Presidency of Hafez al-Assad

2185:, stated that after this visit, the relation between the Soviet Union and Syria would be expanded. A few weeks after he returned from Moscow, Assad, in a speech to the National Federation of Syrian Students, said that the Soviet Union remained a firm friend of Syria and the Arabs, and that even though Mikhail Gorbachev and his government were preoccupied with internal affairs, they had not ignored external issues, especially those related to their friends. In 1990, 44.3% of Syrian exports were traded in the Soviet Union. Just before the collapse of the Soviet Union, the relationship between the countries changed. In April 1991, the Syrian Foreign Minister al-Sharaa visited the Soviet Union, the only visit that year. Soviet Foreign Ministers 2605:. Both countries supported the other's opposition forces in order to destabilize each other. In 1979's Islamic uprising in Syria, Jordan supported the Muslim Brotherhood. Assad accused King Hussein of supporting them,defeated the Islamists and sent Syrian troops to the Jordanian border. In December 1980, some Arab newspapers reported that Syrian jets attacked Muslim Brotherhood bases in Jordan. Saudi Arabia mediated in order to calm the two countries. Syria's hostility towards Jordan was partly fueled by Jordan's good relationship with Iraq. During the Iraq-Iran War, Syria and Jordan supported different sides. Not even the threat of war with Syria prevented King Hussein from supporting Iraq; however, the rest of the 1920: 1488:, killing between 10,000 and 40,000 people. It was later described as "the single deadliest act by any Arab government against people in the modern Middle East." Over the next few years, thousands of Muslim Brotherhood followers were arrested and tortured, and many of them were killed or disappeared. Assad realized that his previous efforts to bring about national unity in Syria and to gain legitimacy from the Sunni urban population had totally failed. He was confronted with resistance from the Muslim Brotherhood and thousands of their followers. Large sections of the urban 2669:, the pro-Israeli Lebanese President, both of whom had resisted Assad's attempts to dominate Lebanon. Using similar tactics, Assad brought about the abolition of the 1983 Lebanon–Israel agreement, and through guerrilla warfare carried out by proxy in 1985, Assad indirectly caused the Israel Defense Forces to withdraw to southern Lebanon. Terrorism against Palestinians and Jordanian targets in the mid-1980s contributed to thwart the rapprochement between King Hussein of Jordan and the PLO and the slowing down of Jordanian-Israeli political cooperation in the 2689: 2475:

indirectly fueled, brought Egypt back to the Arab cause and many Arabs agreed with Egypt's peace treaty with Israel. A new alliance developed between Egypt and Iraq, Syria became further isolated, and the Iraqi government — whose leaders developed feelings of hatred and revenge towards Assad — consolidated itself. Syria's relationship with Iran during the war was under pressure. Iran's threats to take Iraqi territory caused Syria to not object the loss of Arab territory. In early 1986, Syrian Foreign Minister

265: 388: 2557:. Talabani had lived in Syria since the 1970s and Assad believed he could benefit from his ties with Syria. Talabani stated that he would not forget the support given to him by Assad. This was one of Assad's efforts to expand Syria's zone of influence to Iraq. By receiving Barzani, Assad gained the support of Kurds, thus decreasing Iran's chances to expand its influence over Iraq. However, after the end of the Iran-Iraq War, the Iraqi Kurds were still in close relations with Iran. 2507: 353: 1992: 2788:, one of the founders of the PKK, openly used his villa in Damascus as a base for operations. Turkey threatened to cut off all water supplies to Syria. However, when the Turkish Prime Minister or President sent a formal letter to the Syrian leadership requesting it to stop supporting the PKK, Assad ignored them. At that time, Turkey could not attack Syria due to its low military capacity near the Syrian border, and advised the European 2388:. The Syrian government refused to recognise the State of Israel and referred to it as the "Zionist Entity." In the mid-1990s, Assad moderated his country's policy towards Israel as the loss of Soviet support altered the balance of power in the Middle East. Under pressure from the United States, Assad engaged in negotiations on the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights, but these talks failed. Assad believed that what constituted Israel, the 1826: 2801:. Assad was aware of the possible consequences of Syria's continuing support to the PKK. Turkey was militarily powerful while Syria had lost the support of the Soviet Union. The Russian Federation was not willing to help; neither was it capable of taking strong measures against Turkey. Facing a real threat of military confrontation with Turkey, Syria signed the Adana Memorandum in October 1998, which designated the PKK as a 1979:

severe setbacks. Assad's direct intervention in Lebanon was a grave miscalculation, and within two years it turned from being an important asset to a grave liability, both regionally and domestically. Assad's maneuvers among the two main rival factions, playing one against other, alienated both. The PLO, experiencing Assad's blows in 1976, distanced itself from him and consolidated its autonomous infrastructure in

2163:, the Soviet Ambassador, said in November 1989 that Syria's change of foreign policy was necessary, that Syria should cease aspiring for a strategic balance with Israel and settle for "reasonable defensive sufficiency", and that the Soviet-Syrian arms trade would also be changed. The growing Syrian debt to the Soviet Union led to a reduction of the arms trade between the countries, and Syria turned to China and 1879: 2270:(MNF), was demolished in a suicide attack. Around 200 Americans were killed. Syria's ambassador in the US disclaimed any Syria's involvement but US officials thought differently so Congress passed an emergency bill canceling economic aid previously approved for Syria. It was later reported that Syria had provided support for the attack. Around 800 Shia extremists had been trained in Syria and Assad's cousin 2471:

Assad repeated that the Iran–Iraq war should not have occurred since it was waged against a potential ally of the Arabs and diverted the Arabs' attention, resources, and efforts from their real enemy, Israel. According to Assad, most Arab countries had been wrongly led to support Iraq in an unnecessary war against Iran, rather than support Syria in its vital national-historical struggle against Israel.

1710: 88: 1955:, or PLO. However, he faced difficulties in reaching an understanding with Ba'athist Iraq, as he did not want to play a secondary role in an Iraqi-Syrian union. Assad returned to his goal to create a Greater Syria union or alliance with Jordan, Lebanon, and the PLO. During the period 1975 – 1980, Assad significantly advanced political, military, and economic cooperation with 1359: 47: 190: 1276:, as Head of State in order to satisfy the Sunni majority. Assad also appointed Sunnis to senior positions in the government, the military and the party. All of Assad's prime ministers, defense ministers and foreign ministers and a majority of his cabinet were Sunnis. In the early 1970s, he was verified as an authentic Muslim by the Sunni Mufti of Damascus and made the 1553: 1538:. He withdrew from public life and a battle for succession took place between Rifaat and the army generals. Assad's recovery and return brought an end to the discord and he took advantage of the situation to undermine his brother's position, eventually sending him into exile. Assad's return to supreme power was confirmed at the eighth party congress in January 1985. 2134:

countries were attacked and forbade both Syria and the Soviet Union from joining any alliance that was against one of the signatories. Syria's efforts to improve the strategic relations with the Soviet Union meant that Syria was not completely satisfied with the current Treaty. Even before the Treaty was signed, the Soviet Union had backed the Arab countries in the

1505:, like most Alawites and Christians, greatly benefited from Assad's policies, and either depended on him or were ideologically identified with his government. Many young Syrians also had a strong allegiance to Assad, since they had been educated or indoctrinated in the notions of the Ba'ath Party as formulated by Assad. These sections of the population rendered 1938:, Assad regarded his main goals to be Arab unity and an uncompromising struggle against Israel. The latter goal stemmed partly from Assad's need for legitimacy as an Alawite ruler of Syria who wished to present himself as a genuine Arab and Muslim leader. He had become convinced that Israel presented a severe threat to the integrity of the Arab nation from the 2259: 2705:

Libya, Syria, and Egypt. When the Yom Kippur War started in 1973, Libya opposed its direction and criticized Egypt and Syria for restricted objectives. Libya was also unhappy with being sidelined. Nevertheless, Libya supported the war and had stationed troops in Egypt before it began. When the Arab countries lost the war and

1577:, provided electricity, and encouraged industrial and technical development in Syria. Many peasants and workers received increased financial incomes, social security, and improved health and education services. The urban middle classes, who had been hurt by the Jadid government's policy, obtained new economic opportunities. 2057:

United States. Assad's Syria also tried to increase the influence of the EU in the Middle East. However, opposition from Israel and the United States prevented the EU's influence in the region. Syrias ministers visited a number of EU countries either because of the peace process or for economic reasons. Representatives of

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and Egypt and turned hostile towards these states. Assad established an alliance with Iran, whose political and social principles — except those concerning Israel and the United States — were dramatically opposed to Ba'athist doctrines. Assad consistently extended military and diplomatic assistance to Iran during the

1244:. There was to be a general revision of national policy, which also included the introduction of measures to consolidate his rule. His Ba'athist predecessors had restricted control of Islam in public life and government. Because the Constitution only allowed Muslims to become president, Assad, unlike his predecessor 2491:

mediated between the Syrian and Iraqi Ba'ath parties. Mediation was arranged due to Iran's threats to cut off oil supplies to Syria, as Syria was unable to pay Iran. Assad said that he was also interested in a dialog with Iraq. Saudi Arabia and other Arab countries tried to persuade Assad to reach an

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However, except for securing Arab financial support and verbal commitments, and obtaining large quantities of free and discounted Iranian oil, Assad failed to achieve the goals of his Gulf strategy; instead it further worsened Syria's regional position. The growing Iranian threat to Iraq, which Assad

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In 1980, Assad signed Syria's Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union. He continued to develop his new doctrine of Strategic Balance, which he had initiated the previous year. Aiming primarily at confronting Israel single-handedly, this doctrine engendered fresh intra-Arab policies

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was visiting Moscow at the same time so Assad's visit was postponed. Assad finalized an arms deal worth $ 2 billion, and after the visit both sides stated that they would strengthen their trade ties. Assad commented upon Russia's growing importance, stating that he welcomed Russia's strengthening and

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After 1987, because of internal changes and a political crisis, the Soviet Union was unable to support Syria. This impacted the relationship between the states and Syria reduced its support for the Soviet Union. Changes to the Soviet Middle East policy led to Syria changing its relations with Israel,

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Portraits of Assad, often depicting him engaging in heroic activities, were placed in public spaces. He named numerous places and institutions after himself and members of his family. In schools, children were taught to sing songs of adulation about Hafez al-Assad. Teachers began each lesson with the

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has compared Assad's coming to power to "an untouchable becoming maharajah in India or a Jew becoming tsar in Russia—an unprecedented development shocking to the Sunni majority population which had monopolized power for so many centuries." Assad responded by arresting about 40 Sunni officers who were

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Gaddafi tried to expand the Arab unity to states to the west of Libya. After he failed in 1974 to form a union with Tunisia and Egypt, Gaddafi again turned to Assad. In September 1980, Assad agreed to enter another union with Libya, which occurred when both countries were diplomatically isolated. As

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in Scotland. The US government absolved Syria of responsibility but the US media continued to portray Syria as a suspect. Syria denied any involvement and protested its inclusion on the "Patterns of Global Terrorism" list. Assad's government continued to patronage organizations that operated against

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Between 27 and 29 April 1987, Assad, along with the Defense Minister Tlass and Vice President Khaddam, visited the Soviet Union. Assad stressed that Jewish emigration to Israel was an embarrassment to Syria and served to strengthen Israel. Radio Damascus denied claims that the Soviet Union and Syria

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struggle, and as a strategist who understood power politics, he had sought to counterbalance Israeli military might with an all-Arab political-military alliance. After Sadat's Egypt left the alliance after the 1973 war, Assad during the middle-late 1970s to establish an alternative all-Arab alliance

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of goods from Lebanon was a common occurrence. Assad's government tried to combat the smuggling but encountered problems due to the involvement of Rif'at in the illegal business. In July 1984, the government formed an anti-smuggling squad to control the Lebanon-Syria borders, which proved effective.

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into continuing their financial and diplomatic support for Syria, weakening and possibly toppling the Iraqi government, and subsequently employing Iraq and Iran for "strategic depth" and as allies in Syria's confrontation with Israel, thus emerging as leader of the all-Arab struggle against Israel.

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was largely shaped by Syria's attitude toward Israel. During his presidency, Syria played a major role in the 1973 Arab–Israeli war, which was presented by the Assad's government as a victory, although by the end of the war the Israeli army had invaded large areas of Syria and taken up positions 40

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The US accused Syria of patronizing terrorist organizations. Despite Syria's efforts to portray itself as having dissociated itself from these groups, it was not removed from the list of countries sponsoring terrorist organizations that appeared in annual US Department report on "Patterns of Global

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Assad's regional strategic posture suffered serious blows as Egypt's withdrawal from the all-Arab confrontation against Israel exposed Syria to a growing Israeli threat. Apart from a short-lived rapprochement with the PLO, Assad became increasingly isolated in the region. His brief unity talks with

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Assad also made significant gains in his relations with the superpowers. In 1974, he embarrassed the Soviet Union by negotiating with the United States regarding the military disengagement in the Golan Heights, and in 1976 he ignored Soviet pressure and requests to refrain from invading Lebanon and

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military dictatorship. The continued Muslim opposition to his government and the shortcomings of his socio-economic policies forced Assad's to focus primarily on Syria's regional affairs, namely intra-Arab and anti-Israeli policies. This tendency did not stem only from Assad's expectations to score

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Assad became increasingly reliant on the further cultivation of his close constituencies as a support base and a new political community consisting of large sections of peasants and workers, salaried middle-class and public employees—both Sunnis and non-Sunnis. These groups, mostly organized in the

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accused of plotting. Nevertheless, Assad returned the requirement to the Constitution to please the Sunnis, but he stated that he "rejects every uncultured interpretation of Islam that lays bare an odious narrow-mindedness and loathsome bigotry". In 1974, to satisfy this constitutional requirement,

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in February 1979 as an opportunity to further implement his policies. Although he was against any Islamic movement, but as the Iranian one was a Shia movement he found an ally in the new Iranian government. The new government of Ayatollah Khomeini in Iran promptly abolished Iran's ties with Israel

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and Assad. Syria tried to make Egypt its advocate to the United States and Israel, while Egypt tried to convince Syria to continue with the peace process. Syria also tried in vain to mediate between Egypt and Iran, a process mainly undertaken by Syrian Foreign Minister al-Sharaa. Relations between

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and Russia were dependent upon the United States and made closer ties with Israel, which meant that Syria was unable to count on their support. Nevertheless, CIS countries were views as limited market and limited source for arms. The absence of high-level contracts between Russia and Syria enabled

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The strengthening of ties with the Soviet Union, and the increased Soviet military support and political backing were part of the Assad's policy of strategic balance with Israel. In 1983, during the power struggle between Assad's forces and his brother, Rif'at al-Assad, the Soviets supported Hafez

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Facing a serious threat to his government and possibly to his life, Assad for the first time lost his self-confidence and reacted with fury and desperation. His health also started to deteriorate during this period. Under his personal orders a campaign of repression was launched against the Muslim

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Although Assad was still far from achieving a strategic balance with Israel, his government reached military parity in quantitative terms. This enabled him to deter Israel from attacking Syria and in the event of war, to cause heavy losses to Israel. It also gave him an option to retake the Golan

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to gain Soviet support and to match the United States and Israel. Syria and the Soviet Union signed the Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation in October 1980, which was focused on cultural, technical, military, economic, and transport relations. This treaty included joint action in case any of the

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from taking control of the city. This entry of Iraq, then considered the leading Arab nation both economically as well as militarily, into Syria marks the first and, to date, only time in Syrian history where a foreign Arab army has entered its land. Assad had supported Iran in the war, and Iran

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and weaken its military capacity. This campaign of attrition was an auxiliary tactic in Assad's policy of strategic balance with Israel developed by Assad in the late 1970s when Syria was largely isolated in the region and exposed to a potential Israeli threat. With the help of the Soviet Union,

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met only once that year; during the past decade they had met every few months. Syria opposed Egypt's proposal to convene a summit of Arabic countries negotiating with Israel, as Syria was unwilling to be pressured into a dialog with Yasser Arafat. Later, Syria accused Egypt of seeking to promote

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However, neither Assad's international and regional achievements nor his domestic gains lasted long, and he soon showed sign of collapse because of his miscalculation and changing circumstances. His regional politics, which had earned him early political success, now became the main cause of his

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After gaining enough power, Assad needed to become leader of the Ba'ath Party, so he ordered the arrests and discharge of the incumbent party leaders, replacing them by his own supporters in the Ba'ath Regional Command. They promptly elected him as secretary-general of the party's Syrian branch,

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and Egypt's President Sadat were involved in the negotiations about the union between Egypt and Libya. Assad — at the time Lieutenant General — expanded the negotiations on Syria in September 1970 when in Libya. In April 1971, the three leaders announced the Federation of Arab Republics between

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increased in importance, both economically and politically. Much of Syria's financial aid and foreign trade came from the EU, for example in 1992, 36.8% of Syria's imports and 47.9% of its exports were traded with the EU. Syria's political relations with the EU served as a counterbalance to the

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In the 1980s, Assad's government established a military cooperation with the Soviet Union. Sophisticiated Soviet arms and military advisers helped the development of the Syrian Army, which raised the tension between Israel and Syria. In November 1983, a Soviet delegation arrived in Damascus to

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to Assad's government and were periodically mobilised by Assad to actively support his policies and curb his domestic enemies. Assad's main support base remained the Alawite community, the combat units of the Syrian Armed Forces and the wide network of security and intelligence organizations.

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By 1977, it became apparent that despite some successes, Assad's political reforms had largely failed. This was partly due to Assad's miscalculations or mistakes, and partly to factors he could not control or change quickly. Chronic socio-economic difficulties remained and new ones appeared.

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In 1992, during the crisis between Libya and the West, despite long years of friendship between Assad and Gaddafi, Syria refrained from any non-verbal support for Libya. In order to get more support from Syria, Gaddafi sent a delegation to Damascus in January 1992, headed by Colonel Mustafa

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in 1991. He continued to regard Israel as major regional enemy. At the end of the 1991 Middle East peace conference, Assad insisted on a "land for peace" deal, demanding Israel's withdrawal from the Golan Heights. Assad regarded the September 1993 Israeli accord with the PLO—which ended the

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During the diplomatic crisis between the United States and Syria, which escalated into minor clashes, Syrian counted on Soviet help if war should break out. Vladimir Yukhin, the Soviet ambassador in Damascus, expressed his country's appreciation "for the firm Syrian position in the face of

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resolution imposing sanctions on Libya, condemning it as unjustified provocation in view of what Syria considered to be a double standard applied by the international community toward Libya and Israel. Once the sanctions were in force on 15 April, Syria announced that it would violate the

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states, since Syria had good relations with the Soviet Union. However, after the end of the Cold War, Turkish military concentration on the Syrian border increased. In mid-1998, Turkey threatened Syria with military action because of Syrian aid to Öcalan, and in October it gave Syria an

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part of the agreement, Libya paid the Syrian debt of US$ 1 billion owed to the Soviet Union for weapons. The union confounded Gaddafi's pan-Arab ambitions. In the same month, the union was formed, the Iran-Iraq War broke out and Syria and Libya were the only Arab states to support Iran.

1756:. Assad displayed a large painting of Salah ad-Din's tomb in Damascus in his office and issued a currency bill featuring Salah ad-Din. In his speeches and conversations, Assad frequently hailed Salah ad-Din's successes and his victory over the Crusaders while equating Israel with the 1338:, which was led by the Ba'ath Party. Half of his cabinet were representatives of peasants and workers, and a number of popular organizations of peasants, workers, women and students were established in order to participate in the decision-making process. As he gained support from the 2420:

and manipulator in order to advance his prime regional policy to gain support from all Arabs for his assumed role as a leader of the Arab struggle against Israel, while further isolating Egypt and counterbalancing the growing power of Iraq, Syria's major Arab rivals in the region.

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in foreign trade. Syria's economic crisis occurred at a time of recession in world markets. A drop in the price of oil in 1998 caused a major blow to Syria's economy, but when the oil price rose in 1999, the Syrian economy experienced a partial recovery. In 1999, one of the worst

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visited Damascus to discuss the Lebanese question and the peace process. In 1992, Syria's relations with Germany, previously cold, improved when Syria was involved in securing the release of two German hostages in Lebanon, which also improved its international image. Chancellor

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a 20% pay increase on the anniversary of the Corrective Movement which brought Assad to power. The foreign press criticized Syria's reluctance to liberalize its economy. Assad's government refused to modernize the bank system, allow private banks, and open a stock exchange.

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in October 1973. Syria was defeated, but while Sadat signed unilateral agreements with Israel, Assad emerged from the war as a national hero in Syria and in other parts of the Middle East. This was due to his decision to go to war against Israel and Syria's subsequent

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withdrew from his association with Assad in favor of a closer relationship with Iraq. Assad's regional strategic position was further damaged when the US Carter administration abandoned its new Syrian-oriented policy in favor of the Egypt-Israeli peace process.

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future development of the relations between the countries. Russia agreed to sell Syria arms under previous contracts with the Soviet Union and they demanded payment of Syria's US$ 10–12 billion debt. Syria refused to do so, claiming that Russia was not a

1436:. He was re-elected four times, each time gaining over 99 percent of the vote—including three times in which he received unanimous support, according to official figures. For all intents and purposes, he held complete political control over the country. 1867:, and to sign a military pact with Egypt. Assad gave a high priority to building a strong military and preparing it for a confrontation with Israel, both for offensive and defensive purposes and to enable him to politically negotiate the return of the 2416:

Heights by a surprise attack. Assad's enormous military power also enabled him to sustain some of his major political gains in the region and at home. However, he was not content with his military buildup, and continued to also employ his skills as a

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were tense, but eventually improved. France was still critical of Syria and demanded the reduction of its presence in Lebanon. The issue was resolved when France recognised Syria's central role in the region. In February 1992, French Foreign Minister

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Assad's domestic policy encountered serious difficulties and setbacks, and produced new problems and ill feelings, particularly among the Sunni urban classes; the orthodox section of these classes continued to oppose Assad's government for being a

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In late 1990s, Syria's relations with EU countries, which were economically significant, continued to slowly improve and allowed the country to gain some maneuverability regarding Israel. The country's international status was also bolstered.

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administration. Syria also showed its commitment to the peace process and requested US to take a more active part. However, relations between the countries were still characterized by mutual distrust and differences of opinion on key issues.

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Members of the Alawite community and non-Alawites loyal to Assad virtually controlled the security, intelligence and military apparatuses. They manned or commanded about a dozen security and intelligence networks and most armoured divisions,

1777: 1768:, and after his mother's death, the government produced portraits of her surrounded by a halo. Syrian officials were made to refer to him as 'the sanctified one' (al-Muqaddas). This strategy was also pursued by Assad's son, Bashar al-Assad. 1342:, workers, the youth, the military and the Alawite community, Assad wanted to destroy his remaining opposition. He tried to present himself as a leader-reformer, a state-builder and nation-builder by developing and modernizing the country's 2424:

Although Syria had good relations with the Soviet Union, Assad began to turn towards the West in late-1980s, having seen how Iraq had benefited during its war with Iran. He agreed to join the United States-led coalition against Iraq in the

1593:, a high cost of living and shortages of consumer goods were among the problems Syria faced. The financial burden of Syria's involvement in Lebanon since 1976 contributed to worsening economic problems and encouraged corruption and the 2011:

government in Israel developed political and military relations with the Maronite Lebanese Forces and contributed to the undermining of Assad's regional position. Israel welcomed Sadat's initiative in November 1977 and signed the

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On 31 January 1973, Assad implemented the new Constitution which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the president of Syria must be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in

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were becoming distant and stated that the Assad's visit had renewed the momentum in the relations between the countries, consolidating their common view of the Arab–Israeli conflict. During the visit, Assad asked to acquire the

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In the 1990s, Syria maintained good relations with the United States, but several problems prevented them establishing a friendly relationship. In April 1992, Syria allowed Jews to emigrate to Israel, which was welcomed by the

1612:. In August the food crisis continued despite the government measures. Syria lacked sugar, bread, flour, wood, iron, and construction equipment, which resulted in soaring prices, long queues, and rampant black marketeering. 1829:

Assad (sitting on the right side) signing the Federation of Arab Republics in Benghazi, Libya, on 18 April 1971 with President Anwar al-Sadat (sitting left) of Egypt and Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi of Libya (sitting in the

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For his entire tenure as Syria's president, Assad ruled under the terms of a state of emergency dating from 1963. Under the provisions of the emergency law, the press was limited to three Ba'ath-controlled newspapers and

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infrastructure, achieving political stability, economic opportunities and ideological consensus. As he wanted to create ideological consensus and national unity, Assad advocated a dynamic regional policy while opposing

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died, Assad did not attended his funeral, but the Syrian official commentary stated that Andropov supported the Soviet-Syrian friendship and that both countries stressed their aspirations for strengthening their ties.

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Assad called his domestic reforms as a corrective movement, and achieved some results. Assad tried to modernize Syria's agricultural and industrial sectors. One of Assad's main achievements was the completion of the

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and was subsequently endorsed as president with 99.6% of the vote at the referendum held on 12 March 1971. He also returned the old Islamic Presidential Oath of Office. While continuing to use the Ba'ath Party, its

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of Libya and acceptance of the Camp David accords led Libya to adopt a more hostile stance against Egypt. Eventually, Libya improved its relations with Syria, which also opposed Egypt after the Camp David accords.

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fought back. Two American airplanes were destroyed and one pilot was taken prisoner of war. Just before the attack, Israel's Prime Minister had visited Washington; Syria linked the American attack with the visit.

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The Defense Detachment commanded by Rif'at played a leading role in the smuggling, and imported $ US400,000 worth of goods a day. The anti-smuggling squads seized $ US3.8 million worth of goods in its first week.

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on the signing of an association agreement. The main cause of this failure was the difficulty of Syria meeting EU demands to open the economy and introduce reforms. Marc Pierini, head of the EU delegation in

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of Palestinians - this criticism, as well as the internal dissent it caused as an Alawite ruler in a majority Sunni country, led to a cease-fire in his war on the Palestinian militia forces inside Lebanon.

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and its expanding apparatus as instruments of his rule and policies, Assad established a powerful, centralized presidential system with absolute authority for the first time in Syria's modern history.

1492:, professionals, intellectuals and former Ba'ath Party members, also regarded his government as illegitimate. Later, Assad used the threat of the Muslim Brotherhood to justify his heavy-handed rule. 2318: 2274:

had supervised the preparations for the attack. Syria decided to resist American and French if attacked. Syria's Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass said that Syria would launch suicide attacks on the

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visited Syria in May and October, but those visits were in connection with the American Middle East peace initiative, accentuating the decline in the status of the Soviet Union in the region.

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at a time when the socio-economic issues of Syria required long-term and painstaking efforts without a promise of immediate positive results. In addition to his ambition to turn Syria into a

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and required Syria to evict it from its territory. After the PKK was dissolved in Syria, Turkish-Syrian political relations improved considerably, but issues such as water supplies from the

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hoped that their role would be more clearly and openly expressed. The United States warned Russia not to trade arms to Syria, but Russia stated that it would not yield to American threats.

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increased. In May 1991, Assad's government liberalized the Syrian economy, which stimulated domestic and foreign private investment. Most of the foreign investors were Arab states of the

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argued that Syria and the Soviet Union must resolve their differences concerning the Palestinian movement as stopping the internal conflict would allow the "anti-Imperialist struggle."

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without the formalities of a trial during Assad's rule. Every seven years, Assad was nominated as the sole candidate for president by the People's Council, and confirmed in office by a

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leader. The Regional Command also appointed a new People's Assembly, which in 1971 nominated him for the presidency as the only candidate. On 22 February 1971, Assad resigned from the

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Assad used terrorism and intimidation to extend his control over Lebanon. Jumblatt was assassinated in 1977, and Syria was accused of ordering it, and in 1982 Syrian assassins killed

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In 1980s, the situation in Lebanon became a major problem between Assad's government and the United States. In October 1983, the headquarters of the American and French troops of the

2028:, Iraq also effectively withdrew from the conflict against Israel. Also in 1979, under the impact of the Egypt–Israel Peace Treaty, and in view of Syria's regional predicament, King 1967:

later to refrain from attacking the PLO and the Lebanese radical forces. Simultaneously, Assad renewed and markedly improved his relations with the United States and made presidents

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were extremely strained, mainly because of Assad's support for Iran during the Iraq-Iran war, which Saddam was unable to forgive.However, Saddam had dispatched Iraqi army tanks to

2436:(resistance) in the Occupied Territories without giving the Palestinians any substantial gains—and the increasingly friendly relationship between Israel and Jordan as set-backs. 2356:

Egypt in Syria were not as good on a military or economic level. In 1999, relations between the countries became strained because of differences over the peace process. Assad and

2332:, Switzerland, where they discussed Israeli withdrawal from the Golan Heights, and Syrian presence in Lebanon, as a prelude to a comprehensive peace agreement in the Middle East. 2142:, the Soviet Union kept a policy of low profile. The Soviets did not send arms or exert pressure to end the conflict. This damaged the prestige of the Soviet in the Middle East. 891: 1782: 1781: 1778: 2403:

airliner in London in April 1986 and in Madrid in June 1986 were part of an attrition campaign that Assad had been directing against Israel to damage its economy, morale, and

817: 1783: 2113:. The countries' relationship encountered problems: Syria had supported Iran during the Iran-Iraq War, while the Soviet Union supported Iraq, and when the rebellion against 2766: 959: 917: 733: 306: 2527: 2351:

Relations between Egypt in Syria were renewed in December 1989. In the 1990s, the countries enjoyed good relations with each other, as did their respective presidents,

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from a position of military strength. He allocated up to 70 percent of the annual budget to the military build-up and received large quantities of modern arms from the

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and his military actions against the Muslim radicals in Lebanon provoked a new and unprecedented phase of Muslim resistance in the form of well-organized and effective

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did the same. In October 1998, Syria's Defense Minister Mustafa Tlass stated that "there is no such country as Jordan. Jordan was merely south Syria". However, when

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in order to secure legitimacy and support for his rule in Syria and his policies in Lebanon. He used the potential threat from Iran to manipulate Arab states in the

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said that Iran had confirmed that Iraqi territory would not be taken and al-Sharaa called Iran's refusal to end the war "crazy". Soon afterward, Iran occupied the

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became almost an open rebellion as many Alawite soldiers, officers and senior officials were killed, and government and military centres were bombed by the Muslim

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song "Our eternal leader, Hafez al-Assad". Assad was sometimes portrayed with apparently divine properties. Sculptures and portraits depicted him alongside the

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and maintain air contacts with Libya. However, American pressure and Syria's technical inability to send flights to Libya caused them to reverse the decision.

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and the respect and admiration of many Arabs. Many of his followers now regarded Assad as the new pan-Arab leader, and a worthy successor of Gamal Nasser.

3758:"Clinton wooed by Syrian president: US 'encouraged' by Assad's commitment to normal relations with Israel - Peace lobby declares Geneva summit a success" 1983:, paradoxically with Israel's indirect assistance, since Israel firmly objected to the deployment of Syrian troops south of the Sidon-Jazzin "red line". 1852:

and stepping up the struggle against Israel were likely to strengthen his legitimacy and leadership among the various sections of the Syrian population.

1608:

was so serious that the press was full of complaints. Assad's government sought a solution and argued that food shortages could be avoided with careful

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in the 1991 Gulf War; however Syria-Iraq relations started to improve in 1997 and 1998 when Israel started to develop a strategic partnership with

1733:, having risen to power in November 1970, a few weeks after Nasser's death. He modelled his presidential system on Nasser's, hailed Nasser for his 1672:

compared with 1997 and 1998. Assad's government implemented emergency measures that included loans and compensation to farmers and distribution of

2709:

negotiations started, Gaddafi was infuriated. After the war Gaddafi criticized Sadat and Assad for not consulting him before the war. Egypt's

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kilometres (25 mi) from Damascus. Syria later regained some territory that had been occupied in 1967 in the peace negotiations headed by

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had existed since its annexation by Turkey in 1939. A more important issue between the countries was water supply and Syria's support to the

2693: 833: 812: 1919: 1696:, said that if the Syrian economy was not modernized it could not benefit from closer ties to the EU. Nevertheless, Assad's government gave 588: 2613:

died in February 1999, Assad attended his funeral, after which relations between Syria and Jordan started to improve. Hussein's successor,

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refused to deliver, due to U.S. and Israeli rejection and Syrian accumulated debt from previous arms deals. The Syrian daily newspaper,

1952: 854: 2117:

broke out in al-Fatah in 1983, Syria supported the rebels while the Soviet Union supported Arafat. In 1983 the Syrian Foreign Minister

2047: 2201: 1597:. The emerging class of entrepreneurs and brokers became involved with senior military officers— including Rifaat—in the smuggling of 1522:. Assad had turned some of his intelligence networks into apparatuses for terrorism against targets in the Middle East and in Europe. 1335: 1123: 3739: 2253: 2003:

and Northern Lebanon. Israel's moral support and material aid contributed to the Maronites' autonomy and their resistance to Assad's

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in December 1991 marked the end of the main source of Syria's political and military support for more than two decades. In 1992 the

247: 229: 207: 171: 131: 74: 66: 4870:

The Encyclopedia of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social, and Military History: A Political, Social, and Military History

3042: 1193:

and elimination of leftist and conservative opposition. Various journalists and political scientists have described his regime as

3721: 2159:

which resulted in the mass emigration of Jews to Israel and a demand that Syria change its attitude on the conflict with Israel.

2106: 1006: 780: 387: 1266:. Among the measures he introduced were the raising in the rank of some 2,000 religious functionaries and the appointment of an 2735: 2606: 2550: 2549:, a Kurdish leader, hoped that Khomeini would give the territory to the Kurds, but Khomeini decided to incorporate it into the 2212:

Like other Arab countries, Syria worked to develop good relations with Muslim former Soviet countries. Syrian Foreign Minister

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in order to maintain power. Because he wanted to become an Arab leader, he often represented himself as a successor to Egypt's

1458:

against the government, military, and Ba'athist officials and institutions. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Islamic

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free charge in order to save sheep and cattle. However, those steps were limited and had no measurable effect on the economy.

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Imperialism and Zionism." The Soviet attitude did not satisfied Syria completely. Assad's government considered entering the

1640:

and development projects. However, because of the Ba'ath Party's socialist ideology, Assad's government refused to privatize

1186: 109: 2017: 977: 676: 397: 2457:

was forced to leave Iraq where he had been in exile since 1963, Assad suggested him refuge in Damascus. Assad regarded the

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Brotherhood. Assad escaped an attempted assassination in a grenade attack in 1980. In response, troops led by his brother

1327: 1116: 638: 634: 629: 337: 318: 2399:

Israel was the main target of Assad's terrorist and guerrilla operations in both Lebanon and Europe. Attempts to bomb an

1942:

to the Euphrates, and that it was his historic mission to defend Arabdom. He regarded the confrontation with Israel as a

120: 2883: 2630: 1856: 1206: 653: 3141: 2626: 2792:

members to avoid becoming involved in Middle East conflicts in order to avoid escalating the West's conflict with the

1231: 658: 643: 2762: 2752: 2592: 2374: 2099: 933: 3815: 5021: 2561: 2409: 1445: 1412:

who had unsuccessfully tried to unite Lebanese Alawis and Shias under the Supreme Islamic Shiite Council, issued a

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The government faced further threats from a resurgence of the Islamist opposition. Assad's earlier support of the

3103: 2617:

visited Syria in April 1999, which was described as a "turning point" in the relationship between two countries.

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goods from Lebanon, which affected government revenues and spread corruption among senior government officials.

2209:

of the Soviet Union, but later agreed to pay part of the debt by exporting citrus fruit worth $ US800 million.

1272:

as minister of religious functionaries and construction of mosques. He appointed a little-known Sunni teacher,

2688: 1999:

In 1978, the Christian Maronites, fearing Syrian domination, started a guerrilla war against Syrian troops in

1032: 5011: 2657:

In 1976, Assad received strong criticism and pressure from across the Arab world for his involvement in the

2239:

On 6 July 1999, Assad visited Moscow. The visit was originally planned for March but Israeli Prime Minister

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and was directed toward consolidating Assad's domestic front, which had suffered setbacks since 1977.

1655:

was around 1.5%, which was insufficient as the population growth was between 3% and 3.5%, causing the

3073:

Today, those Muslims called Alawīs are brothers of those Shi'ites called Mutawallis by the malicious.

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Assad had cold relations with Jordan. Syria under Assad had long history of attempts to destabilize

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Assad and Defence Minister Mustapha Tlass, during the Arab–Israeli War of 1973, at the Golan front.

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al-Kharubi. In March, while Assad was visiting Egypt, he met with a Libyan representative to the

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which has to be placed in the context of Syria's demographic composition which includes a large

2025: 598: 2784:

Assad offered help to the PKK enabled it to receive training in the Beka'a' Valley in Lebanon.

2553:. Barzani was not satisfied so he aligned with Assad's Syria, while Assad was also patronizing 2086:

visited Syria in September 1992 to discuss the improvement of relations between the countries.

4987: 4968: 4949: 4930: 4911: 4892: 4873: 4854: 4835: 4816: 4797: 4776: 4757: 4738: 4719: 4700: 4679: 4660: 4641: 4622: 4603: 4584: 4565: 4546: 4527: 4519: 4505: 4484: 4463: 4444: 4425: 4402: 4379: 4360: 4337: 4318: 4299: 4280: 4257: 3169: 2932: 2907: 2863: 2835: 2727: 2643: 2598: 2454: 2301: 2292: 2176: 2029: 1991: 1896: 1680: 1609: 1421: 1174: 996: 578: 4735:

Political Leaders of the Contemporary Middle East and North Africa: A Biographical Dictionary

3039: 4315:

Iraq, Its Neighbors, and the United States: Competition, Crisis, and the Reordering of Power

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Inefficiency, mismanagement, and corruption in the government, public, and private sectors,

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Libyan leader al-Gaddafi, Algerian president Boumedienne and Syrian president Assad at the

1737:

leadership, and in public he displayed photographs of Nasser alongside posters of himself.

1683:, which caused economic problems, but this was only marginally successful. One sign of the 1585:, poor education, particularly in rural areas, the increasing emigration of professionals, 3122: 3046: 2710: 2701: 2647: 2546: 2385: 2271: 2206: 2160: 1825: 1796: 1792: 1709: 1652: 1473: 1451: 1273: 1167: 1095: 523: 493: 488: 331: 2543:

found another ally in the Kurds in Iraq, who assisted Iran's offensive at northern Iraq.

2492:

agreement with Iraq and reopen its pipeline to the Mediterranean, which traverses Syria.

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were often tried in security courts that operated outside the regular judicial system.

1343: 1240:, Assad embarked upon a "corrective movement" at the Eleventh National Congress of the 1143: 1064: 558: 518: 508: 498: 473: 406: 264: 4696:

Leaders and Their Followers in a Dangerous World: The Psychology of Political Behavior

2635:

Syria deployed troops to Lebanon in 1976 during the Lebanese Civil War as part of the

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Wasted Decade: Human Rights in Syria during Bashar al-Asad’s First Ten Years in Power

3109: 2601:'s regime and a regular onslaught of official insults emanated from Damascus towards 2404: 2357: 2352: 2151: 2147: 2114: 1968: 1943: 1868: 1800: 1697: 1590: 1477: 1409: 4499: 2757:

During Assad's presidency, Syria's relations with Turkey were tense. The problem of

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Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics

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The Arab-American Handbook: A Guide to the Arab, Arab-American & Muslim Worlds

3142:"Years of Fear (Forcibly Disappeared in Syria) | PDF | Muslim Brotherhood | Syria" 3096: 2408:

Assad built a large military equipped with modern tanks, airplanes and long-range

1569:

in 1974. It is one of the biggest dams in the world, and its reservoir was called

875: 379: 4773:

Debating Arab Authoritarianism: Dynamics and Durability in Nondemocratic Regimes

3064: 3021: 2793: 2723: 2164: 2135: 2130: 2079: 2058: 1904: 1849: 1788: 1734: 1629: 1574: 1502: 1352: 1259: 1245: 1074: 503: 87: 2734:, also visited Damascus. However, Syria could do no more than to denounce the 2564:, the Iraqi government had provided arms as well as logistical support to the 2417: 2300:

Terrorism". In 1991, Syria was suspected of involvement in the destruction of

2228:

with limited results. At the same time, Syria established good relations with

2225: 2217: 1669: 1598: 1582: 1570: 1464: 1433: 1358: 2024:

Iraqi leaders collapsed in mid-1979; and with Iraq's 1980 involvement in the

4562:

The Libyan Economy: Economic Diversification and International Repositioning

4421: 3208:

Hafez al-Assad, Who Turned Syria Into a Power in the Middle East, Dies at 69

2806: 2798: 2706: 2670: 2483:

in Iraq, damaging Syria's credibility. Another blow was Iran's offensive on

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and to himself become a pan-Arab leader, Assad calculated that working for

1552: 2676:

The Syrian occupation ended in 2005, due to UN resolution 1559, after the

1959:, extended his control over large parts of Lebanon, and intervened in the 1934:

While promoting himself as a historical leader in the style of Nasser and

1668:

in a century caused further economic woes. It caused a drop of 25%–30% in

4716:

Dangerous Neighborhood: Contemporary Issues in Turkey's Foreign Relations

4313:

Barkey, Henri J.; Lasensky, Scott; Marr, Phebe; Hamilton, Lee H. (2011).

4211: 4209: 4207: 4205: 2774: 2535: 2426: 2278:. In December 1983, when American planes pounded Syrian positions in the 2062: 2016:

with Egypt and the United States in 1978, which was followed by the 1979

1908: 1765: 1749: 1748:

leader who in the 12th century unified the Muslim East and defeating the

1721:, 1969. Assad often depicted himself Nasser's successor as "Arab leader". 1693: 1531: 1515: 1401: 1316: 1263: 613: 603: 3837: 3313: 2904:

Persian Gulf War Encyclopedia: A Political, Social, and Military History

2150:

and were concerned about Rif'at's bid for power. When the Soviet leader

1855:

Assad's first foreign policy actions were to join the newly established

1217:, an incident estimated to have killed between 20,000-40,000 civilians. 2740: 2650:. Syria responded by ending its prior affiliation with the Palestinian 2262:

Assad greets President Nixon on his arrival at Damascus airport in 1974

2258: 2229: 1935: 1741: 1665: 1660: 1481: 1405: 1348: 1339: 2052:

Under Assad's government, Syria's relations with the countries of the

4754:

Dancing with Saddam: The Strategic Tango of Jordanian-Iraqi Relations

2810: 2580: 2576: 2329: 2110: 2069: 2000: 1956: 1673: 1628:

improved and inflation remained moderate at 15% – 18%, and

1605: 1299: 1294: 1249: 2860:

Citizens and Refugees: Stories from Afghanistan and Syria to Germany

4460:

The Foreign Policies of Arab States: The Challenge of Globalization

2862:. 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158: Routledge. pp. 42–43. 2781:. After the Cold War ended, the issue of Hatay came to prominence. 2575:

Assad also participated in the coalition formed to force Iraq from

2487:

in late 1986 and early 1987. Between May and June 1986, Jordan and

2758: 2687: 2646:, as Lebanese Christian fears had been greatly exacerbated by the 2602: 2505: 2484: 2400: 2257: 2008: 1990: 1918: 1877: 1864: 1860: 1824: 1775: 1745: 1708: 1551: 1413: 1384: 1357: 1288: 1283: 1268: 1254: 1151: 4439:

Kibaroğlu, Mustafa; Kibaroğlu, Ayșegül; Halman, Talât S. (2009).

4039: 4037: 3108:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

2412:

capable of launching chemical warheads into most Israeli cities.

1903:

in early 1974. Assad's skill as a cool, proud, tough, and shrewd

1647:

In the mid-1990s, Syria entered another economic crisis due to a

1604:

In the early 1980s, Syria's economy worsened and by mid-1984 the

2789: 2770: 1995:

Assad enraged after Anwar Sadat asked him to visit Israel, 1977.

1948: 1939: 1372: 1368: 1278: 1213:

against his rule, which were violently put down during the 1982

4657:

From Bullets to Ballots: Violent Muslim Movements in Transition

4598:

Olmert, Yosef (1988). Rabinovich, Itmar; Shaked, Haim (eds.).

4125: 4123: 1416:

stating that Alawis were a community of Twelver Shia Muslims.

183: 81: 40: 4984:

Commanding Syria: Bashar al-Asad and the First Years in Power

2319:

Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command

1209:

until 2005. Domestically, his early years in power witnessed

2950: 2948: 2906:. Santa Barbara, California, USA: ABC-CLIO. pp. 40–41. 4579:

Olmert, Yosef (1986). Shaked, Haim; Dishon, Daniel (eds.).

3959: 3957: 2902:

C. Tucker, Spencer (2014). "Assad, Hafez al- (1930-2000)".

1534:—suffered a serious heart attack, which was complicated by 4254:

Middle Eastern Leaders and Islam: A Precarious Equilibrium

3975: 4012: 4010: 4008: 4215: 3740:"In Geneva, Clinton Bet That Assad Would Bend, and Lost" 3704: 3702: 3572: 3570: 3533: 3531: 3529: 3527: 3525: 2654:

and began supporting the Maronite-dominated government.

2988: 2986: 2984: 2982: 1907:

in the post war period enabled him to gain the town of

1886:

Once Assad had prepared his army, he was ready to join

4813:

A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East

3512: 3510: 3508: 3506: 3481: 3479: 3418: 3416: 3414: 3295: 3293: 3291: 3289: 3287: 3187: 3185: 3183: 3181: 2931:. New York, USA: Facts on File Inc. pp. 685–686. 2639:. The military intervention had been requested by the 2082:

thanked Assad for his effort. German Foreign Minister

2068:

During the Lebanese Civil War, Syria's relations with

1362:

Hafez al-Assad drinking a cup of coffee (October 1973)

4332:

Carter, Terry; Dunston, Lara; Thomas, Amelia (2008).

4110: 4108: 3003: 3001: 2969: 2967: 2965: 2963: 1963:, and sustained his strategic alliance with the PLO. 1787:

Footage of Hafez al-Assad overseeing training of the

1330:

and his cabinet consisted of several nationalist and

210:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are 4397:

Faces of Lebanon: sects, wars, and global extensions

4355:

The History of Terrorism: From Antiquity to al Qaeda

4100:

Faces of Lebanon: sects, wars, and global extensions

2392:, and Gaza were an integral part of southern Syria. 1484:. In February 1982, the rebellious city of Hama was 2138:of 1967 and the Yom Kippur War of 1973. During the 1031: 1018: 1005: 995: 985: 947: 926: 905: 884: 863: 842: 826: 805: 789: 768: 747: 726: 705: 684: 445: 435: 425: 415: 405: 312: 302: 112:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 4963:Zisser, Eyal (2002). Maddy-Weitzman, Bruce (ed.). 4868:Tucker, Spencer C.; Roberts, Priscilla M. (2008). 4441:Global Security Watch-Turkey: A Reference Handbook 4394: 4352: 4272: 4048:sfn error: no target: CITEREFKoranyDessounki2010 ( 3722:"Clinton to make a visit to Syria on Mideast trip" 2773:, while Syria was allied to the Soviet Union; the 2767:Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia 1659:to be negative. Another symptom of the crisis was 1197:. Major events during his tenure include the 1976 4889:Dreams and Shadows: The Future of the Middle East 4640:. The Washington Institute for Near East Policy. 2834:. New York, USA: Facts on File Inc. p. 684. 1923:Hafez al-Assad signing bilateral documents with 4376:The Middle East Enters the Twenty-first Century 4043: 1687:was Syria's lack of progress in talks with the 1286:. In his speeches, he often used terms such as 4676:Arabs at War: Military Effectiveness 1948–1991 4074: 4062: 4028: 1173:Assad consolidated his power by imposition of 4141: 4129: 3999: 3844:. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress 3320:. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress 3164:Nohlen, D, Grotz, F & Hartmann, C (2001) 2897: 2895: 2893: 2510:Hafez al-Assad (centre) with Iraqi President 1199:Syrian intervention in the Lebanese Civil War 1124: 8: 4693:Post, Jerrold M.; George, Alexander (2004). 4458:Korany, Bahgat; Dessouki, Ali E. H. (2010). 4102:, William W. Harris, (NY 1997), pp. 166–167. 3235: 3223: 3166:Elections in Asia: A data handbook, Volume I 1573:. The reservoir increased the irrigation of 1166:for two years. He was succeeded by his son, 4182:sfn error: no target: CITEREFRaboUtas2006 ( 3087:by Cyril Glasse, Altamira, 2001, pp. 36–37. 1740:Assad also demonstrated his admiration for 1624:grew between 5%–7%, exports increased, the 75:Learn how and when to remove these messages 27:Hafez al-Assad's term as President of Syria 4851:Rogue Regimes: Terrorism and Proliferation 4480:Women in the Middle East: Past and Present 3987: 3963: 3202: 3200: 2853: 2851: 1556:Tabqa Dam built in 1974 (center of image). 1428:estimated that a minimum of 17,000 people 1131: 1117: 366: 263: 4678:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. 3648:sfn error: no target: CITEREFZisser1992 ( 3629:sfn error: no target: CITEREFZisser1992 ( 3367:sfn error: no target: CITEREFOlmerl1986 ( 3264:sfn error: no target: CITEREFWright2008 ( 2680:assassination and the 14 March protests. 2315:Popular Front for Liberation of Palestine 1258:—the educated Muslim class— he prayed in 987:Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party 248:Learn how and when to remove this message 230:Learn how and when to remove this message 172:Learn how and when to remove this message 4967:. Vol. 23. The Moshe Dayan Center. 4948:. Vol. 16. The Moshe Dayan Center. 4944:Zisser, Eyal (1995). Ayalon, Ami (ed.). 4929:. Vol. 15. The Moshe Dayan Center. 4925:Zisser, Eyal (1993). Ayalon, Ami (ed.). 4602:. Vol. 10. The Moshe Dayan Center. 4560:Otman, Waniss; Karlberg, Erling (2007). 4501:Inheriting Syria: Bashar's Trial By Fire 4239: 4196: 4177: 4016: 2121:visited Moscow. Soviet Foreign Minister 206:Relevant discussion may be found on the 4583:. Vol. 8. The Moshe Dayan Center. 4351:Chaliand, Gérard; Blin, Arnaud (2007). 4088:Palestine and the Arab Israeli Conflict 2992: 2954: 2822: 1717:(left) meeting with Egyptian president 1476:took revenge by killing 250 inmates at 1306:confirming his status as the country's 1298:(martyrdom) when referring to fighting 1205:and leftist militias, resulting in the 378: 4793:Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East 4462:. American University in Cairo Press. 4216:Kibaroğlu, Kibaroğlu & Halman 2009 4165: 3948: 3886: 3786: 3774: 3708: 3674: 3662: 3643: 3624: 3612: 3600: 3588: 3576: 3561: 3549: 3537: 3458: 3405: 3393: 3381: 3362: 3338: 3278: 3259: 3247: 2875: 2526:Even though Iraq was ruled by another 2007:occupation of Lebanon. A newly formed 1795:and meeting political leaders such as 1383:. They labeled Assad as the "enemy of 1322:Assad wanted his government to appear 1020:Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party 982: 681: 402: 348: 259: 3936: 3924: 3874: 3862: 3816:"The Ways of Syria – Foreign Affairs" 3691:sfn error: no target: CITEREFZisser ( 3516: 3497: 3485: 3470: 3446: 3434: 3422: 3350: 3299: 3191: 3007: 2973: 2694:Steadfastness and Confrontation Front 1679:Assad's government tried to decrease 284:12 March 1971 – 10 June 2000 7: 4619:Losing Iraq: Insurgency and Politics 4227: 4153: 4114: 3314:"1982 – 1987 Political Developments" 2813:rivers and Hatay remained unsolved. 2328:twice in 1994 in Syria, and 2000 in 1252:. In order to gain support from the 110:adding citations to reliable sources 2518:(right), and Syrian Vice-President 1953:Palestinian Liberation Organization 1840:quick and spectacular gains in his 1752:in 1187 and subsequently conquered 1501:Ba'ath Party, mass syndicates, and 4796:. University of California Press. 4359:. University of California Press. 3686: 2522:(far right, half-covered) in 1979. 2514:(left), Algerian Foreign Minister 2202:Commonwealth of Independent States 1725:Assad developed a state-sponsored 1530:In November 1983, Assad—who was a 1334:parties under the umbrella of the 559:The Genius of Arabic in Its Tongue 25: 4541:Milton-Edwards, Beverley (2009). 3838:"Relations with the Soviet Union" 2696:summit in Tripoli, December 1977. 56:This article has multiple issues. 3063:Kaplan, Robert (February 1993). 3020:Kaplan, Robert (February 1993). 2769:(ASALA). Turkey was a member of 2700:Throughout 1970, Libya's leader 1987:After the dissolution of the FAR 1007:Arab Revolutionary Workers Party 386: 351: 188: 86: 45: 4965:Middle East Contemporary Survey 4946:Middle East Contemporary Survey 4927:Middle East Contemporary Survey 4617:Pelletière, Stephen C. (2007). 4600:Middle East Contemporary Survey 4581:Middle East Contemporary Survey 4504:. Brookings Institution Press. 4378:. University Press of Florida. 4317:. US Institute of Peace Press. 2736:United Nations Security Council 2607:Arab States of the Persian Gulf 2551:Islamic Supreme Council of Iraq 1262:mosques, even though he was an 1248:, presented himself as a pious 97:needs additional citations for 64:or discuss these issues on the 4910:. Twenty-First Century Books. 4737:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 4638:Syria Beyond the Peace Process 4621:. Greenwood Publishing Group. 4483:. Princeton University Press. 4298:. Princeton University Press. 4275:Genocide: A Reference Handbook 2927:Keegan, John (1979). "Syria". 2830:Keegan, John (1979). "Syria". 2268:Multinational Force in Lebanon 2048:Syria–European Union relations 1915:Early successes, late setbacks 1518:and other combat units of the 121:"Presidency of Hafez al-Assad" 1: 4775:. Stanford University Press. 4771:Schlumberger, Oliver (2007). 3899:Badran, Tony (22 June 2010). 3814:Fouad Ajami (May–June 2009). 3085:The New Encyclopedia of Islam 3053:. Vol. 3, No. 2, August 2008. 2858:C. Häberlen, Joachim (2023). 2254:Syria–United States relations 2065:, and Germany visited Syria. 1929:Socialist Republic of Romania 1651:. In the late 1990s, Syria's 1158:on 10 June 2000. He had been 1154:from 12 March 1971 until his 630:Syrian Committee to Help Iraq 319:Presidential Palace, Damascus 4699:. Cornell University Press. 4477:Keddie, Nikki R. R. (2012). 4418:Syria: Revolution from Above 4416:Hinnebusch, Raymond (2001). 4401:. Markus Wiener Publishers. 4374:Freedman, Robert O. (2002). 3836:Thomas Collelo, ed. (1987). 3801:"Palestine for the Syrians?" 3312:Thomas Collelo, ed. (1987). 3040:Return of the Pink Panthers? 2631:Syrian occupation of Lebanon 2198:collapse of the Soviet Union 2146:al-Assad's Defense Minister 1857:Federation of Arab Republics 1816:Federation of Arab Republics 1375:and Aleppo organized by the 1207:Syrian occupation of Lebanon 654:Syrian occupation of Lebanon 279:Presidency of Hafez al-Assad 18:Presidency of Hafiz al-Assad 4752:Schenker, David K. (2003). 4655:Phillips, David L. (2009). 4498:Leverett, Flynt L. (2005). 4393:Harris, William W. (1997). 4044:Korany & Dessounki 2010 2726:. Later in the same month, 1232:Corrective Movement (Syria) 659:Assadist-Saddamist conflict 289: 5038: 4718:. Transaction Publishers. 4659:. Transaction Publishers. 4543:Jordan: A Hashemite Legacy 2750: 2732:General People's Committee 2730:, secretary of the Libyan 2624: 2590: 2568:, particularly during the 2562:Islamist uprising in Syria 2528:branch of the Ba'ath Party 2499: 2459:Islamic revolution in Iran 2443: 2372: 2344: 2251: 2167:for its weapons supplies. 2097: 2045: 1951:, Jordan, Lebanon and the 1545: 1446:Islamist uprising in Syria 1443: 1336:National Progressive Front 1229: 553:The Battle for One Destiny 548:On the Way of Resurrection 338:Bashar al-Assad presidency 29: 4906:Zahler, Kathy A. (2009). 4887:Wright, Robin B. (2009). 4674:Pollack, Kenneth (2002). 4142:Otman & Karlberg 2007 4130:Otman & Karlberg 2007 4000:Tucker & Roberts 2008 3104:Federal Research Division 2530:, Assad's relations with 2410:ground-to-ground missiles 2105:discuss the opening of a 2018:Egypt–Israel peace treaty 1177:on the society and ran a 589:November 1963 coup d'état 347: 325: 275: 271: 262: 36:Hafiz al-Assad government 4849:Tanter, Raymond (1999). 4815:. Taylor & Francis. 4545:. Taylor & Francis. 4526:. Kessinger Publishing. 3224:Chaliand & Blin 2007 3065:"Syria: Identity Crisis" 3022:"Syria: Identity Crisis" 2882:: CS1 maint: location ( 2763:Kurdistan Workers' Party 2538:in order to prevent the 2042:European Union countries 1760:, the Crusaders' state. 1620:In the early 1990s, the 1486:bombed by Assad's troops 447:Baath Party (pro-Syrian) 4790:Seale, Patrick (1990). 4733:Reich, Bernard (1990). 4252:Alianak, Sonia (2007). 2777:was a guarantor to the 2627:Lebanon–Syria relations 2094:Soviet Union and Russia 1456:urban guerrilla warfare 1160:Prime Minister of Syria 649:Intervention in Lebanon 437:Baath Party (pro-Iraqi) 32:prime minister of Syria 4853:. Palgrave Macmillan. 4811:Seddon, David (2004). 4714:Radu, Michael (2003). 4636:Pipes, Daniel (1995). 4294:Batatu, Hanna (1999). 3988:Post & George 2004 3842:Syria: A Country Study 3318:Syria: A Country Study 2803:terrorist organization 2753:Syria–Turkey relations 2697: 2659:Tel al-Zaatar massacre 2593:Jordan–Syria relations 2523: 2375:Israel–Syria relations 2361:negotiations with the 2263: 2187:Alexander Bessmertnykh 2109:in the Syrian city of 2100:Russia–Syria relations 2084:Hans-Dietrich Genscher 1996: 1931: 1901:Israeli Defense Forces 1883: 1831: 1812: 1722: 1557: 1363: 1191:extrajudicial killings 677:Regional organisations 529:Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri 5017:Presidencies of Syria 4982:Zisser, Eyal (2006). 4830:Shore, Nawar (2008). 4271:Ball, Howard (2010). 3097:Syria country profile 2691: 2540:Israel Defence Forces 2509: 2347:Egypt–Syria relations 2261: 1994: 1922: 1881: 1828: 1786: 1712: 1642:state-owned companies 1555: 1546:Further information: 1361: 1201:launched against the 1179:military dictatorship 1033:Sudanese Ba'ath Party 644:Corrective Revolution 484:Salah al-Din al-Bitar 359:Seal of the president 4178:Rabo & Utas 2006 2637:Arab Deterrent Force 2520:Abd al-Halim Khaddam 2516:Abdelaziz Bouteflika 2502:Iraq–Syria relations 2446:Iran–Syria relations 2324:Assad met President 2173:S-300 missile system 1975:his great admirers. 1758:Kingdom of Jerusalem 1422:political dissidents 1187:arbitrary detentions 514:Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr 417:Arab Ba'ath Movement 332:Al-Khatib presidency 199:factual accuracy is 106:improve this article 4756:. Lexington Books. 4199:, pp. 129–130. 4075:Milton-Edwards 2009 4065:, pp. 101–102. 4063:Milton-Edwards 2009 4029:Milton-Edwards 2009 3689:, pp. 729–730. 3665:, pp. 673–674. 3603:, pp. 701–702. 3591:, pp. 700–701. 3564:, pp. 732–733. 3396:, pp. 598–599. 3384:, pp. 728–729. 3365:, pp. 683–684. 3281:, pp. 166–167. 3262:, pp. 243–244. 3206:MacFarquhar, Neil. 3101:Library of Congress 2957:, pp. 129–130. 2365:at Syrian expense. 2119:Abdul Halim Khaddam 1821:Alliance with Egypt 1727:cult of personality 1713:Assad (center) and 1685:economic stagnation 1520:Syrian Armed Forces 1452:Christian Maronites 1408:and founder of the 1387:" and called for a 1282:—the pilgrimage to 1226:Corrective Movement 4242:, p. 129-130. 4086:Charles D. Smith, 3976:Barkey et al. 2011 3764:. 17 January 1994. 3744:The New York Times 3728:. 22 October 1994. 3726:The New York Times 3129:Human Rights Watch 3045:2012-02-19 at the 2698: 2652:Rejectionist Front 2641:Lebanese President 2570:1982 Hama massacre 2566:Muslim Brotherhood 2524: 2309:Israel, including 2284:air-defense system 2264: 2241:Benjamin Netanyahu 2234:Armenian community 2014:Camp David Accords 1997: 1961:Lebanese Civil War 1932: 1884: 1863:, Libya and later 1832: 1813: 1731:Gamal Abdel Nasser 1723: 1719:Gamal Abdel Nasser 1715:Nureddin al-Atassi 1558: 1426:Human Rights Watch 1400:, a leader of the 1391:against his rule. 1377:Muslim Brotherhood 1364: 991:1960–1962/63 619:De-Ba'athification 594:17 July Revolution 584:Ramadan Revolution 5022:Politics of Syria 4993:978-1-84511-153-3 4974:978-965-224-049-1 4955:978-0-8133-2133-2 4936:978-0-8133-1869-1 4917:978-0-8225-9095-8 4908:The Assads' Syria 4898:978-0-14-311489-5 4891:. Penguin Press. 4879:978-1-85109-842-2 4860:978-0-312-21786-0 4841:978-1-885942-14-2 4822:978-1-85743-212-1 4803:978-0-520-06976-3 4782:978-0-8047-5776-8 4763:978-0-7391-0649-5 4744:978-0-313-26213-5 4725:978-0-7658-0166-1 4706:978-0-8014-4169-1 4666:978-1-4128-0795-1 4647:978-0-944029-64-0 4628:978-0-275-99213-2 4609:978-0-8133-0764-0 4590:978-965-224-006-4 4571:978-3-540-46460-0 4552:978-0-415-45717-0 4533:978-1-4191-3012-0 4511:978-0-8157-5204-2 4490:978-0-691-12863-4 4469:978-977-416-360-9 4450:978-0-313-34560-9 4431:978-0-415-26779-3 4408:978-1-55876-116-2 4385:978-0-8130-3110-1 4366:978-0-520-24709-3 4343:978-1-74104-609-0 4336:. Lonely Planet. 4334:Syria and Lebanon 4324:978-1-60127-077-1 4286:978-1-59884-488-7 4263:978-0-8204-6924-9 4180:, pp. 92–93. 3927:, pp. 62–63. 3865:, pp. 61–62. 3500:, pp. 58–59. 3473:, pp. 56–57. 3449:, pp. 15–16. 3437:, pp. 57–58. 3236:Schlumberger 2007 2913:978-1-61069-415-5 2869:978-1-032-21513-6 2728:Abuzed Omar Dorda 2644:Suleiman Frangieh 2455:Ruhollah Khomeini 2302:Pan Am Flight 103 2224:, Tajikistan and 2177:Mikhail Gorbachev 2107:Soviet naval base 2030:Hussein of Jordan 1925:Nicolae Ceaușescu 1791:with his brother 1784: 1681:population growth 1610:economic planning 1440:Islamist uprising 1328:People's Assembly 1221:Domestic policies 1181:characterised by 1175:mass surveillance 1141: 1140: 1044: 1043: 997:Socialist Lebanon 968: 967: 639:1966 coup d'états 458: 457: 365: 364: 258: 257: 250: 240: 239: 232: 182: 181: 174: 156: 79: 16:(Redirected from 5029: 4997: 4986:. I. B. 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Kaplan 1312:Syrian Air Force 1133: 1126: 1119: 1105: 1103:Socialism portal 1098: 1060:Arab nationalism 1040: 1027: 1014: 983: 682: 664:Syrian civil war 454: 403: 390: 367: 355: 282: 280: 267: 260: 253: 246: 235: 228: 224: 221: 215: 212:reliably sourced 192: 191: 184: 177: 170: 166: 163: 157: 155: 114: 90: 82: 71: 49: 48: 41: 30:For his term as 21: 5037: 5036: 5032: 5031: 5030: 5028: 5027: 5026: 5002: 5001: 5000: 4994: 4981: 4975: 4962: 4956: 4943: 4937: 4924: 4918: 4905: 4899: 4886: 4880: 4867: 4861: 4848: 4842: 4829: 4823: 4810: 4804: 4789: 4783: 4770: 4764: 4751: 4745: 4732: 4726: 4713: 4707: 4692: 4686: 4673: 4667: 4654: 4648: 4635: 4629: 4616: 4610: 4597: 4591: 4578: 4572: 4559: 4553: 4540: 4534: 4518: 4512: 4497: 4491: 4476: 4470: 4457: 4451: 4438: 4432: 4415: 4409: 4392: 4386: 4373: 4367: 4350: 4344: 4331: 4325: 4312: 4306: 4293: 4287: 4270: 4264: 4251: 4247: 4246: 4238: 4234: 4226: 4222: 4214: 4203: 4195: 4191: 4181: 4176: 4172: 4164: 4160: 4152: 4148: 4140: 4136: 4128: 4121: 4113: 4106: 4098: 4094: 4085: 4081: 4073: 4069: 4061: 4057: 4047: 4042: 4035: 4027: 4023: 4015: 4006: 3998: 3994: 3986: 3982: 3974: 3970: 3964:Pelletière 2007 3962: 3955: 3947: 3943: 3935: 3931: 3923: 3919: 3909: 3907: 3898: 3897: 3893: 3885: 3881: 3873: 3869: 3861: 3857: 3847: 3845: 3835: 3834: 3830: 3820: 3818: 3813: 3812: 3808: 3798: 3797: 3793: 3785: 3781: 3773: 3769: 3756: 3755: 3751: 3738: 3737: 3733: 3720: 3719: 3715: 3707: 3700: 3690: 3685: 3681: 3673: 3669: 3661: 3657: 3647: 3642: 3638: 3628: 3623: 3619: 3611: 3607: 3599: 3595: 3587: 3583: 3575: 3568: 3560: 3556: 3548: 3544: 3536: 3523: 3515: 3504: 3496: 3492: 3484: 3477: 3469: 3465: 3457: 3453: 3445: 3441: 3433: 3429: 3421: 3412: 3404: 3400: 3392: 3388: 3380: 3376: 3366: 3361: 3357: 3349: 3345: 3337: 3333: 3323: 3321: 3311: 3310: 3306: 3298: 3285: 3277: 3273: 3263: 3258: 3254: 3246: 3242: 3234: 3230: 3222: 3218: 3205: 3198: 3190: 3179: 3163: 3159: 3150: 3148: 3140: 3139: 3135: 3121: 3117: 3095: 3091: 3083: 3079: 3062: 3061: 3057: 3051:Mideast Monitor 3047:Wayback Machine 3038:Riad Yazbeck. 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Cune Press. 4827: 4821: 4808: 4802: 4787: 4781: 4768: 4762: 4749: 4743: 4730: 4724: 4711: 4705: 4690: 4684: 4671: 4665: 4652: 4646: 4633: 4627: 4614: 4608: 4595: 4589: 4576: 4570: 4557: 4551: 4538: 4532: 4520:Metz, Helen C. 4516: 4510: 4495: 4489: 4474: 4468: 4455: 4449: 4443:. Peter Lang. 4436: 4430: 4413: 4407: 4390: 4384: 4371: 4365: 4348: 4342: 4329: 4323: 4310: 4304: 4291: 4285: 4268: 4262: 4256:. Peter Lang. 4248: 4245: 4244: 4232: 4230:, p. 152. 4220: 4201: 4189: 4170: 4168:, p. 738. 4158: 4146: 4134: 4119: 4104: 4092: 4079: 4077:, p. 102. 4067: 4055: 4046:, p. 272. 4033: 4031:, p. 101. 4021: 4004: 4002:, p. 169. 3992: 3990:, p. 231. 3980: 3968: 3953: 3951:, p. 616. 3941: 3929: 3917: 3891: 3879: 3867: 3855: 3828: 3806: 3799:Daniel Pipes. 3791: 3789:, p. 562. 3779: 3777:, p. 734. 3767: 3749: 3731: 3713: 3711:, p. 730. 3698: 3679: 3677:, p. 703. 3667: 3655: 3646:, p. 657. 3636: 3627:, p. 656. 3617: 3615:, p. 702. 3605: 3593: 3581: 3579:, p. 561. 3566: 3554: 3552:, p. 732. 3542: 3540:, p. 733. 3521: 3502: 3490: 3475: 3463: 3451: 3439: 3427: 3410: 3408:, p. 599. 3398: 3386: 3374: 3355: 3343: 3331: 3304: 3283: 3271: 3252: 3240: 3238:, p. 105. 3228: 3226:, p. 230. 3216: 3212:New York Times 3196: 3177: 3157: 3133: 3115: 3106:(April 2005). 3089: 3077: 3055: 3031: 3012: 2997: 2978: 2959: 2944: 2937: 2919: 2912: 2889: 2868: 2847: 2840: 2821: 2820: 2818: 2815: 2765:(PKK) and the 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4064: 4059: 4056: 4051: 4045: 4040: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4025: 4022: 4019:, p. 11. 4018: 4017:Schenker 2003 4013: 4011: 4009: 4005: 4001: 3996: 3993: 3989: 3984: 3981: 3978:, p. 27. 3977: 3972: 3969: 3966:, p. 70. 3965: 3960: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3945: 3942: 3939:, p. 63. 3938: 3933: 3930: 3926: 3921: 3918: 3906: 3902: 3895: 3892: 3889:, p. 76. 3888: 3883: 3880: 3877:, p. 62. 3876: 3871: 3868: 3864: 3859: 3856: 3843: 3839: 3832: 3829: 3817: 3810: 3807: 3802: 3795: 3792: 3788: 3783: 3780: 3776: 3771: 3768: 3763: 3759: 3753: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3735: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3717: 3714: 3710: 3705: 3703: 3699: 3694: 3688: 3683: 3680: 3676: 3671: 3668: 3664: 3659: 3656: 3651: 3645: 3640: 3637: 3632: 3626: 3621: 3618: 3614: 3609: 3606: 3602: 3597: 3594: 3590: 3585: 3582: 3578: 3573: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3555: 3551: 3546: 3543: 3539: 3534: 3532: 3530: 3528: 3526: 3522: 3519:, p. 59. 3518: 3513: 3511: 3509: 3507: 3503: 3499: 3494: 3491: 3488:, p. 58. 3487: 3482: 3480: 3476: 3472: 3467: 3464: 3461:, p. 50. 3460: 3455: 3452: 3448: 3443: 3440: 3436: 3431: 3428: 3425:, p. 57. 3424: 3419: 3417: 3415: 3411: 3407: 3402: 3399: 3395: 3390: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3375: 3370: 3364: 3359: 3356: 3352: 3347: 3344: 3341:, p. 75. 3340: 3335: 3332: 3319: 3315: 3308: 3305: 3302:, p. 61. 3301: 3296: 3294: 3292: 3290: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3275: 3272: 3267: 3261: 3256: 3253: 3250:, p. 13. 3249: 3244: 3241: 3237: 3232: 3229: 3225: 3220: 3217: 3214:, 2000-06-11. 3213: 3209: 3203: 3201: 3197: 3194:, p. 60. 3193: 3188: 3186: 3184: 3182: 3178: 3175: 3174:0-19-924958-X 3171: 3167: 3161: 3158: 3147: 3143: 3137: 3134: 3131:, 2010 Report 3130: 3126: 3125: 3119: 3116: 3113: 3111: 3110:public domain 3105: 3102: 3099:, pp. 15–17. 3098: 3093: 3090: 3086: 3081: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3059: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3041: 3035: 3032: 3027: 3023: 3016: 3013: 3010:, p. 56. 3009: 3004: 3002: 2998: 2995:, p. 55. 2994: 2989: 2987: 2985: 2983: 2979: 2976:, p. 55. 2975: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2951: 2949: 2945: 2940: 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2080:Helmut Kohl 2059:Netherlands 1859:along with 1789:Syrian Army 1744:, a Muslim 1670:crop yields 1630:oil exports 1606:food crisis 1575:arable land 1430:disappeared 1353:imperialism 1246:Salah Jadid 1203:Palestinian 1075:Pan-Arabism 1037:2002– 1024:1970– 1011:1966– 504:Salah Jadid 451:1966– 407:Arab Ba'ath 321:(from 1985) 5006:Categories 3937:Reich 1990 3925:Reich 1990 3875:Reich 1990 3863:Reich 1990 3821:10 October 3517:Reich 1990 3498:Reich 1990 3486:Reich 1990 3471:Reich 1990 3447:Pipes 1995 3435:Reich 1990 3423:Reich 1990 3351:Reich 1990 3300:Reich 1990 3192:Reich 1990 3151:2024-09-25 3008:Reich 1990 2974:Reich 1990 2817:References 2779:status quo 2418:strategist 2226:Azerbaijan 2218:Kazakhstan 2061:, France, 1905:negotiator 1850:Arab unity 1735:pan-Arabic 1599:contraband 1583:illiteracy 1571:Lake Assad 1507:legitimacy 1465:mujahideen 1434:referendum 1324:democratic 1164:government 843:Mauritania 542:Literature 220:April 2022 132:newspapers 61:improve it 4422:Routledge 4228:Radu 2003 4154:Metz 2004 4115:Metz 2004 4090:, p. 354. 3901:"Syriana" 3848:8 October 3324:8 October 2878:cite book 2807:Euphrates 2799:ultimatum 2707:ceasefire 2671:West Bank 2452:Ayatollah 2390:West Bank 2311:Hezbollah 2306:Lockerbie 1837:sectarian 1754:Jerusalem 1750:Crusaders 1649:recession 1614:Smuggling 1587:inflation 1563:Tabqa Dam 1536:phlebitis 1516:commandos 1398:Musa Sadr 1340:peasantry 1332:socialist 1148:President 1080:Saddamism 1070:Nasserism 960:pro-Syria 939:pro-Syria 918:pro-Syria 897:pro-Syria 876:pro-Syria 864:Palestine 855:pro-Syria 818:pro-Syria 781:pro-Syria 760:pro-Syria 739:pro-Syria 718:pro-Syria 697:pro-Syria 380:Ba'athism 291:President 208:talk page 67:talk page 4522:(2004). 3910:4 August 3043:Archived 2775:Cold War 2536:Damascus 2427:Gulf War 2379:Assad's 2216:visited 2182:Tishreen 2063:Portugal 2005:de facto 1944:zero-sum 1909:Kuneitra 1830:centre). 1694:Damascus 1666:droughts 1532:diabetic 1402:Twelvers 1379:and the 1317:ideology 1308:de facto 955:pro-Iraq 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Presidency of Hafez al-Assad

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