involving transport or storage of ammunition

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Navy exonerates Black sailors charged in Port Chicago disaster 80 years ago

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On June 11, 2019, a concurrent resolution sponsored by U.S. Representative

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in collaboration with El Dorado Films and the Veteran Documentary Corps.

1212:, part of Naval Training and Distribution Center (later "Naval Station") 798: 794: 745: 554:. The first ship to dock at Port Chicago was loaded on December 8, 1942. 430: 3911: 30: 4315: 3856: 2323:

National Park Service. Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial. "

1648: 753: 593:. All of the enlisted men had been specifically trained for one of the 570: 519: 3776:

National Park Service. Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial.

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Naval Mutinies of the Twentieth Century: An International Perspective

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The Port Chicago 50: Disaster, Mutiny, and the Fight for Civil Rights

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The Port Chicago 50: Disaster, Mutiny, and the Fight for Civil Rights

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contractors were called to replace the imprisoned men in loading the

837: 749: 638:, after which they were considered adequate to the task by the Navy. 445: 426: 1023:

United States District Court for the Northern District of California

686:

and showed signs of wear, even though the ship was five months old.

35:

Damage at the Port Chicago Pier after the explosion of July 17, 1944

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The Right to Fight: A History of African Americans in the Military

1925:– explosion of a ship loaded with ammunition after a collision in 1616: 1606: 1432: 1196: 1031: 980: 948: 775: 671: 651: 627:". They and their men sometimes had an antagonistic relationship. 586: 497: 489: 4333: 4330:"The Port Chicago Disaster: A Resource for Students and Teachers" 1343:

The defense continued a few more days with testimony from a Navy

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design, the Mark 47 armed with 252 lb (114 kg) of

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Allen, Robert L. "The Port Chicago disaster and its aftermath."

4056: 1703: 1262:, was unable to identify who said it. Veltmann objected to this 1133: 741: 558: 5095: 4385: 3888:(Interview: audio). Interviewed by Dan Collison. Archived from 1683:

In 1990, Will Robinson and Ken Swartz produced the documentary

581:, were delivered by rail to the Port Chicago facility and then 131: 3974: 1761: 1754: 1629:

was dedicated in 1994 to the lives lost in the explosion. The

1335:(NAACP), sat in on the proceedings. Marshall had flown to the 2573:

Small Boat Personnel Who Gave Their Lives in the Line of Duty

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bill introduced in 2007 by Miller. On July 10, 2008, Senator

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At 10 p.m. on July 17, Division Three's 98 men were loading

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Associated Press, "Final Suit Settled For 1944 Explosion",

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African-American mutinies in the United States Armed Forces

1702:

In 1996, Dan Collison interviewed Port Chicago sailors for

832:

A boxcar delivery containing a new airborne anti-submarine

468:

Widespread publicity surrounding the case turned it into a

1886:– 1944 conflict between African-American and white Marines 1821:. Delmont later expanded the article into his 2022 book, 1333:

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People

4332:. Contra Costa County Office of Education. Archived from 4022:"Hazardous Duty 'The Port Chicago 50,' by Steve Sheinkin" 3705:

110th Congress, 1st Session. House of Representatives. "

2611:

U.S. Navy Historical Page. Frequently Asked Questions. "

2590:". Archived on May 28, 2008. Retrieved January 25, 2010. 2490:

U.S. Navy Historical Page – Frequently Asked Questions."

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U.S. Navy Historical Page. Frequently Asked Questions. "

413:

on July 17, 1944, at the Port Chicago Naval Magazine in

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near the pier were crushed by the pressure of the blast

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of its forces beginning in February 1946. In 1994, the

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African-American history of the United States military

5392:

African-American history in the San Francisco Bay Area

3355:"Sailor From Mutiny in '44 Wins a Presidential Pardon" 3937:"'Mutiny' Cast Was Drilled on Story of Black Sailors" 3682:"End of an Era: Port Chicago chapel's fate uncertain" 2450:

Navy Historical Center. Frequently Asked Questions. "

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to give each victim's family $ 5,000. Representative

5432:

Industrial fires and explosions in the United States

1939:– 379 sailors killed in accidental explosion in 1943 1773:

The disaster featured prominently in the 2011 novel

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and Secretary Forrestal worked with civilian expert

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Marshall‍—‌working as special counsel for the

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Munitions transported through the magazine included

5294: 5268: 5225: 5165: 5129: 4906: 4417: 1902:– 1972 riot between black and white sailors on the 1804:, directed by Alexander Zane Irwin and produced by 1729:written by James S. "Jim" Henerson and directed by 1522:Late in 1944, under conditions of severe racism, a 1152:, said that although loading ammunition was risky, 4287: 3718:OpenCongress.org. 110th Congress, Second Session. 2899:PortChicagoMutiny.com. Sandra Evers-Manly, 1998. " 1719:The story of the Port Chicago 50 was the basis of 844:hold. The torpex charges were more sensitive than 706:During loading operations on July 15 the winch at 2039:, Washington DC. Morris J. MacGregor, Jr. 1985. " 1395:Federal Correctional Institution, Terminal Island 953:Cleaning up the damage at the remains of the pier 482:was dedicated to the lives lost in the disaster. 3639:Department of the Interior. September 27, 2007. 2586:U.S. Army, Redstone Arsenal, Alabama. History. " 2554: 2552: 2550: 2376:" (PDF). pp. 86–87. Retrieved December 18, 2008. 1790:National Book Award in Young People's Literature 601:(NSGL), but the men were instead put to work as 4322:"Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Monument" 3533: 3531: 3256: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3248: 3196: 3194: 3192: 2374:James S. Gracey interview #2, February 28, 2001 1663:approved and signed the bill in December 2009. 417:, United States. Munitions being loaded onto a 23: 4412:Shipwrecks and maritime incidents in July 1944 4290:The Library of Congress World War II Companion 4223:Guttridge, Leonard F. (1992). "Port Chicago". 3568:"Local Residents Remember Port Chicago Mutiny" 3442: 3440: 2805: 2803: 2801: 2392: 2390: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2179: 2177: 2175: 2155: 2153: 2151: 2149: 2147: 2145: 1737:as one of three executive producers. Starring 1685:Port Chicago Mutiny‍—‌A National Tragedy 5107: 4397: 3848:Port Chicago Mutiny – A National Tragedy 3391: 3389: 2537: 2535: 1627:Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial 1612:Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial 1603:Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial 480:Port Chicago Naval Magazine National Memorial 143: 8: 5422:History of civil rights in the United States 4316:U.S. Maritime Service Veterans Memorial Page 3967:(director) (April 9, 2002). "Port Chicago". 3235: 3233: 2522: 2520: 2223: 2221: 2219: 1955:– 1944 explosion of Navy ammunition ship in 1621:Plating from the ship (photographed in 2010) 1455:. Marshall wrote that "he accused were made 4020:Smith, Sarah Harrison (February 26, 2014). 3753:Park remembers sailors killed in WWII blast 3659:Congressman George Miller. March 11, 2002. 2969: 2967: 2846: 2844: 2842: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2698: 2694: 2692: 2690: 2452:Port Chicago Naval Magazine Explosion, 1944 2410: 2408: 2406: 2260: 2256: 2254: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2194: 2192: 2087: 1315:wanted to put us in the brig, and when the 660:International Longshore and Warehouse Union 16:1944 munitions ship explosion in California 5472:Non-combat internal explosions on warships 5427:History of Contra Costa County, California 5355: 5114: 5100: 5092: 4404: 4390: 4382: 4247:Disasters and Heroic Rescues of California 4171:Bell, Christopher; Elleman, Bruce (2003). 3566:Allen-Taylor, J. Douglas (July 30, 2004). 3008: 3006: 2944:"Fifty Sailors Go on Trial as Mutineers". 2736:"$ 390,000 Given Heirs In Coast War Blast" 2512:Disasters and Heroic Rescues of California 2462: 2460: 2372:United States Coast Guard. Oral History. " 2132: 2130: 820:hold and fragmentation cluster bombs into 812:with 1,000-pound (450 kg) bombs into 150: 136: 128: 20: 3431: 3407: 2985: 2887: 2878:, which became effective on May 31, 1951. 2833: 2426: 2052:Integration of the Armed Forces 1940–1965 2041:World War II: The Navy. A Segregated Navy 1913:Largest artificial non-nuclear explosions 752:, in which they were packed tightly with 609:Composition of African American personnel 5417:History of African-American civil rights 3353:Glaberson, William (December 24, 1999). 1825:; which covers this incident in detail. 514:The town of Port Chicago was located on 448:and sentenced to 15 years of prison and 4362:American Archive of Public Broadcasting 4226:Mutiny: A History of Naval Insurrection 4052:"Remembering Port Chicago (Short 2017)" 3131: 3129: 2005: 1507:, a push for victory over not just the 5487:United States Navy in the 20th century 5477:Politics of the San Francisco Bay Area 5452:Military in the San Francisco Bay Area 4369:Delmont, Matthew F. (September 2022). 4351:"The Port Chicago 50: An Oral History" 4343:"The Port Chicago 50: An Oral History" 3707:Rept. 110–506 (to accompany H.R. 3111) 2319: 2317: 1320:statement denying Green's allegation. 1242:Winthrop's Military Law and Precedents 3522: 3449:"Exoneration Sought in Mutiny of '44" 3447:Bishop, Katherine (August 12, 1990). 3419: 3380: 3284: 3260: 3239: 3224: 3212: 3200: 3183: 3171: 3159: 3147: 3135: 3120: 3108: 3096: 3084: 3072: 3060: 3048: 3036: 3024: 3012: 2997: 2973: 2958: 2931: 2919: 2862: 2850: 2821: 2809: 2792: 2780: 2722: 2710: 2681: 2669: 2599: 2478: 2466: 2438: 2414: 2360: 2348: 2336: 2308: 2296: 2284: 2272: 2239: 2227: 2210: 2198: 2183: 2136: 2121: 2075: 2024: 2012: 1079:, knowing of her ongoing advocacy of 872:Shell Oil Company's Martinez refinery 701:, docked at Port Chicago, the ship's 7: 5442:Military discipline and World War II 2570:United States Coast Guard. History. 894:the ordnance within and near the SS 5382:1944 disasters in the United States 3880:"The Job That Takes Over Your Life" 2636:"Isn't it Time To Right The Wrong?" 1208:The Navy held the court-martial on 1112:if the workers had been civilians. 763:Commander Paul B. Cronk, head of a 5462:Mutinies in the United States Navy 5457:Military logistics of World War II 3476:"Navy Won't Void A Courts-Martial" 2634:Seligson, Tom (February 6, 2005). 1449:Judge Advocate General of the Navy 1385:and sentenced to 15 years of 1381:. Each man was reduced in rank to 1081:civil rights for African Americans 1036:44 disaster victims are buried at 915:University of California, Berkeley 642:Speed contests and safety training 577:. The munitions, destined for the 433:and injuring at least 390 others. 14: 5407:Events that led to courts-martial 4265:Schneller, Robert J. Jr. (2005). 4244:Jones, Ray; Joseph Lubow (2006). 3818:Mackay, Ned (February 19, 2023). 2874:(This preceded the advent of the 1526:at a naval base. In March 1945 a 801:for its intended trip across the 530:. Suisun Bay is connected to the 5354: 5345: 5344: 5077: 5072: 5060: 5052: 3935:Huff, Richard (March 26, 1999). 2948:. September 15, 1944. p. 7. 2876:Uniform Code of Military Justice 2624:". p. 4d. Retrieved May 7, 2009. 2159:US Navy, Finding of Facts. 1944 1989:, two months before Port Chicago 1863: 1849: 1835: 1811:The September 2022 issue of the 1669:John Muir National Historic Site 1468:stuck by his reduced sentences. 715:required repair. Albert Carr, a 29: 5437:Maritime incidents in July 1944 2501:". Retrieved December 17, 2008. 2400:". Retrieved December 17, 2008. 1985:– 1944 ammunition explosion in 1657:East Bay Regional Park District 5447:Military history of California 3780:. Retrieved February 28, 2023. 2454:". Retrieved December 8, 2008. 1995:California during World War II 1780:In 2015, award-winning writer 966:, across a short channel from 623:later as "slave drivers" and " 1: 3790:Seyoum, Mela (June 2, 2021). 3731:111th Congress, 1st Session. 3538:Woo, Elaine (June 21, 2003). 1843:San Francisco Bay Area portal 1599:court-martials were vacated. 1057:Golden Gate National Cemetery 1038:Golden Gate National Cemetery 816:hold, 40 mm shells into 695:Oliver J. Olson & Company 579:Pacific Theater of Operations 548:Concord Naval Weapons Station 423:Pacific Theater of Operations 351:Utah prisoner of war massacre 66:Port Chicago Naval Magazine, 5328:(British ships owned by the 5316:(Anglo-American predecessor) 4208:. Penguin Publishing Group. 4202:Delmont, Matthew F. (2022). 2764:The San Bernardino Daily Sun 2099:History.com. Black History. 1788:was a finalist for the 2014 1589:116th United States Congress 1053:Navy and Marine Corps Medals 542:, which in turn connects to 444:"‍—‌were convicted of 3738:September 30, 2014, at the 3709:". Retrieved March 4, 2009. 3663:. Retrieved March 4, 2009. 2327:". Retrieved March 5, 2009. 1524:race riot broke out in Guam 1492:Political and social effect 1437:African-American publishers 1431:magazine, published by the 1226:United States Naval Academy 699:War Shipping Administration 689:On July 13, 1944, when the 5503: 3742:. Retrieved March 4, 2009. 3722:. Retrieved March 4, 2009. 3650:. Retrieved March 4, 2009. 3618:. Retrieved July 17, 2024. 2906:February 15, 2009, at the 2325:Frequently Asked Questions 2054:. Retrieved March 5, 2009. 2037:Center of Military History 1976:– 1943 naval explosion in 1182:, which meant the loss of 5339: 5330:Ministry of War Transport 5179:general stores issue ship 5047: 4229:. Naval Institute Press. 3602:. Retrieved June 13, 2019 2166:February 6, 2017, at the 1727:made-for-television movie 1532:Naval Base Ventura County 599:Naval Station Great Lakes 384:Saint Pierre and Miquelon 357:Central and South America 169: 39: 28: 5467:Mutinies in World War II 4324:. National Park Service. 4294:. Simon & Schuster. 3973:. Season 7. Episode 20. 2112:Retrieved March 5, 2009. 2102:The Port Chicago Mutiny. 1802:Remembering Port Chicago 1764:drama television series 1749:as three fictional Navy 1536:Port Hueneme, California 1423:NAACP Legal Defense Fund 1331:, chief counsel for the 1232:under district attorney 1156:was the greater hazard. 1116:was used as a temporary 840:, was being loaded into 415:Port Chicago, California 212:Estevan Point Lighthouse 68:Port Chicago, California 5402:Disasters in California 4116:The Port Chicago Mutiny 3667:August 1, 2008, at the 2946:San Francisco Chronicle 2699:Bell & Elleman 2003 2261:Bell & Elleman 2003 2108:April 23, 2008, at the 2088:Bell & Elleman 2003 927:Richter magnitude scale 425:detonated, killing 320 161:American Theater (WWII) 4918:Dr. Rudolf Wahrendorff 4803:Dr. Rudolf Wahrendorff 4358:'s Brown Media Archive 4195:80.3 (2016): 160–165. 4150:Astor, Gerald (2001). 2620:March 2, 2009, at the 2497:March 1, 2009, at the 1710:-distributed program, 1622: 1614: 1587:was introduced in the 1391:dishonorable discharge 1205: 1180:bad conduct discharges 1150:Battle of Tassafaronga 1040: 990: 975:Naval Board of Inquiry 954: 903:was destroyed and the 781: 552:attack on Pearl Harbor 511: 495: 454:dishonorable discharge 174:Battle of the Atlantic 90:38.05750°N 122.02972°W 49:; 80 years ago 5304:(Canadian equivalent) 5281:Port Chicago disaster 4984:Port Chicago disaster 4356:University of Georgia 3963:Don McGill (writer); 3767:), December 30, 2009. 3573:Berkeley Daily Planet 2046:June 8, 2010, at the 1679:Media representations 1631:National Park Service 1620: 1610: 1465:Secretary of the Navy 1200: 1154:death by firing squad 1098:Mare Island Navy Yard 1069:Secretary of the Navy 1065:Franklin D. Roosevelt 1035: 985:Boxcars within their 984: 952: 925:measuring 3.4 on the 779: 721:Pittsburg, California 636:Mare Island Navy Yard 575:small arms ammunition 501: 493: 397:Port Chicago disaster 24:Port Chicago disaster 5322:(American follow-on) 5310:(British equivalent) 5286:Project Liberty Ship 4375:Smithsonian Magazine 4106:13.2–3 (1982): 3–29. 3997:Macmillan Publishers 3646:May 9, 2009, at the 2648:on February 27, 2009 1871:United States portal 1814:Smithsonian Magazine 1753:, the film aired on 1165:solitary confinement 585:by hand, crane, and 538:, which connects to 324:Fire balloon attacks 95:38.05750; -122.02972 3942:New York Daily News 3751:Welch, William M., 3275:The Washington Post 3087:, pp. 106, 112 1943:RAF Fauld explosion 1775:Blue Skies Tomorrow 1757:on March 28, 1999. 1403:Port of Los Angeles 1087:Port Chicago mutiny 1049:12th Naval District 964:Vallejo, California 583:individually loaded 438:Port Chicago Mutiny 336:Great Papago Escape 86: / 5412:Explosions in 1944 5387:1944 in California 4345:. Talking History. 4079:smithsonianmag.com 4027:The New York Times 3885:This American Life 3686:Contra Costa Times 3481:The New York Times 3454:The New York Times 3434:, pp. 160–162 3396:Wagner et al. 2007 3360:The New York Times 3331:The New York Times 3303:The New York Times 3287:, pp. 133–134 3263:, pp. 132–133 3215:, pp. 126–127 3203:, pp. 122–126 3186:, pp. 120–121 3174:, pp. 119–120 3162:, pp. 118–119 3138:, pp. 116–118 3099:, pp. 106–107 3063:, pp. 102–103 2988:, pp. 218–220 2741:The New York Times 2561:United States Navy 2064:Wagner et al. 2007 2015:, pp. 130–133 1983:West Loch disaster 1978:Lower New York Bay 1819:Matthew F. Delmont 1806:Daniel L. Bernardi 1794:The New York Times 1713:This American Life 1623: 1615: 1500:Pittsburgh Courier 1476:surrender of Japan 1463:The office of the 1413:Appeal and release 1407:Port of Long Beach 1389:to be followed by 1304:cross-examinations 1216:, halfway between 1210:Yerba Buena Island 1206: 1184:veterans' benefits 1142:fighting on Saipan 1045:Carleton H. Wright 1041: 991: 955: 782: 736:Munitions handling 528:San Joaquin Rivers 512: 496: 462:United States Navy 287:Lordsburg killings 47:July 17, 1944 5369: 5368: 5276:Liberty Fleet Day 5251:Arthur M. Huddell 5212:radar picket ship 5089: 5088: 4430:Empire Broadsword 4371:"Half the Battle" 4336:on June 30, 2005. 4301:978-0-7432-5219-5 4156:. Da Capo Press. 4134:978-1-59714-028-7 4104:The Black Scholar 4006:978-1-59643-796-8 3892:on March 11, 2009 3545:Los Angeles Times 3505:Ronald V. Dellums 3484:. January 9, 1994 3334:. January 8, 1946 3306:. January 7, 1946 1923:Halifax Explosion 1739:Michael Jai White 1733:, which included 1515:relations in the 1505:Double V campaign 1486:general discharge 1442:Eleanor Roosevelt 1383:seaman apprentice 1360:Closing arguments 1329:Thurgood Marshall 1260:cross-examination 666:Winch maintenance 544:San Francisco Bay 392: 391: 292:Lookout Air Raids 230:Point Maisonnette 195:Angler POW escape 126: 125: 122: 121: 5494: 5358: 5357: 5348: 5347: 5243:Jeremiah O'Brien 5217:List of Subtypes 5116: 5109: 5102: 5093: 5081: 5076: 5064: 5056: 5040: 5024: 5014: 4996: 4986: 4978: 4960: 4950: 4939: 4921: 4899: 4889: 4867: 4857: 4841: 4812: 4783: 4773: 4763: 4745: 4723: 4707: 4692:Quinault Victory 4673: 4657: 4640: 4630: 4620: 4604: 4587: 4564: 4542: 4532: 4492: 4482:R. Walther Darré 4455: 4439: 4406: 4399: 4392: 4383: 4378: 4365: 4346: 4337: 4325: 4305: 4293: 4282: 4261: 4250:. Globe Pequot. 4240: 4219: 4193:Social Education 4188: 4167: 4146: 4111:Allen, Robert L. 4091: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4081:. 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Allen 1555: 1494: 1415: 1375: 1362: 1292: 1255: 1214:Treasure Island 1202:Treasure Island 1192: 1190:Port Chicago 50 1169:defense counsel 1118:military prison 1094: 1092:Initial actions 1089: 1072:James Forrestal 1019:consent decrees 1005:The Navy asked 947: 917:sensed the two 880:U.S Coast Guard 864:Quinalt Victory 841: 826: 821: 817: 813: 774: 738: 729:naval artillery 712: 707: 702: 668: 644: 611: 488: 452:, as well as a 442:Port Chicago 50 393: 388: 165: 160: 158: 156: 118: 94: 92: 88: 85: 80: 77: 75: 73: 72: 71: 53: 51: 48: 34: 17: 12: 11: 5: 5500: 5498: 5490: 5489: 5484: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5464: 5459: 5454: 5449: 5444: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5424: 5419: 5414: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5394: 5389: 5384: 5374: 5373: 5367: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5352: 5341: 5340: 5337: 5336: 5334: 5333: 5323: 5317: 5311: 5305: 5298: 5296: 5292: 5291: 5289: 5288: 5283: 5278: 5272: 5270: 5266: 5265: 5263: 5262: 5254: 5246: 5238: 5229: 5227: 5223: 5222: 5220: 5219: 5214: 5203: 5192: 5181: 5169: 5167: 5163: 5162: 5160: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5133: 5131: 5127: 5126: 5121: 5119: 5118: 5111: 5104: 5096: 5087: 5086: 5048: 5045: 5044: 5042: 5041: 5025: 5015: 4997: 4987: 4979: 4961: 4951: 4940: 4922: 4910: 4908: 4904: 4903: 4901: 4900: 4893:Unknown date: 4890: 4868: 4858: 4842: 4813: 4809:William Gaston 4784: 4780:Empire Bittern 4774: 4764: 4746: 4724: 4708: 4674: 4658: 4641: 4631: 4621: 4605: 4588: 4565: 4543: 4533: 4493: 4456: 4440: 4423: 4421: 4415: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4408: 4401: 4394: 4386: 4380: 4379: 4366: 4347: 4338: 4326: 4318: 4311: 4310:External links 4308: 4307: 4306: 4300: 4283: 4277: 4262: 4256: 4241: 4235: 4220: 4215:978-1984880390 4214: 4199: 4189: 4183: 4168: 4162: 4147: 4133: 4107: 4098: 4095: 4093: 4092: 4066: 4043: 4012: 4005: 3980: 3965:Jeannot Szwarc 3955: 3927: 3903: 3870: 3838: 3825:East Bay Times 3810: 3782: 3769: 3764:Military Times 3761:(reprinted in 3744: 3724: 3711: 3698: 3672: 3652: 3632: 3620: 3604: 3587: 3558: 3527: 3515: 3467: 3436: 3432:Schneller 2005 3424: 3412: 3408:Guttridge 1992 3400: 3385: 3373: 3345: 3317: 3289: 3277: 3265: 3244: 3229: 3217: 3205: 3188: 3176: 3164: 3152: 3140: 3125: 3113: 3101: 3089: 3077: 3065: 3053: 3041: 3029: 3017: 3002: 2990: 2986:Guttridge 1992 2978: 2963: 2951: 2936: 2924: 2912: 2892: 2888:Guttridge 1992 2880: 2867: 2855: 2838: 2834:Guttridge 1992 2826: 2814: 2797: 2785: 2768: 2755: 2727: 2715: 2703: 2686: 2674: 2662: 2626: 2604: 2592: 2579: 2563: 2546: 2531: 2516: 2503: 2483: 2471: 2456: 2443: 2431: 2427:Guttridge 1992 2419: 2402: 2378: 2365: 2353: 2341: 2329: 2313: 2301: 2289: 2277: 2265: 2244: 2232: 2215: 2203: 2188: 2171: 2141: 2126: 2114: 2092: 2080: 2068: 2056: 2029: 2017: 2004: 2002: 1999: 1998: 1997: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1980: 1974: (DD-648) 1967: 1946: 1940: 1930: 1915: 1910: 1909: 1908: 1893: 1887: 1875: 1874: 1860: 1857:History portal 1846: 1830: 1827: 1782:Steve Sheinkin 1735:Morgan Freeman 1693:Peabody Awards 1680: 1677: 1604: 1601: 1554: 1551: 1547:Lester Granger 1493: 1490: 1481:Harold Stassen 1414: 1411: 1374: 1371: 1361: 1358: 1291: 1288: 1254: 1251: 1230:Alameda County 1191: 1188: 1130:petty officers 1093: 1090: 1088: 1085: 1011:John E. Rankin 999:Judge Advocate 960:Camp Shoemaker 946: 943: 862:(also spelled 773: 770: 737: 734: 693:, operated by 667: 664: 643: 640: 616:petty officers 610: 607: 487: 484: 421:bound for the 390: 389: 387: 386: 380: 379: 372: 365: 359: 358: 354: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 326: 321: 316: 311: 304: 299: 297:Duquesne Spies 294: 289: 284: 279: 272: 267: 262: 257: 252: 247: 241: 240: 234: 233: 226: 219: 214: 209: 208: 207: 197: 191: 190: 184: 183: 177: 176: 170: 167: 166: 157: 155: 154: 147: 140: 132: 124: 123: 120: 119: 117: 116: 113: 109: 107: 103: 102: 65: 63: 59: 58: 45: 37: 36: 26: 25: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5499: 5488: 5485: 5483: 5480: 5478: 5475: 5473: 5470: 5468: 5465: 5463: 5460: 5458: 5455: 5453: 5450: 5448: 5445: 5443: 5440: 5438: 5435: 5433: 5430: 5428: 5425: 5423: 5420: 5418: 5415: 5413: 5410: 5408: 5405: 5403: 5400: 5398: 5395: 5393: 5390: 5388: 5385: 5383: 5380: 5379: 5377: 5361: 5353: 5351: 5343: 5342: 5338: 5331: 5327: 5324: 5321: 5318: 5315: 5312: 5309: 5306: 5303: 5300: 5299: 5297: 5293: 5287: 5284: 5282: 5279: 5277: 5274: 5273: 5271: 5267: 5261: 5260: 5259:Albert M. Boe 5255: 5253: 5252: 5247: 5245: 5244: 5239: 5237: 5236: 5235:John W. Brown 5231: 5230: 5228: 5224: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5204: 5202: 5199: 5197: 5193: 5191: 5188: 5186: 5182: 5180: 5177: 5175: 5171: 5170: 5168: 5164: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5123:Liberty ships 5117: 5112: 5110: 5105: 5103: 5098: 5097: 5094: 5084: 5080: 5075: 5071: 5067: 5063: 5059: 5055: 5051: 5046: 5039: 5038: 5033: 5032: 5026: 5023: 5022: 5016: 5013: 5012: 5006: 5005: 4998: 4995: 4994: 4988: 4985: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4970: 4969: 4962: 4959: 4958: 4957:Empire Brutus 4952: 4949: 4948: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4931: 4930: 4923: 4920: 4919: 4912: 4911: 4909: 4905: 4898: 4897: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4882: 4881: 4876: 4875: 4869: 4866: 4865: 4859: 4856: 4855: 4850: 4849: 4843: 4840: 4839: 4834: 4833: 4828: 4827: 4821: 4820: 4814: 4811: 4810: 4805: 4804: 4798: 4797: 4792: 4791: 4785: 4782: 4781: 4775: 4772: 4771: 4765: 4762: 4761: 4755: 4754: 4747: 4744: 4743: 4738: 4737: 4732: 4731: 4725: 4722: 4721: 4716: 4715: 4709: 4706: 4705: 4700: 4699: 4694: 4693: 4688: 4687: 4682: 4681: 4675: 4672: 4671: 4666: 4665: 4659: 4656: 4655: 4650: 4649: 4642: 4639: 4638: 4632: 4629: 4628: 4622: 4619: 4618: 4617:Giulio Cesare 4613: 4612: 4606: 4603: 4602: 4596: 4595: 4589: 4586: 4585: 4580: 4579: 4573: 4572: 4566: 4563: 4562: 4557: 4556: 4551: 4550: 4544: 4541: 4540: 4534: 4531: 4530: 4525: 4524: 4519: 4518: 4513: 4512: 4507: 4506: 4501: 4500: 4494: 4491: 4490: 4484: 4483: 4477: 4476: 4471: 4470: 4464: 4463: 4457: 4454: 4453: 4448: 4447: 4441: 4438: 4437: 4432: 4431: 4425: 4424: 4422: 4420: 4416: 4407: 4402: 4400: 4395: 4393: 4388: 4387: 4384: 4376: 4372: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4357: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4339: 4335: 4331: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4317: 4314: 4313: 4309: 4303: 4297: 4292: 4291: 4284: 4280: 4278:0-8147-4013-8 4274: 4271:. NYU Press. 4270: 4269: 4263: 4259: 4257:0-7627-3822-7 4253: 4249: 4248: 4242: 4238: 4236:0-87021-281-8 4232: 4228: 4227: 4221: 4217: 4211: 4207: 4206: 4200: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4184:0-7146-8468-6 4180: 4177:. Routledge. 4176: 4175: 4169: 4165: 4163:0-306-81031-X 4159: 4155: 4154: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4117: 4112: 4108: 4105: 4101: 4100: 4096: 4080: 4076: 4070: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4058: 4053: 4047: 4044: 4040: 4029: 4028: 4023: 4016: 4013: 4008: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3984: 3981: 3976: 3972: 3971: 3966: 3959: 3956: 3944: 3943: 3938: 3931: 3928: 3915: 3914: 3907: 3904: 3891: 3887: 3886: 3881: 3874: 3871: 3858: 3854: 3853:San Francisco 3850: 3849: 3842: 3839: 3827: 3826: 3821: 3814: 3811: 3799: 3798: 3793: 3786: 3783: 3779: 3773: 3770: 3766: 3765: 3760: 3759: 3754: 3748: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3734: 3728: 3725: 3721: 3715: 3712: 3708: 3702: 3699: 3687: 3683: 3680:Rose, Tanya. 3676: 3673: 3670: 3666: 3662: 3656: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3636: 3633: 3629: 3624: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3608: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3591: 3588: 3575: 3574: 3569: 3562: 3559: 3547: 3546: 3541: 3534: 3532: 3528: 3525:, p. 184 3524: 3519: 3516: 3512: 3510: 3509:Barbara Boxer 3506: 3502: 3498: 3497:George Miller 3483: 3482: 3477: 3471: 3468: 3456: 3455: 3450: 3443: 3441: 3437: 3433: 3428: 3425: 3422:, p. 266 3421: 3416: 3413: 3410:, p. 211 3409: 3404: 3401: 3398:, p. 856 3397: 3392: 3390: 3386: 3383:, p. 135 3382: 3377: 3374: 3362: 3361: 3356: 3349: 3346: 3333: 3332: 3327: 3321: 3318: 3305: 3304: 3299: 3293: 3290: 3286: 3281: 3278: 3274: 3269: 3266: 3262: 3257: 3255: 3253: 3251: 3249: 3245: 3242:, p. 131 3241: 3236: 3234: 3230: 3227:, p. 128 3226: 3221: 3218: 3214: 3209: 3206: 3202: 3197: 3195: 3193: 3189: 3185: 3180: 3177: 3173: 3168: 3165: 3161: 3156: 3153: 3150:, p. 118 3149: 3144: 3141: 3137: 3132: 3130: 3126: 3123:, p. 116 3122: 3117: 3114: 3111:, p. 108 3110: 3105: 3102: 3098: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3078: 3075:, p. 104 3074: 3069: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3054: 3051:, p. 102 3050: 3045: 3042: 3039:, p. 101 3038: 3033: 3030: 3026: 3021: 3018: 3014: 3009: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2991: 2987: 2982: 2979: 2975: 2970: 2968: 2964: 2960: 2955: 2952: 2947: 2940: 2937: 2934:, p. 126 2933: 2928: 2925: 2922:, p. 127 2921: 2916: 2913: 2909: 2905: 2902: 2896: 2893: 2890:, p. 220 2889: 2884: 2881: 2877: 2871: 2868: 2864: 2859: 2856: 2852: 2847: 2845: 2843: 2839: 2836:, p. 214 2835: 2830: 2827: 2823: 2818: 2815: 2811: 2806: 2804: 2802: 2798: 2794: 2789: 2786: 2782: 2777: 2775: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2759: 2756: 2743: 2742: 2737: 2731: 2728: 2724: 2719: 2716: 2712: 2707: 2704: 2701:, p. 203 2700: 2695: 2693: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2675: 2671: 2666: 2663: 2659: 2647: 2643: 2642: 2637: 2630: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2616: 2615: 2608: 2605: 2601: 2596: 2593: 2589: 2583: 2580: 2576: 2574: 2567: 2564: 2560: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2538: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2523: 2521: 2517: 2513: 2507: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2493: 2487: 2484: 2480: 2475: 2472: 2468: 2463: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2447: 2444: 2440: 2435: 2432: 2429:, p. 212 2428: 2423: 2420: 2416: 2411: 2409: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2393: 2391: 2389: 2387: 2385: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2369: 2366: 2362: 2357: 2354: 2350: 2345: 2342: 2338: 2333: 2330: 2326: 2320: 2318: 2314: 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