42:
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692:(or also heterotropic modulation) is a change in synaptic strength that results from the activity of other neurons. Again, the plasticity can alter the number of vesicles or their replenishment rate or the relationship between calcium and vesicle release. Additionally, it could directly affect calcium influx. Heterosynaptic plasticity can also be postsynaptic in nature, affecting receptor sensitivity.
2560:
199:
571:, the number of release sites. "Unitary connection" usually refers to an unknown number of individual synapses connecting a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic neuron. The amplitude of postsynaptic potentials (PSPs) can be as low as 0.4 mV to as high as 20 mV. The amplitude of a PSP can be modulated by
591:
Desensitization of the postsynaptic receptors is a decrease in response to the same neurotransmitter stimulus. It means that the strength of a synapse may in effect diminish as a train of action potentials arrive in rapid succession – a phenomenon that gives rise to the so-called frequency dependence
753:
farther away from the threshold, decreasing its excitability and making it more difficult for the neuron to initiate an action potential. If an IPSP overlaps with an EPSP, the IPSP can in many cases prevent the neuron from firing an action potential. In this way, the output of a neuron may depend on
737:
for eliciting an action potential. When action potentials from multiple presynaptic neurons fire simultaneously, or if a single presynaptic neuron fires at a high enough frequency, the EPSPs can overlap and summate. If enough EPSPs overlap, the summated EPSP can reach the threshold for initiating an
286:
Synapses may be described as symmetric or asymmetric. When examined under an electron microscope, asymmetric synapses are characterized by rounded vesicles in the presynaptic cell, and a prominent postsynaptic density. Asymmetric synapses are typically excitatory. Symmetric synapses in contrast have
787:, assigning a role for volume transmission in the control of ionic and neurotransmitter homeostasis. Approximately 78% of neurogliaform cell boutons do not form classical synapses. This may be the first definitive example of neurons communicating chemically where classical synapses are not present.
610:
Synaptic transmission can be changed by previous activity. These changes are called synaptic plasticity and may result in either a decrease in the efficacy of the synapse, called depression, or an increase in efficacy, called potentiation. These changes can either be long-term or short-term. Forms
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When a neurotransmitter is released at a synapse, it reaches its highest concentration inside the narrow space of the synaptic cleft, but some of it is certain to diffuse away before being reabsorbed or broken down. If it diffuses away, it has the potential to activate receptors that are located
318:
Here is a summary of the sequence of events that take place in synaptic transmission from a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic cell. Each step is explained in more detail below. Note that with the exception of the final step, the entire process may run only a few hundred microseconds, in the
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of each other, rather than the 20 to 40 nm distance that separates cells at chemical synapses. As opposed to chemical synapses, the postsynaptic potential in electrical synapses is not caused by the opening of ion channels by chemical transmitters, but rather by direct electrical coupling
363:
These proteins change shape, causing the membranes of some "docked" vesicles to fuse with the membrane of the presynaptic cell, thereby opening the vesicles and dumping their neurotransmitter contents into the synaptic cleft, the narrow space between the membranes of the pre- and postsynaptic
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Romanov, Roman A.; Lasher, Robert S.; High, Brigit; Savidge, Logan E.; Lawson, Adam; Rogachevskaja, Olga A.; Zhao, Haitian; Rogachevsky, Vadim V.; Bystrova, Marina F.; Churbanov, Gleb D.; Adameyko, Igor; Harkany, Tibor; Yang, Ruibiao; Kidd, Grahame J.; Marambaud, Philippe; Kinnamon, John C.;
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currents. Whether a synapse is excitatory or inhibitory depends on what type(s) of ion channel conduct the postsynaptic current(s), which in turn is a function of the type of receptors and neurotransmitter employed at the synapse. The second way a receptor can affect membrane potential is by
656:. Homosynaptic plasticity can affect the number and replenishment rate of vesicles or it can affect the relationship between calcium and vesicle release. Homosynaptic plasticity can also be postsynaptic in nature. It can result in either an increase or decrease in synaptic strength.
836:. While chemical synapses are found between both excitatory and inhibitory neurons, electrical synapses are most commonly found between smaller local inhibitory neurons. Electrical synapses can exist between two axons, two dendrites, or between an axon and a dendrite. In some
1935:
866:. Synapses are affected by drugs, such as curare, strychnine, cocaine, morphine, alcohol, LSD, and countless others. These drugs have different effects on synaptic function, and often are restricted to synapses that use a specific neurotransmitter. For example,
652:(or also homotropic modulation) is a change in the synaptic strength that results from the history of activity at a particular synapse. This can result from changes in presynaptic calcium as well as feedback onto presynaptic receptors, i.e. a form of
278:
Proteins in the PSD are involved in anchoring and trafficking neurotransmitter receptors and modulating the activity of these receptors. The receptors and PSDs are often found in specialized protrusions from the main dendritic shaft called
212:
Synapses are functional connections between neurons, or between neurons and other types of cells. A typical neuron gives rise to several thousand synapses, although there are some types that make far fewer. Most synapses connect
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can inhibit other nearby cortical neurons by releasing the neurotransmitter GABA into the extracellular space. Along the same vein, GABA released from neurogliaform cells into the extracellular space also acts on surrounding
271:; for synapses between two neurons the postsynaptic region may be found on the dendrites or cell body. Immediately behind the postsynaptic membrane is an elaborate complex of interlinked proteins called the
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Craig C. Garner and Kang Shen. Structure and
Function of Vertebrate and Invertebrate Active Zones. Structure and Functional Organization of the Synapse. Ed: Johannes Hell and Michael Ehlers. Springer, 2008.
323:
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in some way. Several types of activation are possible, as described in more detail below. In any case, this is the key step by which the synaptic process affects the behavior of the postsynaptic cell.
449:. As a whole, the protein complex or structure that mediates the docking and fusion of presynaptic vesicles is called the active zone. The membrane added by the fusion process is later retrieved by
533:
The neurotransmitter may diffuse away due to thermally-induced oscillations of both it and the receptor, making it available to be broken down metabolically outside the neuron or to be reabsorbed.
298:—is a gap between the pre- and postsynaptic cells that is about 20 nm (0.02 μ) wide. The small volume of the cleft allows neurotransmitter concentration to be raised and lowered rapidly.
778:
Recent work indicates that volume transmission may be the predominant mode of interaction for some special types of neurons. In the mammalian cerebral cortex, a class of neurons called
324:
2095:
Bennett MV, Pappas GD, Aljure E, Nakajima Y (March 1967). "Physiology and ultrastructure of electrotonic junctions. II. Spinal and medullary electromotor nuclei in mormyrid fish".
326:
61:
molecules. The neurotransmitter binds to chemical receptor molecules located in the membrane of another neuron, the postsynaptic neuron, on the opposite side of the synaptic cleft.
2454:
Hormuzdi, SG; Filippov, MA; Mitropoulou, G; Monyer, H; Bruzzone, R (March 2004). "Electrical synapses: a dynamic signaling system that shapes the activity of neuronal networks".
476:
Receptors on the opposite side of the synaptic gap bind neurotransmitter molecules. Receptors can respond in either of two general ways. First, the receptors may directly open
385:, the motion of atoms, vibrating about their equilibrium positions in a crystalline solid, neurotransmitter molecules eventually break loose from the receptors and drift away.
1816:"From the Golgi-Cajal mapping to the transmitter-based characterization of the neuronal networks leading to two modes of brain communication: wiring and volume transmission"
236:
Chemical synapses pass information directionally from a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic cell and are therefore asymmetric in structure and function. The presynaptic
327:
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the input of many different neurons, each of which may have a different degree of influence, depending on the strength and type of synapse with that neuron.
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between both neurons. Electrical synapses are faster than chemical synapses. Electrical synapses are found throughout the nervous system, including in the
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After a neurotransmitter molecule binds to a receptor molecule, it must be removed to allow for the postsynaptic membrane to continue to relay subsequent
968:'I felt the need of some name to call the junction between nerve-cell and nerve-cell... I suggested using "syndesm"... He consulted his Trinity friend
429:
proteins found within the membranes of the synaptic vesicles, allowing the vesicles to fuse with the presynaptic membrane. The fusion of a vesicle is a
1659:"Target-specific regulation of synaptic efficacy in the feeding central pattern generator of Aplysia: potential substrates for behavioral plasticity?"
942:. Based on these observations, they developed the 'quantal hypothesis' that is the basis for our current understanding of neurotransmitter release as
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The neurotransmitter is either reabsorbed by the presynaptic cell, and then repackaged for future release, or else it is broken down metabolically.
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or can change as a result of previous activity. Changes in the synaptic strength can be short-term, lasting seconds to minutes, or long-term (
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579:, or LTP), lasting hours. Learning and memory are believed to result from long-term changes in synaptic strength, via a mechanism known as
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Axons connecting dendrite to dendrite are dendrodendritic synapses. Axons which connect axon to dendrite are called axodendritic synapses
775:. It is well established that such effects occur to some degree, but their functional importance has long been a matter of controversy.
1353:
1253:
460:
An exception to the general trend of neurotransmitter release by vesicular fusion is found in the type II receptor cells of mammalian
2130:
Pereda AE, Rash JE, Nagy JI, Bennett MV (December 2004). "Dynamics of electrical transmission at club endings on the
Mauthner cells".
635:. Synaptic plasticity can be either homosynaptic (occurring at a single synapse) or heterosynaptic (occurring at multiple synapses).
513:
inside the postsynaptic neuron. These second messengers can then amplify the inhibitory or excitatory response to neurotransmitters.
57:. When the action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, it provokes the release of a synaptic vesicle, secreting its quanta of
1590:"Chemical synapses without synaptic vesicles: Purinergic neurotransmission through a CALHM1 channel-mitochondrial signaling complex"
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of synapses. The nervous system exploits this property for computational purposes, and can tune its synapses through such means as
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flattened or elongated vesicles, and do not contain a prominent postsynaptic density. Symmetric synapses are typically inhibitory.
229:
except as points where the membranes of two cells appear to touch, but their cellular elements can be visualized clearly using an
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either at other synapses or on the membrane away from any synapse. The extrasynaptic activity of a neurotransmitter is known as
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Axons terminating on the postsynaptic cell body are axosomatic synapses. Axons that terminate on axons are axoaxonic synapses
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containing neurotransmitter are localized near the synaptic membrane. The arriving action potential produces an influx of
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coined the word 'synapse' and the history of the word was given by
Sherrington in a letter he wrote to John Fulton:
2899:
886:, which causes the body to pick up and react to weaker and previously ignored stimuli, resulting in uncontrollable
696:
668:
660:
45:
Artistic interpretation of the major elements in chemical synaptic transmission. An electrochemical wave called an
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An electron microscope picture gallery assembled by
Kristen Harris' lab of synapses and other neuronal structures.
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process, leading to frequent failure of synaptic transmission at the very small synapses that are typical for the
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Calcium ions flow through the presynaptic membrane, rapidly increasing the calcium concentration in the interior.
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One of the most important features of chemical synapses is that they are the site of action for the majority of
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on the postsynaptic cell. Finally, the neurotransmitters are cleared from the synapse through one of several
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is a chemical (or electrical) synapse formed when the axon of one neuron synapses with its own dendrites.
89:
85:
73:
1936:"Unitary GABAergic volume transmission from individual interneurons to astrocytes in the cerebral cortex"
3214:
3204:
3139:
253:
187:
164:
1740:
Bruce
Alberts; Alexander Johnson; Julian Lewis; Martin Raff; Keith Roberts; Peter Walter, eds. (2002).
976:
scholar, about it, and
Verrall suggested "synapse" (from the Greek "clasp").'–Charles Scott Sherrington
738:
action potential. This process is known as summation, and can serve as a high pass filter for neurons.
729:
in the presynaptic neuron will trigger an action potential in the postsynaptic cell. In many cases the
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performed some of the important early experiments on synaptic integration, for which he received the
628:
272:
2386:"Relationship between presynaptic calcium current and postsynaptic potential in squid giant synapse"
2144:
1771:
Zoli M, Torri C, Ferrari R, et al. (1998). "The emergence of the volume transmission concept".
1472:"Relationship between presynaptic calcium current and postsynaptic potential in squid giant synapse"
3379:
3224:
3219:
2754:
2687:
1456:
1386:
Widrow, Bernard; Kim, Youngsik; Park, Dookun; Perin, Jose Krause (2019). "Nature's
Learning Rule".
1138:
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624:
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605:
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230:
118:) that is adjacent to another neuron. The neurotransmitters are contained within small sacs called
41:
567:(the postsynaptic response to the release of a single neurotransmitter vesicle, a 'quantum'), and
240:, or synaptic bouton, is a specialized area within the axon of the presynaptic cell that contains
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in the postsynaptic cell membrane, causing ions to enter or exit the cell and changing the local
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159:
is estimated to contain from 10 to 5 × 10 (100–500 trillion) synapses. Every cubic millimeter of
703:, which, in addition, generates an inhibitory effect on presynaptic terminals of neurons of the
221:, but there are also other types of connections, including axon-to-cell-body, axon-to-axon, and
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and Katz advanced the hypothesis that depolarization-induced influx of calcium ions triggers
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The neurotransmitter diffuses within the cleft. Some of it escapes, but some of it binds to
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2048:"Electrical synapses mediate signal transmission in the rod pathway of the mammalian retina"
2020:
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We're Born to Learn: Using the Brain's
Natural Learning Process to Create Today's Curriculum
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is released directly from the cytoplasm into the synaptic cleft via voltage gated channels.
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This article is about chemical synapses of the nervous system. For general information, see
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On the other hand, a presynaptic neuron releasing an inhibitory neurotransmitter, such as
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of the membrane at the synapse causes channels to open that are permeable to calcium ions.
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also exist. Without a qualifier, however, "synapse" commonly refers to chemical synapses.
168:
160:
2185:"Bernard Katz, quantal transmitter release and the foundations of presynaptic physiology"
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844:, electrical synapses can be found within the same terminal of a chemical synapse, as in
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The high calcium concentration activates a set of calcium-sensitive proteins attached to
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Enzymes within the subsynaptic membrane may inactivate/metabolize the neurotransmitter.
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Immediately opposite is a region of the postsynaptic cell containing neurotransmitter
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at the down stroke of the action potential (tail current). Calcium ions then bind to
405:
The release of a neurotransmitter is triggered by the arrival of a nerve impulse (or
237:
1970:
1800:
1698:
1564:
1527:
Chapman, Edwin R. (2002). "Synaptotagmin: A Ca2+ sensor that triggers exocytosis?".
1121:
1049:
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3154:
3035:
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2744:
2667:
2169:
1879:"Regulation of cortical microcircuits by unitary GABA-mediated volume transmission"
1860:
1063:
Alonso-Nanclares L, Gonzalez-Soriano J, Rodriguez JR, DeFelipe J (September 2008).
991:
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traveling along the membrane of the presynaptic cell, until it reaches the synapse.
249:
2333:"Transmission by presynaptic spike-like depolarization in the squid giant synapse"
445:
is driven by the action of a set of proteins in the presynaptic terminal known as
2548:
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2200:
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3149:
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3011:
2943:
2938:
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450:
261:
17:
1745:
72:' signals can be sent to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in
3404:
3093:
2970:
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1954:
1605:
955:
943:
879:
430:
410:
123:
93:
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2777:
2769:
1089:
973:
935:
911:
895:
875:
841:
829:
816:
784:
672:
671:, inhibiting further release of noradrenaline. This effect is utilized with
667:, which, besides affecting postsynaptic receptors, also affects presynaptic
461:
441:), on the other hand, have a synaptic release probability, in effect, of 1.
248:(as well as a number of other supporting structures and organelles, such as
198:
143:
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1934:
Rózsa M, Baka J, Bordé S, Rózsa B, Katona G, Tamás G, et al. (2015).
1792:
1513:
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2704:
1388:
Artificial
Intelligence in the Age of Neural Networks and Brain Computing
996:
919:
891:
539:
218:
135:
111:
2568:
was created from a revision of this article dated 19 June 2005
1902:
1647:
Sherwood L., stikawy (2007). Human
Physiology 6e: From Cells to Systems
3346:
3307:
1682:
915:
883:
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pumps may actively pump the neurotransmitter back into the presynaptic
485:
409:) and occurs through an unusually rapid process of cellular secretion (
335:
The process begins with a wave of electrochemical excitation called an
302:
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97:
31:
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69:
54:
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2008:
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for reprocessing and re-release following a later action potential.
374:
The binding of neurotransmitter causes the receptor molecule to be
1137:
Cowan, W. Maxwell; Südhof, Thomas C.; Stevens, Charles F. (2003).
396:
197:
156:
153:
150:
77:
40:
2608:
2506:
Nicholls, J.G.; Martin, A.R.; Wallace, B.G.; Fuchs, P.A. (2001).
1995:
1742:"Ch. 11. Section: Single Neurons Are Complex Computation Devices"
1285:
From Computer to Brain: Foundations of Computational Neuroscience
807:
that is formed at a narrow gap between the pre- and postsynaptic
401:
Release of neurotransmitter occurs at the end of axonal branches.
171:
has separately been estimated at 0.15 quadrillion (150 trillion)
3199:
3045:
1455:. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp.
903:
837:
742:
526:
214:
50:
2612:
2435:
Bear, Mark F.; Connors, Barry W.; Paradiso, Michael A. (2001).
1719:(5th ed.). Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. p. 129.
178:
in 1897. Chemical synapses are not the only type of biological
27:
Biological junctions through which neurons' signals can be sent
907:
225:. Synapses are generally too small to be recognizable using a
938:
observed spontaneous miniature synaptic currents at the frog
457:
for the formation of fresh neurotransmitter-filled vesicles.
2546:
1447:
Bear, Mark F; Connors, Barry W; Paradiso, Michael A (2007).
1352:
Weiss, Mirin; Dr Steven M. Mirin; Dr Roxanne Bartel (1994).
321:
371:
molecules located on the membrane of the postsynaptic cell.
902:
increases the inhibitory effects of the neurotransmitter
815:. At gap junctions, cells approach within about 3.5
529:. This removal can happen through one or more processes:
167:, i.e. 10) of them. The number of synapses in the human
1198:
Squire, Larry R.; Floyd Bloom; Nicholas Spitzer (2008).
1065:"Gender differences in human cortical synaptic density"
910:
interferes with synapses that use the neurotransmitter
882:
blocks the inhibitory effects of the neurotransmitter
2439:. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
1983:
1429:
874:
from depolarizing the postsynaptic membrane, causing
104:
to connect to and control other systems of the body.
2512:(4th ed.). Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates.
2491:(4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
2487:
Cell and Molecular Biology: concepts and experiments
1814:
Fuxe K, Dahlström A, Höistad M, et al. (2007).
1588:
Kolesnikov, Stanislav S.; Finger, Thomas E. (2018).
559:
as the product of (presynaptic) release probability
3365:
3306:
3299:
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3165:
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3026:
3019:
3005:
2952:
2924:
2830:
2821:
2768:
2725:
2718:
2655:
2646:
256:). Synaptic vesicles are docked at the presynaptic
2484:
1314:
206:Further information on formation of synapses:
2310:; Schwartz, James H.; Jessell, Thomas M. (2000).
2183:Augustine, George J.; Kasai, Haruo (2007-02-01).
1020:Drachman D (2005). "Do we have brain to spare?".
423:voltage-dependent, calcium-selective ion channels
146:to terminate the action of the neurotransmitter.
1225:Hyman, Steven E.; Eric Jonathan Nestler (1993).
749:(IPSP) in the postsynaptic neuron, bringing the
244:enclosed in small membrane-bound spheres called
142:either on the presynaptic cell or on some other
2292:(9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education.
1877:Oláh S, Füle M, Komlósi G, et al. (2009).
966:
2559:
555:The strength of a synapse has been defined by
122:, and are released into the synaptic cleft by
2624:
2331:Llinás R, Sugimori M, Simon SM (April 1982).
1715:Rang, H.P.; Dale, M.M.; Ritter, J.M. (2003).
1425:
1423:
1177:. W. W. Norton & Company. pp. 1–37.
8:
2009:"Electrical synapses in the mammalian brain"
1231:. American Psychiatric Pub. pp. 425–6.
1872:
1870:
1643:
1641:
1174:Nerve Endings: The Discovery of the Synapse
107:At a chemical synapse, one neuron releases
3303:
3023:
3016:
2827:
2722:
2652:
2631:
2617:
2609:
675:to perform inhibitory effects on the SNS.
413:). Within the presynaptic nerve terminal,
80:. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form
2417:
2384:Llinás R, Steinberg IZ, Walton K (1981).
2366:
2356:
2256:
2208:
2143:
2071:
1910:
1842:
1621:
1503:
1470:Llinás R, Steinberg IZ, Walton K (1981).
1308:
1306:
1098:
1088:
202:Diagram of a chemical synaptic connection
174:The word "synapse" was introduced by Sir
2576:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
1358:. American Psychiatric Pub. p. 52.
1347:
1345:
1277:
1275:
2316:(4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
2046:Veruki ML, Hartveit E (December 2002).
1710:
1708:
1228:The Molecular Foundations of Psychiatry
1132:
1130:
1012:
68:are biological junctions through which
2025:10.1146/annurev.neuro.26.041002.131128
760:Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine
2603:Atlas of Ultrastructure Neurocytology
1529:Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology
1442:
1440:
1438:
948:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
922:and therefore increases its effects.
7:
1657:Díaz-Ríos M, Miller MW (June 2006).
1337:synapses connect axons to cell body.
695:One example is again neurons of the
437:. Large chemical synapses (e.g. the
1984:Kandel, Schwartz & Jessell 2000
1430:Kandel, Schwartz & Jessell 2000
791:Relationship to electrical synapses
134:including enzymatic degradation or
2064:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.22-24-10558.2002
1396:10.1016/b978-0-12-815480-9.00001-3
1204:. Academic Press. pp. 425–6.
1034:10.1212/01.WNL.0000166914.38327.BB
25:
2437:Neuroscience: Exploring the Brain
2154:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.06.010
1835:10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.02.009
1750:(4th ed.). Garland Science.
1451:Neuroscience: exploring the brain
826:reticular nucleus of the thalamus
747:inhibitory postsynaptic potential
731:excitatory postsynaptic potential
2598:Synapse – Cell Centered Database
2558:
946:and for which Katz received the
2795:Oligodendrocyte progenitor cell
1321:. John Wiley and Sons. p.
962:Sir Charles Scott Sherringtonin
126:. These molecules then bind to
1317:Biology: A Self-Teaching Guide
711:Integration of synaptic inputs
705:parasympathetic nervous system
659:One example is neurons of the
309:Signaling in chemical synapses
115:
1:
2410:10.1016/S0006-3495(81)84899-0
1785:10.1016/S0165-0173(97)00048-9
1747:Molecular Biology of the Cell
1496:10.1016/S0006-3495(81)84899-0
509:modulating the production of
2468:10.1016/j.bbamem.2003.10.023
2337:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
2313:Principles of Neural Science
2201:10.1113/jphysiol.2006.123224
2007:Connors BW, Long MA (2004).
1943:Brain Structure and Function
1258:. Corwin Press. p. 56.
1171:Rapport, Richard L. (2005).
1069:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A
950:in 1970. In the late 1960s,
492:. In general, the result is
464:. Here the neurotransmitter
163:contains roughly a billion (
2905:Postganglionic nerve fibers
1390:. Elsevier. pp. 1–30.
1282:Lytton, William W. (2002).
717:Summation (neurophysiology)
3476:
2900:Preganglionic nerve fibers
1313:Garber, Steven D. (2002).
894:acts on synapses that use
855:
803:link between two abutting
733:(EPSP) will not reach the
714:
697:sympathetic nervous system
682:
661:sympathetic nervous system
642:
603:
596:of the proteins involved.
484:. The resulting change in
205:
128:neurotransmitter receptors
88:. They are crucial to the
29:
3410:Olfactory receptor neuron
3074:Neurofibril/neurofilament
2243:(5729): 190. 1970-10-24.
2189:The Journal of Physiology
2132:Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev
1955:10.1007/s00429-015-1166-9
1773:Brain Res. Brain Res. Rev
1606:10.1126/scisignal.aao1815
1252:Smilkstein, Rita (2003).
1143:. JHU Press. p. 11.
987:Acclimatisation (neurons)
690:Heterosynaptic plasticity
685:Heterosynaptic plasticity
679:Heterosynaptic plasticity
478:ligand-gated ion channels
176:Charles Scott Sherrington
2109:10.1152/jn.1967.30.2.180
1288:. Springer. p. 28.
1201:Fundamental Neuroscience
587:Receptor desensitization
393:Neurotransmitter release
114:into a small space (the
36:synapse (disambiguation)
2593:Synapse Review for Kids
2237:British Medical Journal
1122:Brain Facts and Figures
1090:10.1073/pnas.0803652105
898:neurotransmitters, and
870:is a poison that stops
669:α2-adrenergic receptors
650:Homosynaptic plasticity
645:Homosynaptic plasticity
639:Homosynaptic plasticity
482:transmembrane potential
90:biological computations
3357:Neuromuscular junction
3220:III or Aδ or fast pain
2554:
2534:Listen to this article
2358:10.1073/pnas.79.7.2415
2289:Physiology of Behavior
2249:10.1136/bmj.4.5729.190
1124:Washington University.
978:
940:neuromuscular junction
633:long-term potentiation
577:long-term potentiation
490:postsynaptic potential
439:neuromuscular junction
435:central nervous system
402:
331:
203:
188:immunological synapses
86:central nervous system
62:
34:. For other uses, see
2553:
2483:Karp, Gerald (2005).
926:History and etymology
725:is strong enough, an
663:(SNS), which release
621:synaptic augmentation
613:short-term plasticity
400:
330:
254:endoplasmic reticulum
201:
140:specific transporters
44:
3375:Meissner's corpuscle
3340:Postsynaptic density
3237:Efferent nerve fiber
3225:IV or C or slow pain
3167:Afferent nerve fiber
2993:Satellite glial cell
2585:More spoken articles
2509:From Neuron to Brain
2456:Biochim Biophys Acta
1996:Hormuzdi et al. 2004
629:long-term depression
625:long-term plasticity
273:postsynaptic density
223:dendrite-to-dendrite
132:potential mechanisms
3455:Signal transduction
3380:Merkel nerve ending
2402:1981BpJ....33..323L
2390:Biophysical Journal
2349:1982PNAS...79.2415L
2013:Annu. Rev. Neurosci
1903:10.1038/nature08503
1895:2009Natur.461.1278O
1488:1981BpJ....33..323L
1476:Biophysical Journal
1081:2008PNAS..10514615A
918:blocks reuptake of
799:is an electrically
780:neurogliaform cells
773:volume transmission
766:Volume transmission
654:autocrine signaling
606:Synaptic plasticity
600:Synaptic plasticity
581:synaptic plasticity
511:chemical messengers
231:electron microscope
3415:Photoreceptor cell
3385:Pacinian corpuscle
3316:Electrical synapse
3270:Lower motor neuron
3265:Upper motor neuron
2986:Internodal segment
2926:Connective tissues
2896:Autonomic ganglion
2555:
930:During the 1950s,
864:psychoactive drugs
797:electrical synapse
751:membrane potential
723:excitatory synapse
721:In general, if an
619:or depression and
403:
332:
319:fastest synapses.
260:at regions called
204:
63:
49:travels along the
3437:
3436:
3433:
3432:
3400:Free nerve ending
3367:Sensory receptors
3295:
3294:
3210:Ib or Golgi or Aα
3118:
3117:
3001:
3000:
2878:Ramus communicans
2817:
2816:
2813:
2812:
2683:Commissural fiber
2678:Association fiber
2673:Projection fibers
2551:
2519:978-0-87893-439-3
2498:978-0-471-46580-5
2446:978-0-7817-3944-3
2323:978-0-8385-7701-1
2299:978-0-205-59389-7
2195:(Pt 3): 623–625.
1889:(7268): 1278–81.
1757:978-0-8153-3218-3
1726:978-0-443-07145-4
1600:(529): eaao1815.
1594:Science Signaling
1405:978-0-12-815480-9
1365:978-1-58562-138-5
1332:978-0-471-22330-6
1295:978-0-387-95526-1
1265:978-0-7619-4642-7
1238:978-0-88048-353-7
1211:978-0-12-374019-9
1184:978-0-393-06019-5
858:Neuropharmacology
756:John Carew Eccles
551:Synaptic strength
383:thermal vibration
369:chemical receptor
328:
246:synaptic vesicles
242:neurotransmitters
120:synaptic vesicles
100:. They allow the
66:Chemical synapses
16:(Redirected from
3467:
3330:Synaptic vesicle
3325:Chemical synapse
3304:
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2462:(1–2): 113–137.
2450:
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2360:
2327:
2303:
2284:Carlson, Neil R.
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852:Effects of drugs
727:action potential
699:, which release
617:synaptic fatigue
472:Receptor binding
407:action potential
358:neurotransmitter
337:action potential
329:
281:dendritic spines
227:light microscope
109:neurotransmitter
59:neurotransmitter
47:action potential
21:
18:Presynaptic cell
3475:
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3215:II or Aβ and Aγ
3170:
3161:
3114:
3104:Apical dendrite
3099:Dendritic spine
3078:
3040:
3010:
2997:
2981:Node of Ranvier
2976:Myelin incisure
2948:
2920:
2809:
2800:Oligodendrocyte
2783:Ependymal cells
2764:
2714:
2642:
2637:
2589:
2588:
2577:
2571:
2569:
2566:This audio file
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2324:
2308:Kandel, Eric R.
2306:
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2279:
2274:
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2182:
2181:
2177:
2145:10.1.1.662.9352
2138:(1–3): 227–44.
2129:
2128:
2124:
2097:J. Neurophysiol
2094:
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1675:10.2307/4134559
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745:, can cause an
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594:phosphorylation
589:
573:neuromodulators
563:, quantal size
553:
519:
506:hyperpolarizing
504:in the case of
496:in the case of
474:
395:
356:that contain a
342:The electrical
322:
316:
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258:plasma membrane
210:
196:
169:cerebral cortex
161:cerebral cortex
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3473:
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3460:Neural synapse
3457:
3452:
3450:Cell signaling
3442:
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3430:
3428:
3427:
3425:Taste receptor
3422:
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3397:
3395:Muscle spindle
3392:
3390:Ruffini ending
3387:
3382:
3377:
3371:
3369:
3363:
3362:
3360:
3359:
3354:
3352:Ribbon synapse
3349:
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3172:Sensory neuron
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3140:Pseudounipolar
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3108:Basal dendrite
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3059:Axon terminals
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2019:(1): 393–418.
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1002:Ribbon synapse
999:
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989:
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979:
952:Ricardo Miledi
927:
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856:Main article:
853:
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846:Mauthner cells
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344:depolarization
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292:synaptic cleft
208:Synaptogenesis
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116:synaptic cleft
102:nervous system
92:that underlie
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2717:
2711:
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2703:
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2515:
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2477:
2473:
2469:
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2387:
2382:
2378:
2374:
2369:
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2359:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2343:(7): 2415–9.
2342:
2338:
2334:
2329:
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2319:
2315:
2314:
2309:
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2301:
2295:
2291:
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2280:
2276:
2268:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2233:"Nobel prize"
2228:
2225:
2220:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2065:
2061:
2057:
2053:
2049:
2042:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2003:
2000:
1997:
1992:
1989:
1986:, p. 176
1985:
1980:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1944:
1937:
1930:
1927:
1922:
1918:
1913:
1908:
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1900:
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1873:
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1867:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1823:Brain Res Rev
1817:
1810:
1807:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1767:
1764:
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1728:
1722:
1718:
1711:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1669:(3): 215–29.
1668:
1664:
1660:
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1650:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1633:
1629:
1624:
1619:
1615:
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1534:
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1523:
1520:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1497:
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1477:
1473:
1466:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1452:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1432:, p. 182
1431:
1426:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1382:
1379:
1367:
1361:
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1328:
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1319:
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1309:
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1234:
1230:
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1221:
1218:
1213:
1207:
1203:
1202:
1194:
1191:
1186:
1180:
1176:
1175:
1167:
1164:
1152:
1150:9780801871184
1146:
1142:
1141:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1115:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1096:
1091:
1086:
1082:
1078:
1074:
1070:
1066:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1016:
1013:
1007:
1003:
1000:
998:
995:
993:
990:
988:
985:
984:
980:
977:
975:
971:
965:
963:
959:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
925:
923:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
889:
888:muscle spasms
885:
881:
877:
873:
872:acetylcholine
869:
865:
859:
851:
849:
847:
843:
839:
835:
832:, and in the
831:
827:
823:
818:
814:
811:, known as a
810:
806:
802:
798:
790:
788:
786:
781:
776:
774:
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763:
761:
757:
752:
748:
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739:
736:
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724:
718:
710:
708:
706:
702:
701:noradrenaline
698:
693:
691:
686:
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676:
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666:
665:noradrenaline
662:
657:
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651:
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638:
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599:
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584:
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550:
545:
544:axon terminal
541:
538:
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531:
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507:
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495:
491:
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483:
479:
471:
469:
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458:
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452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
427:synaptotagmin
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
399:
392:
387:
384:
380:
377:
373:
370:
366:
362:
359:
355:
351:
348:
345:
341:
338:
334:
333:
320:
313:
308:
306:
304:
299:
297:
294:—also called
293:
288:
284:
282:
276:
274:
270:
265:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
238:axon terminal
234:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
209:
200:
193:
191:
189:
185:
181:
177:
172:
170:
166:
162:
158:
155:
152:
147:
145:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
117:
113:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
67:
60:
56:
52:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
3324:
3320:Gap junction
3242:Motor neuron
3036:Axon hillock
3012:nerve fibers
2966:Schwann cell
2876:
2859:
2837:
2755:Medium spiny
2668:White matter
2656:Tissue Types
2508:
2486:
2459:
2455:
2436:
2393:
2389:
2340:
2336:
2312:
2288:
2240:
2236:
2227:
2192:
2188:
2178:
2135:
2131:
2125:
2100:
2096:
2090:
2055:
2051:
2041:
2016:
2012:
2002:
1991:
1979:
1946:
1942:
1929:
1886:
1882:
1829:(1): 17–54.
1826:
1822:
1809:
1776:
1772:
1766:
1746:
1735:
1717:Pharmacology
1716:
1666:
1662:
1652:
1597:
1593:
1582:
1573:
1532:
1528:
1522:
1479:
1475:
1465:
1450:
1387:
1381:
1369:. Retrieved
1354:
1336:
1316:
1284:
1254:
1247:
1227:
1220:
1200:
1193:
1173:
1166:
1154:. Retrieved
1139:
1117:
1072:
1068:
1058:
1025:
1021:
1015:
992:Neuroscience
967:
960:
932:Bernard Katz
929:
861:
813:gap junction
794:
777:
772:
769:
740:
720:
694:
688:
658:
648:
609:
590:
568:
564:
560:
557:Bernard Katz
554:
520:
501:
498:depolarizing
493:
488:is called a
475:
459:
419:calcium ions
404:
375:
317:
300:
296:synaptic gap
295:
291:
289:
285:
277:
266:
262:active zones
250:mitochondria
235:
211:
173:
148:
106:
65:
64:
3335:Active zone
3300:Termination
3150:Interneuron
3054:Telodendron
2962:Myelination
2944:Endoneurium
2939:Perineurium
2760:Interneuron
2750:Von Economo
2698:Decussation
2693:Nerve tract
2663:Grey matter
2052:J. Neurosci
834:hippocampus
623:. Forms of
517:Termination
451:endocytosis
165:short scale
84:within the
3444:Categories
3405:Nociceptor
3145:Multipolar
3094:Nissl body
2971:Neurilemma
2934:Epineurium
2719:Cell Types
2581:Audio help
2572:2005-06-19
2277:References
1844:10447/9980
1663:Biol. Bull
1371:2008-12-26
974:Euripidean
956:exocytosis
944:exocytosis
880:Strychnine
842:amphibians
801:conductive
785:astrocytes
502:inhibitory
494:excitatory
462:taste buds
431:stochastic
411:exocytosis
184:electrical
124:exocytosis
94:perception
3420:Hair cell
2954:Neuroglia
2916:Funiculus
2805:Microglia
2778:Astrocyte
2735:Pyramidal
2688:Lemniscus
2140:CiteSeerX
1614:1945-0877
1549:1471-0080
1414:125516633
1022:Neurology
936:Paul Fatt
912:serotonin
896:endorphin
876:paralysis
830:neocortex
762:in 1963.
735:threshold
673:clonidine
376:activated
360:chemical.
269:receptors
219:dendrites
194:Structure
144:neuroglia
136:re-uptake
112:molecules
3205:Ia or Aα
3135:Unipolar
3084:Dendrite
3069:Axolemma
3064:Axoplasm
2848:Ganglion
2788:Tanycyte
2740:Purkinje
2727:Neuronal
2710:Meninges
2705:Neuropil
2583: ·
2476:15033583
2286:(2007).
2219:17068096
2162:15572174
2082:12486148
2033:15217338
1971:30728927
1963:26683686
1921:19865171
1853:17433836
1801:20495134
1699:34154835
1691:16801496
1632:29739879
1565:12384262
1557:12094216
1140:Synapses
1109:18779570
1050:38482114
1042:15985565
997:Neurexin
981:See also
920:dopamine
892:Morphine
627:include
615:include
540:Reuptake
455:recycled
421:through
415:vesicles
354:vesicles
314:Overview
82:circuits
3347:Autapse
3308:Synapse
3155:Renshaw
3130:Bipolar
3007:Neurons
2860:Ventral
2831:General
2745:Granule
2570: (
2541:minutes
2428:6261850
2419:1327434
2398:Bibcode
2377:6954549
2345:Bibcode
2267:4320287
2258:1819734
2210:2151334
2170:9527518
2117:4167209
2073:6758447
1912:2771344
1891:Bibcode
1861:1323780
1793:9651506
1683:4134559
1623:5966022
1514:6261850
1505:1327434
1484:Bibcode
1355:Cocaine
1100:2567215
1077:Bibcode
970:Verrall
916:Cocaine
900:alcohol
884:glycine
805:neurons
525:and/or
486:voltage
381:Due to
303:autapse
275:(PSD).
180:synapse
98:thought
74:muscles
70:neurons
32:synapse
3200:fibers
2838:Dorsal
2516:
2495:
2474:
2443:
2426:
2416:
2375:
2368:346205
2365:
2320:
2296:
2265:
2255:
2217:
2207:
2168:
2160:
2142:
2115:
2080:
2070:
2031:
1969:
1961:
1919:
1909:
1883:Nature
1859:
1851:
1799:
1791:
1754:
1723:
1697:
1689:
1681:
1630:
1620:
1612:
1563:
1555:
1547:
1512:
1502:
1412:
1402:
1362:
1329:
1292:
1262:
1235:
1208:
1181:
1156:9 June
1147:
1107:
1097:
1048:
1040:
972:, the
868:curare
828:, the
824:, the
822:retina
447:SNAREs
364:cells.
78:glands
55:neuron
3123:Types
3020:Parts
2889:White
2870:Ramus
2853:Ramus
2770:Glial
2166:S2CID
1967:S2CID
1939:(PDF)
1857:S2CID
1819:(PDF)
1797:S2CID
1695:S2CID
1679:JSTOR
1561:S2CID
1459:–118.
1410:S2CID
1046:S2CID
1008:Notes
809:cells
527:IPSPs
523:EPSPs
215:axons
157:brain
154:human
151:adult
53:of a
3046:Axon
3028:Soma
2884:Gray
2865:Root
2843:Root
2514:ISBN
2493:ISBN
2472:PMID
2460:1662
2441:ISBN
2424:PMID
2373:PMID
2318:ISBN
2294:ISBN
2263:PMID
2215:PMID
2158:PMID
2113:PMID
2078:PMID
2029:PMID
1959:PMID
1917:PMID
1849:PMID
1789:PMID
1752:ISBN
1721:ISBN
1687:PMID
1628:PMID
1610:ISSN
1553:PMID
1545:ISSN
1510:PMID
1400:ISBN
1360:ISBN
1327:ISBN
1290:ISBN
1260:ISBN
1233:ISBN
1206:ISBN
1179:ISBN
1158:2020
1145:ISBN
1105:PMID
1038:PMID
934:and
904:GABA
840:and
838:fish
743:GABA
631:and
453:and
290:The
252:and
186:and
149:The
96:and
51:axon
3260:SVE
3255:GVE
3250:GSE
3195:SVA
3190:SSA
3185:GVA
3180:GSA
2823:PNS
2648:CNS
2464:doi
2414:PMC
2406:doi
2363:PMC
2353:doi
2253:PMC
2245:doi
2205:PMC
2197:doi
2193:578
2150:doi
2105:doi
2068:PMC
2060:doi
2021:doi
1951:doi
1947:222
1907:PMC
1899:doi
1887:461
1839:hdl
1831:doi
1781:doi
1671:doi
1667:210
1618:PMC
1602:doi
1537:doi
1500:PMC
1492:doi
1457:113
1392:doi
1323:175
1095:PMC
1085:doi
1073:105
1030:doi
908:LSD
795:An
611:of
466:ATP
301:An
217:to
138:by
76:or
3446::
2964::
2470:.
2458:.
2422:.
2412:.
2404:.
2394:33
2392:.
2388:.
2371:.
2361:.
2351:.
2341:79
2339:.
2335:.
2261:.
2251:.
2239:.
2235:.
2213:.
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2187:.
2164:.
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2148:.
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2111:.
2101:30
2099:.
2076:.
2066:.
2056:22
2054:.
2050:.
2027:.
2017:27
2015:.
2011:.
1965:.
1957:.
1945:.
1941:.
1915:.
1905:.
1897:.
1885:.
1881:.
1869:^
1855:.
1847:.
1837:.
1827:55
1825:.
1821:.
1795:.
1787:.
1777:26
1775:.
1744:.
1707:^
1693:.
1685:.
1677:.
1665:.
1661:.
1640:^
1626:.
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1490:.
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1478:.
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1335:.
1325:.
1305:^
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1129:^
1103:.
1093:.
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1067:.
1044:.
1036:.
1026:64
1024:.
958:.
914:.
906:.
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878:.
848:.
817:nm
707:.
583:.
561:pr
283:.
264:.
233:.
182::
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3239:/
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2522:.
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