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contribute to the income disparities. This is also known as the âartificialâ result of the rural-urban divide. In terms of the share of investments allotted by the state, urban areas were given a larger proportion when compared with rural areas. In the period 1986â1992, investments to urban state-owned enterprises (SOE) accounted for more than 25% of the total government budget. On the other hand, less than 10% of the government budget was allocated to investments in the rural economy in the same period by the state despite the fact that about 73-76% of the total population lived in the rural areas. However, the burden of the inflation caused by the fiscal expansion, which at that time was at a level of approximately 8.5%, was shared by all including the rural population. Such biased allocation of government finances to the urban sector meant that the wages earned by urban workers also include these government fiscal transfers. This is in addition to the relatively higher proportions of credit loans the government also provided to the urban SOEs in the same period. Meanwhile, the wages earned by the rural workers came mainly from growth in output only. These urban-biased policies reflect the importance of the urban minority to the government relative to the rural majority.
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value their children's care work more than their own career. In addition, the gender inequalities in the labor market is pervasive. The labor force participation rate of women has declined since the economic reforms and financial hardship was severe among women. In terms of marital factors, research shows that single mothers are the suffer the most from poverty. On the one hand, social and public policies are usually inadequate for single-parent families, especially families headed by women. On the other hand, Chinese traditional belief on family see divorce as negative, and often push mothers to sacrifice themselves to fulfill their children. Age is also a factor that contribute to women's poverty. Research shows that women are in lower chance to receive less occupational pension and receive less benefit (women receive 595 yuan per month whereas men receive 1,105 yuan). Also, women in their 50s are more likely to take the responsibility of caring their elderly parents and grandchildren, therefore more likely to retire earlier and receive less money in pension.
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people born in rural China from coming to urban China. This restriction is based on the citizen's registration under the hukou system, which states if the individual was born in an agricultural (rural) or non-agricultural (urban) area. Additionally, Chinese officials have been cracking down on
Chinese migrants from rural communities that have moved to Beijing. In 2017, thousands of migrant workers living in Beijing were evicted because they did not possess an urban hukou. This process of removing migrants from rural to urban China, relocates them back to rural China where they no longer have a job or source of income. This is a relocation of poverty from the urban sector to the rural sector.
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over the time period of 1978 to 2014, China has reduced rural poverty from 250 million people to just over 70 million people. China's Rural
Poverty Alleviation and Development Outline from 2001 to 2010 led to certain government policy directly dealing with the issue of poverty with the removal of agriculture tax in 2006 and a program which the government paid rural families to plant trees on degraded land. More fundamental and radical measures such as directly redistributive taxation and social security systems or land tenure and agricultural produce price reforms are not mentioned here, however: presumably because they are not considered prudent.
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still lack the capacity to implement such reforms vis-Ă -vis their urban counterparts. The rural areas lack the educational resources of the urban areas and the rural areas are considered to be falling below the educational benchmark set in the cities. Teachers are more attracted to urban sectors with higher pay and a slew of benefits. In addition, rural villages have a difficult time finding quality teachers because of the lower standard of living in villages. As a result, some rural teachers are not qualified as they received college degrees from continuing-education programs, which is not the best type of further education one could receive.
864:, as it indicates that there are good opportunities for skilled people and as it creates a powerful incentive for families to increase the education of their children. However, there needs to be strong public support for education and reasonably fair access to the education system. Otherwise, inequality can become self-perpetuating: if only high-income people can educate their children, then that group remains a privileged, high-income group permanently. China is at some risk of falling into this trap, because it has developed a highly decentralized fiscal system in which local governments rely primarily on local
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opportunity to further their studies and following the paths of their parents to become low skilled workers with few chances of advancements. This leads to a vicious cycle of poverty. Because of limited educational resources, urban schools were supported by the government while village schools were provided for by the local communities where educational opportunities were possibly constrained depending on local conditions. Thus, there still exist a huge gap in teacher preparation and quality of facilities between rural and urban areas.
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dramatically. In the short period between 1988 and 2003, the wage returns to one additional year of schooling increased from 4% to 11%. This development initially leads to higher overall inequality, because the initial stock of educated people is small and they are concentrated at the high end of the income distribution. But if there is reasonably good access to education, then over time a greater and greater share of the population will become educated, and that will ultimately tend to reduce inequality.
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another province for improving their living situation, and many use marriage as the approach. (Research shows much more women migrated from relatively less developed regions to more developed regions through marriage than men). Some women did get out of absolute poverty through marriage, however, because of limited opportunities, they are likely to fall into relative poverty soon after relocation. Also, migrant wives often suffer from perpetuated poverty after marriage.
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691:, and large numbers have in fact migrated. Many of these fall into the category of "floating population". There are nearly 200 million rural residents who spend at least six months of the year working in urban areas. Many of these people have for all practical purposes moved to a city, but they do not have official registration. Beyond the floating population, there are tens of millions of people who have left rural areas and obtained urban hukous.
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that the wage increases raise inequality. It is hard to imagine that manufacturing wages would have risen so rapidly if there had not been such controls on labor migration. Third, recent studies focusing on migrants have shown that it is difficult for them to bring their families to the city, put their children in school, and obtain healthcare. So, the growth of the urban population must have been slowed down by these restrictions.
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economically and socially marginalized. According to the official estimates, 12 million people were considered as urban poor in 1993, i.e. 3.6 per cent of the total urban population, but by 2006 the figure had jumped to more than 22 million, i.e. 4.1 per cent of the total urban population and these figures are estimated to grow if the government fails to institute any effective measures to circumvent this escalating problem.
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with themâare unintentionally traumatizing and damaging these children. Studies show approximately 70% of the 'left-behind' kidsâthey are sometimes called the 'lost generation', or the 'damaged generation', suffer from emotional trauma, depression or anxiety. About a third of the left-behind childrenâ20 millionâwill get involved in crime, while another third will need time in mental health institutions.
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main occupation for the inhabitants of rural China, and in villages the produce generated is used to feed the village and not for selling on the market. Even in the heartlands of China where agriculture is used for commercial purposes, the economic boom of China has actually led to a decrease in the price of produce which has resulted in a loss of income for these producers.
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market, driven by a protracted period of economic growth, and a series of government transfers such as an urban subsidy, and the introduction of a rural pension. The World Bank Group said that the percentage of the population living below the international poverty line of $ 1.9 (2011 PPP) fell to 0.7 percent in 2015, and poverty line of $ 3.2 (2011 PPP) fell to 7% in 2015.
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urban areas to take their children with them. Lewis pointed out that, starting from a situation of 80% rural, the initial shift of some from low-productivity agriculture to high productivity urban employment is disequalizing. If the flow continues until the population is more than 50% urban, however, further migration is equalizing. This pattern is very evident in the
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in
Tsinghua and Peking University where the percentage of rural population studying in the two universities have shrunk to 17.6 percent in 2000 and 16.3 percent in 1999, down from 50 to 60 percent in the 1950s. These numbers are the most recent reliable data that has been published and experts agree that the number might be as low as 1 percent in 2010.
91:(PPP). Growth has fuelled a substantial increase in per-capita income lifting people out of extreme poverty. China's per capita income has increased fivefold between 1990 and 2000, from $ 200 to $ 1,000. Between 2000 and 2010, per capita income also rose at the same rate, from $ 1,000 to $ 5,000, moving China into the ranks of middle-income countries.
106:) per year (in 2010 constant prices) was 16.6 million, equal to 1.7% of the population at the time. On November 23, 2020, China announced that it had eliminated absolute poverty nationwide by uplifting all of its citizens beyond its set „2,300 per year (in 2010 constant prices), or around „4,000 per year in 2020. The World Bank has different
157:. Between 1981 and 2008, the proportion of China's population living on less than $ 1.25/day is estimated to have fallen from 85% to 13.1%, meaning that roughly 600 million people were taken out of extreme poverty. At the same time, this rapid change has brought with it different kinds of stresses. China faces serious
84:, more than 850 million Chinese people have been lifted out of extreme poverty; China's poverty rate fell from 88 percent in 1981 to 0.7 percent in 2015, as measured by the percentage of people living on the equivalent of US$ 1.90 or less per day in 2011 purchasing price parity terms, which still stands in 2022.
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resources, adding to the disparity between China's urban and rural life; this was exacerbated by the two track system of government's approach to education. The first track is government -supported primary education in urban areas and the second is family -supported primary education in the rural areas.
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The
Minimum Living Standard Scheme was first implemented in Shanghai in 1993 to help supplement the income of the urban poor. It is a last resort program that is meant to help those that don't qualify for other forms of government aid. The Minimum Living Standard Scheme set regional poverty lines and
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China's âfloating populationâ has since helped spur rapid development in the country because of the cheap and plentiful labor they can offer. On the flip side, many people who came from the rural areas are not able to find jobs in the cities. This surplus of rural laborers and mass internal migration
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increased from 0.31 at the beginning of reform to 0.45 in 2004. To some extent this rise in inequality is the natural result of the market forces that have generated the strong growth; but to some extent it is "artificial" in the sense that various government policies exacerbate the tendencies toward
400:
The opening up measures have been accompanied by improvements in the investment climate, particularly in cities in the coastal areas, where the private sector now accounts for 90% or more of manufacturing assets and production. In 2005, the average pretax rate of return for domestic private firms was
94:
Between 1990 and 2005, China's progress accounted for more than three-quarters of global poverty reduction and was largely responsible for the world reaching the UN millennium development target of dividing extreme poverty in half. This can be attributed to a combination of a rapidly expanding labour
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In the state level, it is hard to find official data on women in poverty and poverty reduction programs tend to focus more on men, which widen the gender inequality. A research focus on a poverty reduction program in the Inner
Mongolia shows that women's empowerment program can make positive effects
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In terms of regional factors, women who live in remote and less developed western region are more likely to live in poverty than eastern area. For example, women live in
Guizhou and Gansu provinces have the highest multidimensional poverty rate. Many women in poverty immigrant from their hometown to
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found improved documentation of farmer's land rights, but much room for improvement: 63% of farming families have been issued land-rights certificates and 53% have land-rights contracts, but only 44% have been issued both documents (as is required by law) and 29% have no document at all; farmers who
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In China, that conversion is handled administratively, requiring central approval. Farmers are compensated based on the agricultural value of the land. But the reason to convert land â especially in the fringes around cities â is that the commercial value of the land for urban use is higher than its
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As a result, rural students often find themselves neither competitive enough to gain admissions to colleges nor employable for most occupations. Rural residents are increasingly being marginalised in higher education, closing off their best opportunities for advancement. This is especially prominent
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The two track system was then abolished in 1986 & 1992, to be replaced by the
Compulsory Education Law and the Rule for the Implementation of the Compulsory Education Law respectively. Despite the emphasis of China's education reform on providing quality and holistic education, the rural schools
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Jonathan Unger points out that the lack of taxation at the village level restricts the villages from dealing with the problems they face. This means problems such as food instability and lack of education are not able to be addressed by local officials. Supporters of government policy point out that
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Children growing up in poverty are more likely to be undernourished, have less educational opportunities, and have lower literacy levels. And those whose parents move to urban areas in an effort to give these children a better lifeâand are not allowed by the
Chinese government to take their children
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While poverty has been reduced immensely in China over the past decade, it still remains a large problem in rural China. Rural China has historically been disproportionately taxed and also has received fewer benefits from the recent economic development and success of China. Agriculture has been the
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Lastly, the government provided little or no social benefit for the urban poor who needed the most attention. Ministry of Labor and Social
Security (MLSS) was the last line of defense against urban poverty in the provision of social insurance and the living allowance for laid-off employees. However,
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There are also large numbers of unemployed and laid-off workers from state-owned enterprises (SOEs). These enterprises have since failed to compete efficiently with the private and foreign-funded companies when China's open-door policy was introduced. In the years 1995 to 2000, the state sector lost
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In pre-reform China there was very little return to education manifested in salaries. Cab drivers and college professors had similar incomes. Economic reform has created a labor market in which people can search for higher pay, and one result of this is that salaries for educated people have gone up
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so far has been a relatively orderly process. One does not see in China the kinds of slums and extreme poverty that exist in cities throughout South Asia, Latin
America, and Africa. Nevertheless, urbanization goes on: the urban share of China's population has risen from 20% to 40% during the course
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have risen sharply in recent years, at double-digit rates, so that China now has considerably higher wages than much of the rest of developing Asia (India, Vietnam, Pakistan, Bangladesh). This rise is good for the incumbent workers, but they are relatively high up in China's income distribution, so
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Rural education has been marginalized by the focus on immediate economic development and the fact that urban education enjoys more attention and investment by the central government. This lack of public funding meant that children of rural families were forced to drop out of school, thus losing the
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The implementation of Chinese policy has exacerbated the issue of rural poverty en lieu of increased urban poverty. Typically the urbanization of a country leads to mass migration from the rural areas to the urban. However, the Chinese government implemented a policy that restricts the migration of
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In 2009, according to China's National Bureau of Statistics, the urban per capita annual income at US$ 2,525 was approximately three times that of the rural per capita annual income. This was the widest income gap recorded in China since 1978. Urban-based economic policies adopted by the government
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and average middle-school fees, 442 yuan. A family living right at the dollar-a-day poverty line would have about 900 yuan total resources for a child for a year; sending a child to middle-school would take half of that. Not surprisingly, then, enrollment rates are relatively low in poor areas and
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So, there is significant rural-urban migration in China, but it seems likely that the hukou system has resulted in less migration than otherwise would have occurred. There are several pieces of evidence to support this view. First, the gap in per capita income between rural and urban areas widened
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In China, women are more vulnerable to suffer from severe poverty than men. More women experience multidimensional poverty (38.9% compared to 25.2%). Many individual and social characteristics shape women's experiences on poverty, such as age, education, employment, family structure, family size,
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Education is a prerequisite for the development of human capital which in turn is an important factor in a country's overall development. Apart from the increasing income inequality, the education sector has long suffered from problems such as funding shortages and unequal allocation of education
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In the period when reforms in urban areas were introduced, the real wages earned by urban workers rose inexorably. Restrictions to rural-urban migration protected the urban workers from competition from the rural workers, which therefore also contributed to rural-urban disparities. According to a
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The large productivity and wage gap between cities and countryside also drives a high rate of rural-urban migration, which has left millions of children traumatized due to parents who have left them to be raised by other family members, as the Chinese government does not allow parents who move to
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In terms of individual factors, women are less likely complete their primary education, have worse health and nutrition, and more likely to enduring chronic diseases, hospitalization and low income. As daughter, women's education is less valued by their parents. As mothers, women are expected to
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is recognized as a powerful tool to reduce poverty, and the central government has begun guaranteeing all farmers 30-year land rights, strictly limiting expropriations, documenting and publicizing farmersâ rights, and requiring sufficient compensation when farmersâ lands are expropriated. A 2010
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noted that "development must be inegalitarian because it does not start in every part of the economy at the same time" in 1954. China classically manifests two of the characteristics of development that Lewis had in mind: rising return to education and rural-urban migration. As an underdeveloped
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since the beginning of economic reform in 1978. This sustained growth has generated a huge increase in average living standards. 25 years ago, China had many characteristics in common with the rest of developing Asia: large population, low per capita income, and resource scarcity on a per capita
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SOEsâ roles were more than employers, they are also responsible for the provision of welfare benefits, like retirement pensions, incentives for medical care, housing and direct subsidies and the like to its employees, as these burdens greatly increased production costs. In 1992, SOE expenses on
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Inequality in China does not only occur between rural and urban areas. There exist inequalities within rural areas, and within urban areas themselves. In some rural areas, incomes are comparable to that of urban incomes, while in others, income remains low as development is limited. Rural-urban
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lies more in manufacturing and services than in agriculture. The fact that many peasants cannot earn a decent living as farmers is a signal that their labor is more useful in urban employment, hence the hundreds of millions of people who have migrated. But, at the same time, it is efficient to
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period from 1870 to 1920, and then declining thereafter. So, the same market forces that have produced the rapid growth in China predictably led to higher inequality. But it is important to note that in China there are a number of government policies that exacerbate this tendency toward higher
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Inequalities in spending are even larger at the sub-provincial level. The richest county, the level that is most important for service delivery, has about 48 times the level of per capita spending of the poorest county. These disparities in aggregate spending levels also show up in functional
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The structural reforms of China's economy have brought about a widening of the income gap and rising unemployment in cities. The increasing challenge for the Chinese government and social organizations is to address and solve poverty issues in urban areas where people are increasingly being
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insurance and welfare took up 35% of the total wages. Therefore, many people not only lost their jobs but also the social benefits and security that they were once so reliant on. The adverse consequences arising from the market reforms are evidently seen as a socially destabilizing factor.
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status, partly the result of China's uniquely decentralized fiscal system, in which local government has been primarily responsible for funding basic health and education. Poor localities have not been able to fund these services, and poor households have not been able to afford the high
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propelled a large increase in agricultural output, and poverty was cut in half over the short period from 1981 to 1987. From 1987 to 1993 poverty reduction stagnated, then resumed again. From 1996 to 2001 there was once more relatively little poverty reduction. Since China joined the
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Much of the increase in inequality in China can be attributed to the widening rural-urban divide, particularly the differentials in rural-urban income. A household survey conducted in 1995 showed that the rural-urban income gap accounted for 35% of the overall inequality in China.
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report by the World Bank published in 2009, 99% of the poor in China come from rural areas if migrant workers in cities are included in the rural population figures. Excluding migrant workers from the rural population figures indicates that 90% of poverty in China is still rural.
448:, there was an estimated average annual growth rate of 0.5% in China between 2010 and 2015. This brought the Chinese population to 1.37 billion in 2015. As per China's national poverty line, 8.5 percent of people were in poverty in 2013, which decreased to 1.7 percent in 2018.
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The disproportionate amount of inequality in China's rural sector along with correlation between poverty and education shows that children born in rural China are much more likely to score lower on literacy tests and not have the opportunity to pursue higher education.
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of economic reform. But at the same time the hukou system has slowed and distorted urbanization, without preventing it. The system has likely contributed to inequality by limiting the opportunities of the relatively poor rural population to move to better-paying
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Eastman, R. and M. Lipton, 2004. Rural and Urban Income Inequality and Poverty: Does Convergence between Sectors Offset Divergence within Them? in G. A. Cornea, ed., Inequality, Growth and Poverty in an Era of Liberalization and Globalization, Oxford U. Press,
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The political response of China's government to the issue of rural poverty has been both lauded and criticized. China has been criticized for its high rate of rural poverty and the policies that the government has put in place to ameliorate the poverty. In
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them to borrow, while still retaining state ownership. Rural, or âcollectively owned landâ, is leased by the state for periods of 30 years, and is theoretically reserved for agricultural purposes, housing and services for farmers. Peasants have long-term
772:, there is no privately held land. Urban land is owned by the state, which grants land rights for a set number of years. Reforms in the late 1980s and 1990s allowed for transactions in urban land, enabling citizens to sell their land and buildings, or
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began instituting market reforms in the late 1970s, China has been among the most rapidly growing economies in the world, regularly exceeding 10 percent GDP growth annually from 1978 through 2010. This growth has led to a substantial increase in real
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value for agriculture. So, even if China's laws on land are followed scrupulously, the conversion does not generate a high income for the peasants. There are cases in which the conversion is done transparently, the use of rights over the land
494:
China's growth has been so rapid that virtually every household has benefited significantly, fueling the steep drop in poverty. However, different people have benefited to very different extents, so that inequality has risen during the
687:. In practice cities usually give registration to skilled people who have offers of employment, but have generally been reluctant to provide registration to migrants from the countryside. Nevertheless, these migrants are needed for
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gave recipients a sum of money. The amount of money received by each recipient was the difference in their income and the poverty line. The Scheme has grown rapidly and has since been adopted by over 580 cities and 1120 counties.
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will no doubt pose a major threat to the country's political stability and economic growth. Their inabilities to find jobs compounded by the rising costs of living in the cities have made many people fall below the poverty line.
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locations benefited from the opening policy, and as the small stock of educated people found new opportunities. However, particular features of Chinese policy may have exacerbated rather than mitigated growing disparities. The
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per year. Based on household surveys, the poverty rate in China in 1981 was 63% of the population. This rate declined to 10% in 2004, indicating that about 500 million people have climbed out of poverty during this period.
951:, but arguments abound whether it is enough. Poor areas have very little tax collection and hence cannot fund education and health care. Some of their population will relocate over time. But for reasons of both national
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as long as they sow the land, but they cannot mortgage or sell the use rights. The biggest distortion, however, concerns moving land from rural to urban use. China is a densely populated, water-scarce country whose
994:. Poor households either forego treatment, or travel to other cities for treatment, which can be expensive if the condition is severe. In the 2003 National Health Survey, 30% of poor households identified a large
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such as rural health and education. The government has been trying to rebalance China's production away from investment and exports towards domestic consumption and services, to improve the country's long-term
122:, but not the poverty defined for upper middle-income countries which China belongs to. China still has around 13% of its population falling below this poverty line of $ 5.50 per day in 2020. In 2020, premier
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499:. This is true for inequality in household income or consumption, as well as for inequality in important social outcomes such as health status or educational attainment. Concerning household consumption, the
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Dollar, David and Bert Hofman, forthcoming. Intergovernmental Fiscal Reforms, Expenditure Assignment, and Governance. In, Jiwei Lou and Shuilin Wang, eds., China: Public Finance for a Harmonious Society
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on poverty reduction. It suggest that if poverty program can be more gender-focus, women and their household in poverty can benefit more from intervention such as training, cooperatives, and credit.
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31 million jobs, which amounted to 28 per cent of the jobs in the sector. The non-state sector has been creating new jobs but not in sufficient numbers to offset job losses from the state sector.
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Fiscal disparities among subnational governments are larger in China than in most OECD countries. These disparities have emerged alongside a growing disparity in economic strength among the
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in these locations led to a more general opening up of the economy to foreign investment, with the result that China became the largest recipient of direct investment flows in the 1990s.
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rate: there used to be small differences across provinces. By 2003, high-school enrollment was nearing 100% in the wealthier provinces while still less than 40% in poor provinces.
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to finance public goods. But still the peasants get relatively poor recompense. One government study found that 62% of displaced peasants were worse off after land conversion.
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Pre-reform China had a system that severely restricted people's mobility, and that system has only slowly been reformed over the past 25 years. Each person has a registration (
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of the richest to poorest province grew from 7.3 to 13. In China, the richest province has more than 8 times the per capita public spending than the poorest province. In the
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kept rural-urban migration below what it otherwise would have been, and contributed to the development of one of the largest rural-urban income divides in the world. Weak
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165:. It has also seen growing disparities as people in different parts of the country and with different characteristics have benefited from the growth at different rates.
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that "China has over 600 million people whose monthly income is barely 1,000 yuan (USD 140) and their lives have further been affected by the coronavirus pandemic."
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114:(GNI). With an GNI per capita of $ 10,610 in 2020, China is an upper middle-income country. The poverty line for an upper middle-income country is $ 5.5 per day at
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China's lifting of more than 800 million people out of extreme poverty since the late 1970s has been the largest global reduction in inequality in modern history.
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more generally to portfolio flows. China improved its human capital, opened up to foreign trade and investment, and created a better investment climate for the
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These differences in public spending translate into differences in social outcomes. Up through 1990, there were only modest differences across provinces in
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have been issued these documents are far more likely to make long-term investments in their land and are financially benefiting from those investments.
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the same as that for foreign-invested firms. Local governments in coastal cities have lowered loss of output due to unreliable power supply to 1.0% and
455:, announced that by 2020, China will achieve all poverty alleviation in rural areas. On 28 May 2020, Li Keqiang, the Premier of China, said during the
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country, China began its reform with relatively few highly educated people, and with a small minority of the population (20%) living in cities, where
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Sicular, T., X. Yue, B. Gustafsson, and S. Li, 2007. The Urban-Rural Income Gap and Inequality in China, Review of Income and Wealth, 53(1): 93-126.
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during the reform period, reaching a ratio of three to one. Three to one is a very high gap by international standards. Second, manufacturing
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3364:"Does empowering women benefit poverty reduction? Evidence from a multi-component program in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of China"
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Liu, Y., Liu, J., & Zhou, Y. (2017). Spatio-temporal patterns of rural poverty in China and targeted poverty alleviation strategies.
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Dollar, David R.; Hallward-Driemeier, Mary; Mengistae, Taye (2005). "Investment Climate and Firm Performance in Developing Economies".
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that has emerged in China has exacerbated the inequalities, and makes them harder to address. The trade surplus stimulates the urban
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883:. In part, the sheer size of the country explains this degree of decentralization, but the structure of government and some unusual
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2417:"Transient poverty, poverty dynamics, and vulnerability to poverty: An empirical analysis using a balanced panel from rural China"
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higher inequality, rather than mitigate them. Changes to some policies could halt or even reverse the increasing inequality. (See
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based on household real consumption (including consumption of own-produced crops and other goods), set at $ 1 per day measured at
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China - From poor areas to poor people : China's evolving poverty reduction agenda - an assessment of poverty and inequality
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inequalities do not only refer to income differentials but also include inequalities in areas such as education and health care.
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said that the methodology NBS used was flawed, stating that the figure took the combined income, which was then equally divided.
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Azizur Rahman Khan, Carl Riskin. (2001) "Inequality and Poverty in China in the Age of Globalization." Oxford University Press
2674:
1420:
959:, some theoretical economists argue for the communist state to ensure everyone has some basic education and basic health care.
879:
countries and middle-income countries, particularly on the spending side. More than half of all expenditure takes place at the
433:
600:
its effectiveness was limited in scope in which less than a quarter of the eligible urban poor actually receiving assistance.
6294:
5089:
4676:
4313:
4298:
4229:
3881:
3606:
3034:
Zhang, Junsen; Zhao, Yaohui; Park, Albert; Song, Xiaoqing (2005). "Economic Returns to Schooling in Urban China, 1988â2001".
2835:
1750:
130:(NBS) said that China still had 600 million people living with less than 1000 yuan ($ 140) a month, although an article from
6141:
5526:
1863:
937:, but by 2000 there had emerged a very sharp difference, closely related to the province's per capita GDP. So too with the
87:
The Chinese definition of extreme poverty is more stringent than that of the World Bank: earning less than $ 2.30 a day at
6242:
6205:
5369:
5038:
4303:
3829:
3528:
674:
245:
6055:
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4330:
4256:
4138:
3944:
3929:
3909:
3905:
3849:
3764:
249:
6452:
6100:
2513:"Poverty, food insecurity and nutritional deprivation in rural China: Implications for children's literacy achievement"
2077:
1724:
6590:
6580:
6257:
5684:
5028:
4874:
4729:
4552:
4340:
4266:
4168:
4148:
4072:
3824:
3809:
3719:
3636:
2616:
Wong, C., Qiao, M., & Zheng, W. (2018). âDispersing, regulating and upgradingâurban villages in suburban Beijing.
441:
in 2001, however, poverty reduction resumed at a very rapid rate, and poverty was cut by a third in just three years.
393:". Some of these zones were very large, amounting to urban areas of 20 million people or more. The positive impact of
3586:
2633:
Afridi, Farzana, Sherry Xin Li, and Yufei Ren. "Social identity and inequality: The impact of China's hukou system."
3315:"Perceiving and Deflecting Everyday Poverty-Related Shame: Evidence from 35 Female Marriage Migrants in Rural China"
970:
are left to pay for their own needs to a remarkable extent. The average hospital visit in China in 2018 is paid 35%
6648:
6496:
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6277:
6252:
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6000:
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3804:
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The situation in education is similar. In a survey of 3037 villages in 2004, average primary school fees were 260
6681:
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5018:
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4288:
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4219:
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4054:
3869:
3814:
3799:
3692:
3662:
3567:
1421:"China has reached a major milestone in ending absolute poverty. But the Communist Party isn't celebrating yet"
948:
683:) in either a rural area or an urban area, and cannot change the hukou without the permission of the receiving
516:
438:
6105:
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3513:
6272:
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5970:
5702:
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4380:
4121:
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4044:
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3657:
1087:
956:
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inequality and restrict some of the potential mechanisms that would normally lead to an eventual decline in
496:
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scheme go a long way in ensuring protection of the right to health and broader social and economic rights".
413:
268:
115:
88:
6060:
5950:
5930:
2365:
1969:
1967:
6610:
6412:
6355:
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5830:
5722:
5557:
5390:
5354:
5273:
5253:
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5188:
5023:
4988:
4835:
4373:
4276:
4089:
4062:
4039:
4029:
3959:
3886:
3418:
1983:
1935:
445:
366:". This highlights that a key component of Chinese reform has been trade liberalization and opening up to
233:
6090:
5975:
3414:
6600:
6560:
6437:
6035:
5980:
5880:
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5218:
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1200:
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783:
670:
483:
479:
111:
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sector, which is already relatively well off. It limits the government's scope to increase funding for
6151:
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6005:
3267:
3012:
1703:
6575:
6570:
6380:
6146:
6025:
6020:
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5900:
5531:
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5436:
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5385:
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4224:
4104:
4024:
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3874:
3759:
3488:
3065:
2810:
934:
930:
categories such as health and education where variation among counties and among provinces is large.
688:
2227:
2111:"Statement by UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Michelle Bachelet after official visit to China"
1988:
1940:
408:
China's sustained growth fueled historically unprecedented poverty reduction. The World Bank uses a
6120:
6040:
5995:
5965:
5865:
5793:
5636:
5628:
5536:
5501:
5461:
5446:
5426:
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536:
6175:
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5319:
5288:
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5193:
5152:
5142:
5117:
4651:
4618:
4572:
4567:
4143:
4077:
3682:
3393:
3344:
3295:
3191:
3142:
3093:
2994:
2303:
2001:
1953:
1563:
1537:
966:
in many locations not having adequate resources to fund basic social services. As a consequence,
643:
521:
229:
150:
2095:
2019:
1814:
1796:
1776:
1342:
899:
are largely decentralized in China, whereas they are central functions in most other countries.
3268:"Gender imbalance in China's marriage migration: Quantitative evidence and policy implications"
6385:
6322:
6312:
6045:
5915:
5875:
5587:
5456:
5421:
5416:
5359:
5344:
5339:
5324:
5314:
5309:
5233:
5213:
5167:
5079:
5033:
4973:
4603:
4593:
4209:
3900:
3854:
3844:
3742:
3447:"Capitalist reforms and extreme poverty in China: unprecedented progress or income deflation?"
3425:
3385:
3336:
3287:
3248:
3230:
3183:
3134:
3085:
2588:
2550:
2532:
2488:
2454:
2436:
2257:
1901:
1840:
1512:
1208:- Organization that allows people to contribute directly to microfinance institutions in China
1157:
1077:
540:
471:
169:
1905:
416:. In most low-income countries this amount is sufficient to guarantee each person about 1000
6605:
6427:
6417:
6407:
6070:
5985:
5920:
5895:
5885:
5674:
5572:
5441:
5329:
5293:
5263:
5238:
5223:
5147:
5137:
5127:
5064:
5013:
4936:
4912:
4608:
4261:
4163:
4158:
3991:
3622:
3460:
3375:
3326:
3279:
3238:
3222:
3173:
3124:
3077:
3043:
2986:
2758:
2718:
2540:
2524:
2480:
2444:
2428:
2397:
Zhao, J. G. (2000). "Analysis of the Overemployment in SOEs". In Y. Wang and A. Chen (ed.).
2295:
2286:
Yang, Dennis, T. (May 1999). "Urban-Biased Policies and Rising Income Inequality in China".
1993:
1945:
1891:
1117:
1107:
1067:
963:
903:
500:
363:
158:
119:
3581:
6641:
6432:
6350:
6262:
6237:
6221:
5905:
5748:
5707:
5541:
5516:
5466:
5431:
5008:
4983:
3834:
3492:
2600:
2209:
1867:
1172:
1167:
1132:
1122:
919:
888:
371:
213:
185:
over rural land also limited the ability of peasants to benefit from their primary asset.
77:
5577:
3499:
Foreign-funded projects of the State Council Poverty Alleviation Office Management Center
839:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
739:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
37:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
6390:
5717:
5712:
5697:
4783:
4178:
3914:
3672:
3243:
3210:
2545:
2512:
2449:
2416:
1317:
1289:
918:, any state falling below 95 percent of the average level gets subsidized through the "
907:
375:
359:
basis. But in the 15 years from 1990 to 2005, China averaged per capita growth of 8.7%
198:
98:
At the end of 2018, the number of people living below China's national poverty line of
3380:
3363:
1924:
Ravallion, Martin; Chen, Shaohua (2007). "China's (Uneven) Progress Against Poverty".
914:, the poorest state has about 65 percent of the revenues of the average state, and in
478:
had travelled to China. In a statement about her visit she wrote "The introduction of
6675:
6169:
5562:
5003:
4858:
4613:
4067:
4006:
3784:
3397:
3348:
3299:
3195:
3146:
3097:
1676:
1092:
987:
971:
911:
796:
773:
424:
per day, plus other basic necessities. In 2007, this line corresponds to about 2,836
218:
209:
205:
145:
132:
73:
3548:
2998:
2678:
1957:
5743:
5654:
5521:
3442:
2528:
2432:
2005:
1177:
1162:
1142:
1102:
1097:
704:
684:
680:
524:
460:
409:
178:
107:
3465:
3446:
3283:
3226:
3081:
2763:
2746:
2723:
1949:
1754:
1860:
1370:
6370:
6229:
6179:
4335:
2133:
2131:
998:
995:
938:
926:, the richest state has 2.3 times the revenues per capita of the poorest state.
884:
869:
803:
778:
512:
189:
182:
2965:
2963:
1468:"China, The Millennium Development Goals, and the Post-2015 Development Agenda"
872:. China in fact has one of the most decentralized fiscal systems in the world.
768:
under the Hukou system, land in China is zoned as either rural or urban. Under
188:
Aside from income inequality, there has also been an increase in inequality of
54:
6565:
6458:
6375:
5506:
3047:
2786:"China vows to improve teacher quality in rural areas - People's Daily Online"
2148:
1815:"Poverty headcount ratio at $ 5.50 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - China"
1797:"Poverty headcount ratio at $ 3.20 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) - China"
761:
709:
173:
123:
81:
3389:
3340:
3291:
3234:
3187:
3138:
3089:
2536:
2440:
2020:"Poverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) - China"
1672:"China's poverty line is not as stingy as commentators think | The Economist"
1630:"Ratio of residents living below the poverty line in China from 2000 to 2020"
1516:
1343:"Poverty headcount ratio at $ 1.90 a day (2011 PPP) (% of population) | Data"
5664:
4824:
4753:
2038:
1919:
1917:
1915:
1235:"China has almost wiped out urban poverty no. Now it must tackle inequality"
1152:
979:
967:
941:
861:
421:
3561:
3252:
2990:
2554:
2458:
2401:. Southwestern University of Finance and Economics Press. pp. 615â625.
1448:"What China's 'Total Victory' Over Extreme Poverty Looks Like In Actuality"
868:
collection to provide basic services such as primary education and primary
405:
clearance time for imports has been lowered in Chinese cities to 3.3 days.
224:
Recent government measures to reduce disparities include relaxation of the
3331:
3178:
3129:
2706:
2484:
887:
assignments also give rise to this pattern of spending. Functions such as
6304:
5727:
5669:
5644:
4345:
2299:
1884:"Das (Wasted) Kapital: Firm Ownership and Investment Efficiency in China"
1832:
1137:
1005:
425:
417:
103:
99:
2972:"International Data On Educational Attainment: Updates And Implications"
2179:"The Rural-Urban Divide and the Evolution of Political Economy in China"
6342:
5692:
5659:
5649:
5511:
4959:
4864:
3486:
State Council Leading Group Office of Poverty Alleviation and Reduction
1260:"China has almost ended urban poverty â a promising start for the SDGs"
915:
892:
808:
792:
402:
154:
69:
5597:
3551:
United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific
2307:
2254:
The rural-urban divide: economic disparities and interactions in China
1538:"China announces eradication of extreme poverty in last poor counties"
3013:"Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure) - China"
1112:
983:
975:
923:
386:
382:
193:
3162:"Mothers Left without a Man: Poverty and Single Parenthood in China"
3591:
2896:
2894:
2892:
2570:"'I'd be a burden': Meet some of China's 61 million abandoned kids"
1997:
1896:
1883:
1751:"Human Development Report 2009 - Population living below $ 2 a day"
6190:
5785:
3504:
Chinese Academy of Science and Technology for Development (CASTED)
2747:"Unequal Primary Education Opportunities in Rural and Urban China"
2707:"Unequal Primary Education Opportunities in Rural and Urban China"
1205:
765:
64:
53:
31:
Parts of this article (those related to documentation) need to be
2511:
Hannum, Emily; Liu, Jihong; Frongillo, Edward (January 1, 2014).
2150:
The Young Generation Left Behind In China | Foreign Correspondent
1651:"Chinese population living with less $ 1.90 and $ 3.20 per day"
265:
1606:"Low, middle & high income countries 2022 by GNI per capita"
876:
696:
6194:
5789:
5771:
List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty
5601:
4932:
3595:
2943:"Research Report - 2010 Findings from 17-Province China Survey"
2700:
2698:
2696:
1415:
1413:
1411:
1128:
List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty
432:
This poverty reduction has occurred in waves. The shift to the
362:
The whole reform program is often referred to in brief as the "
4667:
Mainland and Hong Kong Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement
3066:"A gender-based analysis of multidimensional poverty in China"
1624:
1622:
1452:
1425:
865:
819:
719:
17:
474:
visited China in May 2022, the first time in 17 years that a
4495:
State-owned Assets Supervision and Administration Commission
3503:
2366:"Urban Poverty in China: Measurement, Patterns and policies"
2340:"Facts About Poverty in China Challenge Conventional Wisdom"
1191:
ActionAid efforts in dealing with income inequality in China
1001:
as the reason that they were having financial difficulties.
787:
allocate some of the land out of agriculture for urban use.
4324:
National Fund for Technology Transfer and Commercialisation
1505:"China Says It Has Met Its Deadline of Eliminating Poverty"
922:" (and any receiving more than 110 percent gets taxed). In
4928:
4672:
Mainland and Macau Closer Economic Partnership Arrangement
3533:
3508:
3485:
221:
health and the situation of the relatively poor in China.
6507:
National Administration of Disease Control and Prevention
3518:
2568:
Carney, China correspondent Matthew (September 6, 2016).
2256:. United States, New York: Oxford University. p. 8.
228:
system, abolition of the agricultural tax, and increased
168:
Starting from the pre-reform situation, some increase in
3498:
3113:"Left Behind? The Status of Women in Contemporary China"
6502:
National Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine
3523:
3266:
Wang, Qingbin; Zou, Yang; Fan, Dan (December 1, 2019).
1837:
The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism
962:
China's highly decentralized fiscal system results in:
860:
Market reform has dramatically increased the return to
4445:
China Council for the Promotion of International Trade
3568:
The Poverty Challenge for China in the New Millennium
1877:
1875:
385:
dropped below 10%, and to around 5% for manufactured
3573:
Communiqué on 2004 Rural Poverty Monitoring of China
457:
Press Conference of the Premier of the State Council
76:. Decades of economic development has reduced urban
6629:
6553:
6487:
6341:
6303:
6228:
6119:
6079:
5821:
5736:
5683:
5635:
5494:
5399:
5378:
5302:
5181:
5110:
5103:
5047:
4966:
4782:
4715:
4632:
4586:
4518:
4425:
4238:
4202:
4120:
4053:
4015:
3733:
3643:
3529:
China Society For Promotion Of The Guangcai Program
2677:. Peer Experience Exchange Rostrum. Archived from
1442:
1440:
1438:
1436:
760:Just as Chinese citizens are either registered as
6512:Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention
4309:China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund
527:was about twice the level as in the countryside.
389:. It initially welcomed foreign investment into "
118:. As of 2020, China has succeeded in eradicating
6533:Macau Secretariat for Social Affairs and Culture
2669:
2667:
2665:
2663:
2517:International Journal of Educational Development
2399:China's Labour Market and Problems of Employment
453:General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party
58:Share of population in extreme poverty over time
4470:Ministry of Industry and Information Technology
4294:China Banknote Printing and Minting Corporation
3544:International Poverty Reduction Center in China
3111:Walker, Robert; Millar, Jane (April 28, 2020).
2873:, Land Lines: April 2003, Volume 15, Number 2.
2836:"The Rural Poor Shunned by China's Top Schools"
2078:"How did China succeed in alleviating poverty?"
1312:
1310:
255:Poverty reduction in China by various measures
6664: * only in special administrative regions
6654:China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study
2281:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2273:
6206:
5801:
5613:
4944:
4435:All-China Federation of Industry and Commerce
3607:
3534:United Nations Development Programme in China
3514:China Poverty Alleviation Information Network
3415:Poverty Profile of People's Republic of China
2882:Congressional Executive Commission on China,
1882:Dollar, David R.; Wei, Shang-Jin (May 2007).
1213:Young China Scholars Poverty Research Network
8:
4475:National Financial Regulatory Administration
2320:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2228:"Urban-rural income gap widest since reform"
947:There is some redistribution within China's
354:China has maintained a high growth rate for
6545:National Healthcare Security Administration
4687:Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
3704:Grasping the large, letting go of the small
3059:
3057:
2392:
2390:
2177:Knight, J.; Li, S.; Song, L. (March 2004).
2039:"Poverty in the People's Republic of China"
6213:
6199:
6191:
5808:
5794:
5786:
5620:
5606:
5598:
5107:
4951:
4937:
4929:
4908:
4662:GuangdongâHong KongâMacau Greater Bay Area
4500:State Administration for Market Regulation
4485:National Development and Reform Commission
3614:
3600:
3592:
2221:
2219:
1725:"Poverty Around The World â Global Issues"
539:, with inequality rising during the rapid
232:transfers to fund health and education in
4369:National Equities Exchange and Quotations
3564:China: a shared poverty to uneven wealth?
3464:
3379:
3362:Gu, Rui; Nie, Feng-ying (April 1, 2021).
3330:
3242:
3209:Zhao, Rui; Zhao, Yaohui (April 3, 2018).
3177:
3128:
2774:– via chinaperspectives.revues.org.
2762:
2734:– via chinaperspectives.revues.org.
2722:
2544:
2448:
2172:
2170:
2168:
2166:
1987:
1939:
1895:
795:, and the revenue collected put into the
6519:National Medical Products Administration
5568:Providing Urban Amenities to Rural Areas
4505:State Administration of Foreign Exchange
2970:Barro, Robert J.; Lee, Jong-Wha (2001).
1976:Economic Development and Cultural Change
1777:"Poverty headcount ratio at $ 1.90 a day
253:
201:cost of basic education and healthcare.
2333:
2331:
1585:"World Bank Country and Lending Groups"
1225:
816:Fiscal system and rural social services
279:Poverty headcount ratio at $ 5.50 a day
274:Poverty headcount ratio at $ 3.20 a day
262:Poverty headcount ratio at $ 1.90 a day
5095:Scottish Index of Multiple Deprivation
4480:National Bureau of Statistics of China
4450:China Securities Regulatory Commission
3577:National Bureau of Statistics of China
3064:Wu, Yichao; Qi, Di (January 2, 2017).
2645:
2643:
2612:
2610:
2596:
2586:
2475:Unger, Jonathan (September 16, 2016).
2313:
2205:
2194:
1503:Areddy, James T. (November 23, 2020).
1389:
1387:
1365:
1363:
875:China is much more decentralized than
381:After joining the WTO China's average
3509:China Development Research Foundation
2506:
2504:
2470:
2468:
2415:Ward, Patrick S. (February 1, 2016).
2410:
2408:
2375:. International Labour Office, Geneva
1779:(2011 PPP) (% of population) - China"
1233:Stuart, Elizabeth (August 19, 2020).
476:UN high commissioner for human rights
179:household registration (hukou) system
7:
5547:Self-perceived quality-of-life scale
4697:Western Taiwan Straits Economic Zone
4642:Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
4440:All-China Federation of Trade Unions
3539:China Poverty Alleviation Foundation
2745:Fu, Teng Margaret (August 1, 2005).
2705:Fu, Teng Margaret (August 1, 2005).
1704:"GDP growth (annual %) - China"
1055:List of minimum wages in China (PRC)
506:List of countries by income equality
4174:Hong Kong Trade Development Council
3441:Sullivan, Dylan; Moatsos, Michail;
2871:'Urban Land Policy Reform in China'
2109:Bachelet, Michelle (May 28, 2022).
974:by the patient, compared to 25% in
281:(2011 Int$ PPP) (% of population)
276:(2011 Int$ PPP) (% of population)
172:was inevitable, as favored coastal
5775:Deprivation and poverty indicators
3678:Three-anti and Five-anti Campaigns
3368:Journal of Integrative Agriculture
906:. From 1990 to 2003, the ratio of
14:
6616:Violence against doctors in China
6540:General Administration of Customs
4702:Yangtze River Delta Economic Zone
4455:General Administration of Customs
4319:China Reform Holdings Corporation
3710:Scientific Outlook on Development
3519:China Poverty Alleviation Network
3211:"The Gender Pension Gap in China"
2477:The Transformation of Rural China
1148:New Rural Reconstruction Movement
451:On 6 March 2020, Xi Jinping, the
6174:
6165:
6164:
5123:Democratic Republic of the Congo
4907:
4898:
4897:
4749:2008â2009 economic stimulus plan
4510:State Administration of Taxation
4398:Stock Exchange Executive Council
4252:
4251:
3865:
3864:
3632:
3631:
3313:Zhang, Guanli (April 28, 2020).
3070:Asian Journal of Women's Studies
3036:Journal of Comparative Economics
2869:Ding, Chengri and Gerrit Knaap,
2064:"ïŒćæććžïŒäč èżćčłïŒćšćłæćłèè±èŽ«æ»ććș§è°äŒäžçèźČèŻ-æ°ćçœ"
1927:Journal of Development Economics
1680:. March 20, 2023. Archived from
1564:"China GNI Per Capita 1962-2022"
824:
724:
22:
4759:2015â16 stock market turbulence
4682:Pearl River Delta Economic Zone
2364:Hussain, Athar (January 2003).
2338:Canaves, Sky (April 13, 2009).
1395:"2022 World Bank poverty lines"
1371:"World Bank 2022 poverty lines"
638:Unequal educational opportunity
434:household responsibility system
6525:Hong Kong Department of Health
6132:British Indian Ocean Territory
5090:Multidimensional Poverty Index
4677:Northeast China Revitalization
4314:China Internet Investment Fund
4299:China Government Guidance Fund
2529:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2012.07.003
2433:10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.10.022
2373:Socio-Economic Security Series
631:Transformation of Rural China,
1:
5039:Sustainable Development Goals
4769:ChinaâUnited States trade war
4634:Regional economic initiatives
4587:National economic initiatives
4304:China-Africa Development Fund
3698:Deng Xiaoping's southern tour
3466:10.1080/13563467.2023.2217087
3381:10.1016/S2095-3119(20)63436-0
3284:10.1016/j.econmod.2019.09.040
3227:10.1080/13545701.2017.1411601
3082:10.1080/12259276.2017.1279886
2764:10.4000/chinaperspectives.500
2724:10.4000/chinaperspectives.500
1950:10.1016/j.jdeveco.2005.07.003
1861:The Economic Future of China.
895:, and even the production of
842:Last update: 21 November 2020
742:Last update: 21 November 2020
675:Metropolitan Regions of China
246:Moderately prosperous society
128:National Bureau of Statistics
110:for countries with different
6637:ChinaâCornellâOxford Project
6318:Traditional Chinese medicine
5055:Homeless Vulnerability Index
4870:List of Chinese by net worth
4853:China Compulsory Certificate
4764:Protein export contamination
4415:Zhengzhou Commodity Exchange
4331:China Investment Corporation
3795:Business process outsourcing
2811:"Rural students left behind"
2288:The American Economic Review
1888:NBER Working Paper No. 13103
990:, and lower amounts in most
250:Targeted Poverty Alleviation
6621:Water supply and sanitation
5527:Welfare's effect on poverty
5029:List of basic income models
4184:Water supply and sanitation
3582:China To Raise Poverty Line
3549:Poverty Statistics in China
2635:Journal of Public Economics
1185:Organizations and campaigns
1018:urban or rural areas, etc.
6698:
6649:China Family Panel Studies
6497:National Health Commission
5070:Genuine progress indicator
4999:Climate change and poverty
4692:Rise of Central China Plan
4490:National Energy Commission
3160:Li, Qin (April 28, 2020).
2790:English.peopledaily.com.cn
2226:Fu, Jing (March 2, 2010).
1859:Lardy, Nicholas R., 2001.
1196:List of charities in China
807:survey of 17 provinces by
668:
641:
558:Income inequality in China
555:
501:Gini measure of inequality
243:
6662:
6268:Patriotic Health Campaign
6160:
5763:
5703:African sleeping sickness
5019:Guaranteed minimum income
4888:
4725:2005â2011 property bubble
4657:China Western Development
4364:Dalian Commodity Exchange
3629:
3562:Income disparity in China
3048:10.1016/j.jce.2005.05.008
833:This article needs to be
733:This article needs to be
665:Restrictions on migration
368:foreign direct investment
163:environmental degradation
6448:Swine influenza outbreak
6248:Healthcare system reform
5881:East Timor (Timor-Leste)
5075:Legatum Prosperity Index
5060:Misery index (economics)
4599:Belt and Road Initiative
4578:Rural credit cooperative
4351:Foreign exchange reserve
4284:Beijing Financial Street
3693:Socialist market economy
2651:Journal of Rural Studies
2479:. Taylor & Francis.
153:and a marked decline in
6328:Pharmaceutical industry
6273:China Welfare Institute
6142:Cocos (Keeling) Islands
5749:Priority review voucher
4841:Globalization and women
4707:Zhongyuan Economic Zone
4647:Beibu Gulf Economic Rim
4427:Government institutions
4403:Shenzhen Stock Exchange
4393:Shanghai Metal Exchange
4381:Shanghai Stock Exchange
4045:Zhangjiang Hi-Tech Park
4030:Megalopolises in China
3495:(Chinese & English)
2886:. 10 Oct 2010, pp 41-42
2344:The Wall Street Journal
2096:"æäčç"6äșżäșșæŻææ¶ć
„1000ć
"-æ°ćçœ"
1088:Feminization of poverty
1050:Digital divide in China
515:-winning economist Sir
414:Purchasing Power Parity
89:purchasing power parity
6443:Disease-related deaths
6403:lead poisoning scandal
6361:Cardiovascular disease
5024:Universal basic income
4989:Disability and poverty
4880:Science and technology
4774:2020â2021 reform spree
4528:International rankings
4374:Beijing Stock Exchange
4040:Suzhou Industrial Park
4035:Special Economic Zones
3491:July 31, 2017, at the
3419:Asian Development Bank
2979:Oxford Economic Papers
2204:Cite journal requires
2043:Asian Development Bank
2037:elmer (May 23, 2017).
579:Urban poverty in China
484:unemployment insurance
446:Asian Development Bank
391:special economic zones
370:, but not opening the
59:
6371:Enterovirus 71 (EV71)
6295:Organ transplantation
5593:List of global issues
5552:Subjective well-being
4230:Intellectual property
3725:1949â1976 wage reform
3668:Industrial Revolution
3524:China Poverty Network
3452:New Political Economy
3332:10.17645/si.v8i2.2671
3179:10.17645/si.v8i2.2678
3130:10.17645/si.v8i2.3038
2485:10.4324/9781315292052
2024:The World Bank | Data
1819:The World Bank | Data
1801:The World Bank | Data
1783:The World Bank | Data
1270:on September 10, 2017
1201:List of NGOs in China
1045:Demographics of China
784:comparative advantage
671:Urbanization in China
482:and almost universal
480:universal health care
112:gross national income
72:refers mainly to the
57:
6243:Disease surveillance
6056:United Arab Emirates
5532:Criticism of welfare
4979:Concentrated poverty
4918:Economy of East Asia
4624:Youth Business China
4460:Ministry of Commerce
4408:SZSE Component Index
4025:Dalian Software Park
2991:10.1093/oep/53.3.541
2675:"Project Background"
2618:Town Planning Review
2300:10.1257/aer.89.2.306
1839:. New York: Viking.
1429:. November 27, 2020.
935:infant survival rate
881:sub-provincial level
770:Chinese property law
689:economic development
490:Increased inequality
467:Universal Healthcare
271:) (% of population)
6083:limited recognition
5637:Diseases of poverty
5629:Diseases of poverty
5563:Rural access issues
5502:Theories of poverty
5085:Human Poverty Index
4994:Diseases of poverty
4465:Ministry of Finance
4386:SSE Composite Index
4356:Hedge fund industry
4203:Law and regulations
3910:academic publishing
3688:Four Modernizations
3587:Sweatshops in China
2252:Knight, J. (1999).
1731:. November 12, 2011
1544:. November 24, 2020
1509:Wall Street Journal
1083:Economic inequality
1073:Diseases of poverty
1009:for poor families.
992:developed countries
897:national statistics
537:history of the U.S.
256:
80:. According to the
6591:Population history
6581:Illegal drug trade
6278:Hospitals in China
6258:Health informatics
5685:Neglected diseases
5670:Diarrheal diseases
5583:Culture of poverty
4875:Chinese economists
4848:National Standards
4744:2007 slave scandal
4652:Bohai Economic Rim
4619:Made in China 2025
4568:Internal migration
4553:Standard of living
4341:Financial services
4215:Labor contract law
4169:Illegal drug trade
4139:World Trade Center
3975:Telecommunications
3923:equipment industry
3755:Advanced materials
3720:Population history
3683:Great Leap Forward
3637:Companies of China
3437:, World Bank, 2009
3272:Economic Modelling
3215:Feminist Economics
2911:"Landesa in China"
2884:2010 Annual Report
2751:China Perspectives
2711:China Perspectives
2637:123 (2015): 17-29.
2599:has generic name (
1866:2007-12-10 at the
1347:data.worldbank.org
644:Education in China
552:Rural-urban divide
459:at the end of the
395:foreign investment
356:more than 30 years
254:
60:
6669:
6668:
6464:COVID-19 pandemic
6398:Iodine deficiency
6313:Medicine in China
6188:
6187:
6125:other territories
5783:
5782:
5757:
5756:
5588:Causes of poverty
5490:
5489:
5080:Poverty gap index
5034:Poverty reduction
4974:Measuring poverty
4926:
4925:
4739:2007 stock bubble
4604:Common prosperity
4594:Beijing Consensus
4548:Income inequality
4017:Development Zones
2842:. August 21, 2010
2815:Chinadaily.com.cn
2421:World Development
2263:978-0-19-829330-9
2026:. The World Bank.
1846:978-1-9848-7828-1
1821:. The World Bank.
1803:. The World Bank.
1785:. The World Bank.
1684:on March 20, 2023
1158:Poverty threshold
1078:Deprivation index
858:
857:
843:
758:
757:
743:
541:industrialization
472:Michelle Bachelet
349:
348:
240:Poverty reduction
170:income inequality
52:
51:
6689:
6682:Poverty in China
6428:Pneumonic plague
6366:Chronic diseases
6356:Blue-ear disease
6215:
6208:
6201:
6192:
6178:
6168:
6167:
6137:Christmas Island
5823:Sovereign states
5810:
5803:
5796:
5787:
5622:
5615:
5608:
5599:
5573:Post-materialism
5108:
5065:Gini coefficient
5014:Cycle of poverty
4953:
4946:
4939:
4930:
4913:Outline of China
4911:
4910:
4901:
4900:
4734:pet food recalls
4609:Dual circulation
4360:Stock Exchanges
4289:Financial system
4255:
4254:
4194:Trading partners
3940:Renewable energy
3868:
3867:
3635:
3634:
3623:Economy of China
3616:
3609:
3602:
3593:
3470:
3468:
3402:
3401:
3383:
3374:(4): 1092â1106.
3359:
3353:
3352:
3334:
3319:Social Inclusion
3310:
3304:
3303:
3263:
3257:
3256:
3246:
3206:
3200:
3199:
3181:
3166:Social Inclusion
3157:
3151:
3150:
3132:
3117:Social Inclusion
3108:
3102:
3101:
3061:
3052:
3051:
3031:
3025:
3024:
3022:
3020:
3009:
3003:
3002:
2976:
2967:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2939:
2933:
2932:
2930:
2928:
2923:on April 4, 2012
2922:
2916:. Archived from
2915:
2907:
2901:
2898:
2887:
2880:
2874:
2867:
2861:
2858:
2852:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2821:
2807:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2796:
2782:
2776:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2766:
2742:
2736:
2735:
2733:
2731:
2726:
2702:
2691:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2681:on July 27, 2011
2671:
2658:
2647:
2638:
2631:
2625:
2614:
2605:
2604:
2598:
2594:
2592:
2584:
2582:
2580:
2565:
2559:
2558:
2548:
2508:
2499:
2498:
2472:
2463:
2462:
2452:
2412:
2403:
2402:
2394:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2370:
2361:
2355:
2354:
2352:
2350:
2335:
2326:
2325:
2319:
2311:
2283:
2268:
2267:
2249:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2223:
2214:
2213:
2207:
2202:
2200:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2183:
2174:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2157:
2145:
2139:
2135:
2126:
2125:
2123:
2121:
2106:
2100:
2099:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2051:
2049:
2034:
2028:
2027:
2016:
2010:
2009:
1991:
1971:
1962:
1961:
1943:
1921:
1910:
1909:
1899:
1879:
1870:
1857:
1851:
1850:
1829:
1823:
1822:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1793:
1787:
1786:
1773:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1762:
1757:on July 16, 2011
1753:. Archived from
1747:
1741:
1740:
1738:
1736:
1729:Globalissues.org
1721:
1715:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1700:
1694:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1668:
1662:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1647:
1641:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1626:
1617:
1616:
1614:
1612:
1602:
1596:
1595:
1593:
1591:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1572:
1570:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1500:
1494:
1493:
1491:
1489:
1483:
1477:. Archived from
1472:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1456:. March 5, 2021.
1444:
1431:
1430:
1417:
1406:
1405:
1403:
1401:
1391:
1382:
1381:
1379:
1377:
1367:
1358:
1357:
1355:
1353:
1339:
1333:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1314:
1305:
1304:
1302:
1300:
1286:
1280:
1279:
1277:
1275:
1266:. Archived from
1256:
1250:
1249:
1247:
1245:
1230:
1118:Income disparity
1108:Green Revolution
1068:Cycle of poverty
1061:General articles
1013:Women In Poverty
964:local government
853:
850:
844:
841:
828:
827:
820:
753:
750:
744:
741:
728:
727:
720:
364:open door policy
257:
159:natural resource
151:living standards
120:absolute poverty
47:
44:
38:
26:
25:
18:
6697:
6696:
6692:
6691:
6690:
6688:
6687:
6686:
6672:
6671:
6670:
6665:
6658:
6642:The China Study
6625:
6549:
6483:
6476:Omicron variant
6351:Avian influenza
6337:
6299:
6290:Medical schools
6263:Barefoot doctor
6224:
6222:Health in China
6219:
6189:
6184:
6156:
6124:
6115:
6096:Northern Cyprus
6082:
6075:
5817:
5816:Poverty in Asia
5814:
5784:
5779:
5759:
5758:
5753:
5732:
5718:River blindness
5708:Schistosomiasis
5679:
5631:
5626:
5542:Quality of life
5517:Welfare culture
5486:
5395:
5374:
5298:
5177:
5099:
5043:
5009:Chronic poverty
4984:Cost of poverty
4962:
4957:
4927:
4922:
4884:
4778:
4711:
4628:
4582:
4514:
4421:
4234:
4220:Labor relations
4198:
4116:
4049:
4011:
3897:Pharmaceuticals
3729:
3663:Five-year plans
3639:
3625:
3620:
3558:
3493:Wayback Machine
3482:
3477:
3440:
3411:
3409:Further reading
3406:
3405:
3361:
3360:
3356:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3208:
3207:
3203:
3159:
3158:
3154:
3110:
3109:
3105:
3063:
3062:
3055:
3033:
3032:
3028:
3018:
3016:
3011:
3010:
3006:
2974:
2969:
2968:
2961:
2951:
2949:
2941:
2940:
2936:
2926:
2924:
2920:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2904:
2899:
2890:
2881:
2877:
2868:
2864:
2859:
2855:
2845:
2843:
2834:
2833:
2829:
2819:
2817:
2809:
2808:
2804:
2794:
2792:
2784:
2783:
2779:
2769:
2767:
2744:
2743:
2739:
2729:
2727:
2704:
2703:
2694:
2684:
2682:
2673:
2672:
2661:
2648:
2641:
2632:
2628:
2615:
2608:
2595:
2585:
2578:
2576:
2567:
2566:
2562:
2510:
2509:
2502:
2495:
2474:
2473:
2466:
2414:
2413:
2406:
2396:
2395:
2388:
2378:
2376:
2368:
2363:
2362:
2358:
2348:
2346:
2337:
2336:
2329:
2312:
2285:
2284:
2271:
2264:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2236:
2234:
2225:
2224:
2217:
2203:
2193:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2176:
2175:
2164:
2155:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2136:
2129:
2119:
2117:
2108:
2107:
2103:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2076:
2075:
2071:
2062:
2061:
2057:
2047:
2045:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2018:
2017:
2013:
1989:10.1.1.453.1394
1973:
1972:
1965:
1941:10.1.1.495.4089
1923:
1922:
1913:
1881:
1880:
1873:
1868:Wayback Machine
1858:
1854:
1847:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1813:
1812:
1808:
1795:
1794:
1790:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1760:
1758:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1734:
1732:
1723:
1722:
1718:
1708:
1706:
1702:
1701:
1697:
1687:
1685:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1655:
1653:
1649:
1648:
1644:
1634:
1632:
1628:
1627:
1620:
1610:
1608:
1604:
1603:
1599:
1589:
1587:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1568:
1566:
1562:
1561:
1557:
1547:
1545:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1521:
1519:
1502:
1501:
1497:
1487:
1485:
1484:on May 10, 2017
1481:
1470:
1466:
1465:
1461:
1446:
1445:
1434:
1419:
1418:
1409:
1399:
1397:
1393:
1392:
1385:
1375:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1361:
1351:
1349:
1341:
1340:
1336:
1326:
1324:
1316:
1315:
1308:
1298:
1296:
1294:Icpsr.umich.edu
1288:
1287:
1283:
1273:
1271:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1243:
1241:
1232:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1187:
1182:
1173:The Hunger Site
1168:Street children
1133:List of famines
1123:Life expectancy
1063:
1041:
1036:
1015:
920:Finanzausgleich
889:social security
854:
848:
845:
840:
838:
829:
825:
818:
754:
748:
745:
740:
738:
729:
725:
718:
677:
667:
646:
640:
610:
581:
560:
554:
492:
469:
444:Taken from the
372:capital account
280:
275:
263:
252:
242:
214:public services
142:
78:extreme poverty
48:
42:
39:
36:
27:
23:
12:
11:
5:
6695:
6693:
6685:
6684:
6674:
6673:
6667:
6666:
6663:
6660:
6659:
6657:
6656:
6651:
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6435:
6430:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6394:
6393:
6391:Plasma Economy
6383:
6378:
6373:
6368:
6363:
6358:
6353:
6347:
6345:
6339:
6338:
6336:
6335:
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6315:
6309:
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6301:
6300:
6298:
6297:
6292:
6287:
6286:
6285:
6283:Classification
6275:
6270:
6265:
6260:
6255:
6253:Women's health
6250:
6245:
6240:
6234:
6232:
6226:
6225:
6220:
6218:
6217:
6210:
6203:
6195:
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6144:
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6098:
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5751:
5746:
5740:
5738:
5734:
5733:
5731:
5730:
5725:
5720:
5715:
5713:Dracunculiasis
5710:
5705:
5700:
5698:Chagas disease
5695:
5689:
5687:
5681:
5680:
5678:
5677:
5672:
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5370:United Kingdom
5367:
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4784:Related topics
4780:
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4756:
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4533:Social welfare
4530:
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4156:
4154:Postal history
4151:
4149:Communications
4146:
4141:
4136:
4130:
4128:
4126:infrastructure
4118:
4117:
4115:
4114:
4113:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4092:
4087:
4086:
4085:
4083:Oil refineries
4080:
4070:
4065:
4059:
4057:
4051:
4050:
4048:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
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4009:
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3999:
3994:
3989:
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3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3842:
3837:
3832:
3827:
3825:Electric power
3822:
3820:Electric motor
3817:
3812:
3807:
3802:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3751:
3750:
3739:
3737:
3731:
3730:
3728:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3715:Historical GDP
3712:
3707:
3700:
3695:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3675:
3673:Iron rice bowl
3670:
3665:
3660:
3655:
3649:
3647:
3641:
3640:
3630:
3627:
3626:
3621:
3619:
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3596:
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3579:
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3541:
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3531:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3475:External links
3473:
3472:
3471:
3438:
3432:
3422:
3410:
3407:
3404:
3403:
3354:
3325:(2): 123â131.
3305:
3258:
3221:(2): 218â239.
3201:
3172:(2): 114â122.
3152:
3103:
3053:
3042:(4): 730â752.
3026:
3004:
2985:(3): 541â563.
2959:
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2888:
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2827:
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2692:
2659:
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2606:
2560:
2500:
2493:
2464:
2404:
2386:
2356:
2327:
2294:(2): 306â310.
2269:
2262:
2244:
2215:
2206:|journal=
2162:
2140:
2127:
2101:
2087:
2069:
2055:
2029:
2011:
1998:10.1086/431262
1963:
1911:
1897:10.3386/w13103
1871:
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1058:
1057:
1052:
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1040:
1039:China articles
1037:
1035:
1032:
1014:
1011:
908:per capita GDP
856:
855:
832:
830:
823:
817:
814:
756:
755:
732:
730:
723:
717:
714:
666:
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556:Main article:
553:
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491:
488:
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376:private sector
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331:
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315:
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30:
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21:
13:
10:
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4:
3:
2:
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6683:
6680:
6679:
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6645:
6643:
6638:
6635:
6634:
6632:
6628:
6622:
6619:
6617:
6614:
6612:
6611:Vegetarianism
6609:
6607:
6604:
6602:
6599:
6597:
6594:
6592:
6589:
6587:
6584:
6582:
6579:
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6503:
6500:
6499:
6498:
6495:
6494:
6492:
6490:
6486:
6477:
6474:
6471:
6470:Delta variant
6468:
6465:
6462:
6461:
6460:
6457:
6454:
6453:SARS pandemic
6451:
6449:
6446:
6444:
6441:
6439:
6436:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6413:Mental health
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6392:
6389:
6388:
6387:
6384:
6382:
6379:
6377:
6374:
6372:
6369:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6354:
6352:
6349:
6348:
6346:
6344:
6340:
6334:
6333:Biotechnology
6331:
6329:
6326:
6324:
6321:
6319:
6316:
6314:
6311:
6310:
6308:
6306:
6302:
6296:
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6284:
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6280:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6264:
6261:
6259:
6256:
6254:
6251:
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6235:
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6227:
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6211:
6209:
6204:
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6197:
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6159:
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6145:
6143:
6140:
6138:
6135:
6133:
6130:
6129:
6127:
6122:
6118:
6112:
6109:
6107:
6106:South Ossetia
6104:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6088:
6086:
6084:
6078:
6072:
6069:
6067:
6064:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6054:
6052:
6049:
6047:
6044:
6042:
6039:
6037:
6034:
6032:
6029:
6027:
6024:
6022:
6019:
6017:
6014:
6012:
6009:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5992:
5989:
5987:
5984:
5982:
5979:
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5872:
5869:
5867:
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5862:
5859:
5857:
5854:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5842:
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5829:
5828:
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5804:
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5797:
5792:
5791:
5788:
5776:
5772:
5769:
5766:
5765:
5762:
5750:
5747:
5745:
5742:
5741:
5739:
5737:Miscellaneous
5735:
5729:
5726:
5724:
5723:Leishmaniasis
5721:
5719:
5716:
5714:
5711:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5699:
5696:
5694:
5691:
5690:
5688:
5686:
5682:
5676:
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5668:
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5656:
5653:
5651:
5648:
5646:
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5638:
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5630:
5623:
5618:
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5611:
5609:
5604:
5603:
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5594:
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5584:
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5540:
5538:
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5528:
5525:
5523:
5520:
5518:
5515:
5513:
5510:
5508:
5505:
5503:
5500:
5499:
5497:
5493:
5483:
5480:
5478:
5475:
5473:
5472:United States
5470:
5468:
5465:
5463:
5460:
5458:
5455:
5453:
5450:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5428:
5425:
5423:
5420:
5418:
5415:
5413:
5410:
5408:
5405:
5404:
5402:
5398:
5392:
5389:
5387:
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5366:
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5348:
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5260:
5257:
5255:
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5245:
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5240:
5237:
5235:
5232:
5230:
5227:
5225:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5215:
5212:
5210:
5207:
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5197:
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5180:
5174:
5171:
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5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5115:
5113:
5109:
5106:
5102:
5096:
5093:
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5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
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5066:
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5061:
5058:
5056:
5053:
5052:
5050:
5046:
5040:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5004:Child poverty
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4971:
4969:
4965:
4961:
4954:
4949:
4947:
4942:
4940:
4935:
4934:
4931:
4919:
4916:
4914:
4906:
4904:
4896:
4895:
4891:
4890:
4887:
4881:
4878:
4876:
4873:
4871:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4861:
4860:
4859:Made in China
4856:
4854:
4851:
4849:
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4842:
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4837:
4836:Globalization
4834:
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4643:
4640:
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4625:
4622:
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4617:
4615:
4614:Go Out policy
4612:
4610:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4595:
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4157:
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4150:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4134:Trade history
4132:
4131:
4129:
4127:
4123:
4119:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4097:
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4088:
4084:
4081:
4079:
4076:
4075:
4074:
4071:
4069:
4066:
4064:
4063:Energy policy
4061:
4060:
4058:
4056:
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4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4031:
4028:
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4018:
4014:
4008:
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4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3986:
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3911:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3898:
3895:
3893:
3892:Pearl farming
3890:
3888:
3887:Online gaming
3885:
3883:
3880:
3876:
3873:
3872:
3871:
3863:
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3813:
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3808:
3806:
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3798:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3790:Biotechnology
3788:
3786:
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3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
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3758:
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3500:
3497:
3494:
3490:
3487:
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3483:
3480:Organizations
3479:
3474:
3467:
3462:
3458:
3454:
3453:
3448:
3444:
3443:Hickel, Jason
3439:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3430:0-19-513649-7
3427:
3423:
3420:
3416:
3413:
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3408:
3399:
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3333:
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3320:
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3297:
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3014:
3008:
3005:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2973:
2966:
2964:
2960:
2948:
2944:
2938:
2935:
2927:September 30,
2919:
2912:
2906:
2903:
2897:
2895:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2879:
2876:
2872:
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2656:
2652:
2646:
2644:
2640:
2636:
2630:
2627:
2624:(6), 597-621.
2623:
2619:
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2611:
2607:
2602:
2590:
2575:
2571:
2564:
2561:
2556:
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2534:
2530:
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2501:
2496:
2494:9781315292052
2490:
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2393:
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2357:
2349:September 14,
2345:
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2328:
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2317:
2309:
2305:
2301:
2297:
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2280:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2270:
2265:
2259:
2255:
2248:
2245:
2237:September 14,
2233:
2229:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2198:
2187:September 12,
2180:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2163:
2152:
2151:
2144:
2141:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2102:
2097:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2082:Present World
2079:
2073:
2070:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2044:
2040:
2033:
2030:
2025:
2021:
2015:
2012:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1942:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1928:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1878:
1876:
1872:
1869:
1865:
1862:
1856:
1853:
1848:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1828:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1810:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1792:
1789:
1784:
1780:
1772:
1769:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1743:
1730:
1726:
1720:
1717:
1705:
1699:
1696:
1683:
1679:
1678:
1677:The Economist
1673:
1667:
1664:
1652:
1646:
1643:
1631:
1625:
1623:
1619:
1607:
1601:
1598:
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1556:
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1518:
1514:
1510:
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1496:
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1463:
1460:
1455:
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1449:
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1433:
1428:
1427:
1422:
1416:
1414:
1412:
1408:
1396:
1390:
1388:
1384:
1372:
1366:
1364:
1360:
1348:
1344:
1338:
1335:
1323:
1322:Worldbank.org
1319:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1295:
1291:
1285:
1282:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1255:
1252:
1240:
1236:
1229:
1226:
1219:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1189:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1176:
1174:
1171:
1169:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1151:
1149:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1093:Food security
1091:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1060:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1048:
1046:
1043:
1042:
1038:
1033:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1012:
1010:
1007:
1002:
1000:
997:
993:
989:
988:United States
985:
981:
977:
973:
972:out-of-pocket
969:
965:
960:
958:
954:
950:
949:fiscal system
945:
943:
940:
936:
931:
927:
925:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
900:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
873:
871:
867:
863:
852:
849:December 2020
836:
831:
822:
821:
815:
813:
810:
805:
800:
798:
797:public budget
794:
788:
785:
780:
775:
771:
767:
763:
752:
749:December 2020
736:
731:
722:
721:
715:
713:
711:
706:
701:
698:
692:
690:
686:
682:
676:
672:
664:
662:
658:
654:
650:
645:
637:
635:
632:
626:
622:
618:
614:
608:Rural Poverty
607:
605:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
578:
576:
572:
568:
564:
559:
551:
549:
547:
542:
538:
532:
528:
526:
523:
518:
514:
509:
507:
502:
498:
497:reform period
489:
487:
485:
481:
477:
473:
466:
464:
462:
458:
454:
449:
447:
442:
440:
435:
430:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
406:
404:
398:
396:
392:
388:
384:
379:
377:
373:
369:
365:
360:
357:
352:
344:
341:
338:
336:
333:
332:
328:
325:
322:
320:
317:
316:
312:
309:
306:
304:
301:
300:
296:
293:
290:
288:
285:
284:
278:
273:
270:
267:
261:
259:
258:
251:
247:
239:
237:
235:
231:
227:
222:
220:
219:macroeconomic
215:
211:
210:manufacturing
207:
206:trade surplus
202:
200:
195:
192:outcomes and
191:
186:
184:
180:
175:
171:
166:
164:
161:scarcity and
160:
156:
152:
147:
146:Deng Xiaoping
139:
137:
135:
134:
133:The Economist
129:
126:, citing the
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
108:poverty lines
105:
101:
96:
92:
90:
85:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
66:
56:
46:
34:
29:
20:
19:
16:
6639:
6601:Prostitution
6595:
6561:Demographics
6532:
6524:
6438:Tuberculosis
6121:Dependencies
6051:Turkmenistan
6016:Saudi Arabia
5870:
5744:Malnutrition
5655:Tuberculosis
5578:Pen's parade
5522:Welfare trap
5208:
5158:South Africa
4893:
4892:
4857:
4831:Demographics
4823:
4817:Largest SOEs
4563:Urbanization
4537:
4272:Central bank
4002:Video gaming
3882:Mobile phone
3456:
3450:
3371:
3367:
3357:
3322:
3318:
3308:
3275:
3271:
3261:
3218:
3214:
3204:
3169:
3165:
3155:
3120:
3116:
3106:
3076:(1): 66â88.
3073:
3069:
3039:
3035:
3029:
3019:December 21,
3017:. Retrieved
3015:. World Bank
3007:
2982:
2978:
2952:December 28,
2950:. Retrieved
2946:
2937:
2925:. Retrieved
2918:the original
2905:
2878:
2865:
2856:
2846:December 28,
2844:. Retrieved
2840:Newsweek.com
2839:
2830:
2820:December 28,
2818:. Retrieved
2814:
2805:
2795:December 28,
2793:. Retrieved
2789:
2780:
2770:December 28,
2768:. Retrieved
2754:
2750:
2740:
2730:December 28,
2728:. Retrieved
2714:
2710:
2685:February 27,
2683:. Retrieved
2679:the original
2654:
2650:
2634:
2629:
2621:
2617:
2597:|first=
2577:. Retrieved
2573:
2563:
2520:
2516:
2476:
2424:
2420:
2398:
2377:. Retrieved
2372:
2359:
2347:. Retrieved
2343:
2316:cite journal
2291:
2287:
2253:
2247:
2235:. Retrieved
2231:
2197:cite journal
2185:. Retrieved
2154:, retrieved
2149:
2143:
2118:. Retrieved
2114:
2104:
2090:
2081:
2072:
2058:
2048:December 28,
2046:. Retrieved
2042:
2032:
2023:
2014:
1979:
1975:
1931:
1925:
1887:
1855:
1836:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1800:
1791:
1782:
1771:
1759:. Retrieved
1755:the original
1745:
1735:December 28,
1733:. Retrieved
1728:
1719:
1707:. Retrieved
1698:
1686:. Retrieved
1682:the original
1675:
1666:
1654:. Retrieved
1645:
1633:. Retrieved
1609:. Retrieved
1600:
1588:. Retrieved
1579:
1567:. Retrieved
1558:
1546:. Retrieved
1541:
1532:
1522:November 24,
1520:. Retrieved
1508:
1498:
1488:December 28,
1486:. Retrieved
1479:the original
1474:
1462:
1451:
1424:
1398:. Retrieved
1374:. Retrieved
1350:. Retrieved
1346:
1337:
1327:December 28,
1325:. Retrieved
1321:
1299:December 28,
1297:. Retrieved
1293:
1284:
1274:December 28,
1272:. Retrieved
1268:the original
1263:
1254:
1244:December 28,
1242:. Retrieved
1239:The Guardian
1238:
1228:
1211:
1178:Working poor
1163:Poverty trap
1143:Minimum wage
1103:Fuel poverty
1098:Food vs fuel
1028:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1003:
961:
946:
932:
928:
901:
874:
859:
846:
834:
802:Secure land
801:
789:
759:
746:
734:
705:urbanization
702:
693:
685:jurisdiction
678:
659:
655:
651:
647:
630:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
573:
569:
565:
561:
533:
529:
525:productivity
517:Arthur Lewis
510:
493:
470:
461:two sessions
450:
443:
431:
410:poverty line
407:
399:
380:
361:
353:
350:
334:
318:
302:
286:
225:
223:
203:
187:
167:
143:
131:
97:
93:
86:
63:
61:
40:
32:
15:
6576:Food safety
6571:Environment
6566:Dust storms
6381:Hepatitis B
6180:Asia portal
6081:States with
6001:Philippines
5941:South Korea
5936:North Korea
5831:Afghanistan
5391:New Zealand
5355:Switzerland
5274:Philippines
5254:South Korea
5249:North Korea
5189:Afghanistan
5104:By location
4792:Agriculture
4730:2007 export
4558:Foreign aid
4520:Development
4336:CITIC Group
4277:Other banks
4225:Food safety
3935:Real estate
3875:gold mining
3830:Electronics
3760:Aquaculture
3278:: 406â414.
2947:Landesa.org
2579:January 19,
2427:: 541â553.
2232:China Daily
2156:January 19,
1982:(1): 1â31.
1934:(1): 1â42.
1688:December 8,
1656:January 10,
1635:January 10,
1611:January 10,
1590:January 10,
1569:January 10,
1475:Cn.undp.org
1400:January 10,
1376:January 10,
999:expenditure
996:health care
957:opportunity
939:high-school
885:expenditure
870:health care
716:Land policy
513:Nobel Prize
234:rural areas
190:educational
6489:Government
6459:SARS-CoV-2
6376:Fujian flu
6230:Healthcare
6061:Uzbekistan
6036:Tajikistan
5951:Kyrgyzstan
5931:Kazakhstan
5851:Bangladesh
5841:Azerbaijan
5507:Well-being
5219:East Timor
5199:Bangladesh
4797:Bankruptcy
4573:Emigration
4543:Corruption
4257:Accounting
4210:Tax system
4110:Geothermal
3980:Television
3945:Securities
3930:Rare earth
3906:Publishing
3850:Hedge fund
3765:Automotive
3735:Industries
3123:(2): 1â9.
1761:October 5,
1318:"Overview"
1220:References
968:households
953:efficiency
942:enrollment
710:employment
669:See also:
642:See also:
546:inequality
244:See also:
204:The large
124:Li Keqiang
82:World Bank
74:rural poor
6586:Pollution
6147:Hong Kong
6101:Palestine
6026:Sri Lanka
6021:Singapore
5901:Indonesia
5665:Pneumonia
5482:Venezuela
5437:Guatemala
5407:Argentina
5386:Australia
5284:Sri Lanka
5279:Singapore
5229:Indonesia
4894:See also:
4825:The Hongs
4802:Companies
4754:2010 Expo
4144:Transport
4095:Renewable
4078:Oil shale
3810:Container
3780:Aerospace
3398:233525509
3390:2095-3119
3349:219027884
3341:2183-2803
3300:204425441
3292:0264-9993
3235:1354-5701
3196:219006505
3188:2183-2803
3147:219033193
3139:2183-2803
3098:218767427
3090:1225-9276
2537:0738-0593
2523:: 90â97.
2441:0305-750X
1984:CiteSeerX
1936:CiteSeerX
1833:Jin, Keyu
1548:August 8,
1517:0099-9660
1153:Pauperism
982:, 10% in
980:Australia
978:, 17% in
904:provinces
862:education
793:auctioned
422:nutrition
6676:Category
6386:HIV/AIDS
6343:Diseases
6323:Pharmacy
6305:Medicine
6170:Category
6091:Abkhazia
6041:Thailand
5996:Pakistan
5976:Mongolia
5971:Maldives
5966:Malaysia
5866:Cambodia
5767:See also
5728:Trachoma
5537:Wellness
5462:Paraguay
5447:Honduras
5427:Colombia
5400:Americas
5269:Pakistan
5259:Malaysia
5204:Cambodia
5173:Zimbabwe
5163:Tanzania
5133:Ethiopia
4903:Category
4346:Renminbi
4164:Shipping
3997:Textiles
3965:Software
3955:Shipping
3950:Sex toys
3919:Railway
3901:pharmacy
3855:Internet
3845:Gambling
3775:Aircraft
3770:Aviation
3743:Industry
3556:Articles
3489:Archived
3459:: 1â21.
3445:(2023).
3253:32863729
2999:30819754
2657:, 66-75.
2589:cite web
2574:ABC News
2555:26609194
2459:26855470
2379:March 9,
2138:112-141.
1958:12730781
1864:Archived
1835:(2023).
1709:March 8,
1290:"Series"
1138:Literacy
1034:See also
986:and the
774:mortgage
703:China's
418:calories
140:Overview
43:May 2020
6630:Studies
6606:Smoking
6596:Poverty
6554:Related
6418:Obesity
6408:Leprosy
6066:Vietnam
5981:Myanmar
5961:Lebanon
5891:Georgia
5846:Bahrain
5836:Armenia
5693:Cholera
5660:Measles
5650:Malaria
5512:Welfare
5477:Uruguay
5452:Jamaica
5412:Bolivia
5379:Oceania
5365:Ukraine
5350:Romania
5335:Moldova
5320:Germany
5289:Vietnam
5244:Lebanon
5194:Armenia
5153:Nigeria
5143:Namibia
5118:Algeria
5048:Metrics
4967:Aspects
4960:Poverty
4865:Mingong
4812:Top 500
4807:Largest
4538:Poverty
4267:History
4262:Banking
4244:banking
4240:Finance
4189:Exports
4159:Tourism
4090:Nuclear
3992:Tourism
3985:digital
3840:Fishing
3748:history
3653:History
3645:History
3244:7451650
2546:4655325
2450:4740920
2120:June 2,
2006:2658987
1542:Reuters
1352:June 1,
1264:Odi.org
916:Germany
893:justice
835:updated
809:Landesa
735:updated
403:customs
387:imports
383:tariffs
230:central
199:private
155:poverty
102:2,300 (
70:poverty
68:today,
33:updated
6478:(2022)
6472:(2021)
6466:(2020)
6455:(2003)
6433:Stroke
6238:Health
6111:Taiwan
6046:Turkey
6011:Russia
5946:Kuwait
5926:Jordan
5916:Israel
5876:Cyprus
5861:Brunei
5856:Bhutan
5675:Plague
5558:Stress
5457:Mexico
5422:Canada
5417:Brazil
5360:Turkey
5345:Poland
5340:Norway
5325:Greece
5315:France
5310:Cyprus
5303:Europe
5234:Israel
5214:Cyprus
5168:Uganda
5111:Africa
4717:Events
4055:Energy
3870:Mining
3815:Cotton
3805:Coffee
3800:Cement
3658:Reform
3428:
3396:
3388:
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1906:959307
1904:
1843:
1515:
1113:Hunger
984:Turkey
976:Mexico
924:Brazil
804:tenure
779:tenure
264:(2011
194:health
183:tenure
144:Since
6423:Opium
6152:Macau
6071:Yemen
6031:Syria
6006:Qatar
5986:Nepal
5921:Japan
5896:India
5886:Egypt
5871:China
5554:(SWB)
5495:Other
5442:Haiti
5330:Italy
5294:Yemen
5264:Nepal
5239:Japan
5224:India
5209:China
5148:Niger
5138:Kenya
5128:Egypt
4179:Ports
4122:Trade
4105:Solar
3970:Steel
3915:Radio
3860:Media
3421:(ADB)
3394:S2CID
3345:S2CID
3296:S2CID
3192:S2CID
3143:S2CID
3094:S2CID
2995:S2CID
2975:(PDF)
2921:(PDF)
2914:(PDF)
2757:(4).
2717:(4).
2369:(PDF)
2304:JSTOR
2182:(PDF)
2115:OHCHR
2002:S2CID
1954:S2CID
1482:(PDF)
1471:(PDF)
1206:Wokai
766:rural
762:urban
697:wages
681:hukou
522:labor
345:15.8
329:27.2
313:53.4
297:98.3
266:Int$
226:hukou
174:urban
65:China
5991:Oman
5956:Laos
5911:Iraq
5906:Iran
5645:AIDS
5467:Peru
5432:Cuba
5182:Asia
4242:and
4124:and
4100:Wind
4068:Coal
4007:Wine
3960:Silk
3908:and
3899:and
3835:Film
3785:Beer
3426:ISBN
3386:ISSN
3337:ISSN
3288:ISSN
3249:PMID
3231:ISSN
3184:ISSN
3135:ISSN
3086:ISSN
3021:2020
2954:2017
2929:2011
2848:2017
2822:2017
2797:2017
2772:2017
2755:2005
2732:2017
2715:2005
2687:2011
2601:help
2581:2020
2551:PMID
2533:ISSN
2489:ISBN
2455:PMID
2437:ISSN
2381:2011
2351:2011
2322:link
2258:ISBN
2239:2011
2210:help
2189:2011
2158:2020
2122:2022
2050:2017
1902:SSRN
1841:ISBN
1763:2009
1737:2017
1711:2023
1690:2023
1658:2022
1637:2022
1613:2022
1592:2022
1571:2022
1550:2020
1524:2020
1513:ISSN
1490:2017
1402:2022
1378:2022
1354:2019
1329:2017
1301:2017
1276:2017
1246:2017
1006:yuan
955:and
877:OECD
673:and
511:The
335:2019
319:2015
310:28.5
307:11.2
303:2010
291:66.2
287:1990
248:and
6123:and
4073:Oil
3461:doi
3376:doi
3327:doi
3280:doi
3239:PMC
3223:doi
3174:doi
3125:doi
3078:doi
3044:doi
2987:doi
2759:doi
2719:doi
2541:PMC
2525:doi
2481:doi
2445:PMC
2429:doi
2296:doi
1994:doi
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