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specific intent, such as alarm calls or mating calls has been observed in many orders of animals, including primates. Researchers began to study vervet monkey vocalizations in more depth as a result of this finding. In the seminal study on vervet monkeys, researchers played recordings of three different types of vocalizations they use as alarm calls for leopards, eagles, and pythons. Vervet monkeys in this study responded to each call accordingly: going up trees for leopard calls, searching for predators in the sky for eagle calls, and looking down for snake calls. This indicated a clear communication that there is a predator nearby and what kind of predator it is, eliciting a specific response. The use of recorded sounds, as opposed to observations in the wild, gave researchers insight into the fact that these calls contain meaning about the external world. This study also produced evidence that suggests vervet monkeys improve in their ability to classify different predators and produce alarm calls for each predator as they get older. Further research into this phenomenon has discovered that infant vervet monkeys produce alarm calls for a wider variety of species than adults. Adults only use alarm calls for leopards, eagles, and pythons while infants produce alarm calls for land mammals, birds, and snakes respectively. Data suggests that infants learn how to use and respond to alarm calls by watching their parents.
249:
understand behavior. Povinelli et al. (1990) points out that most evidence in support of great ape theory of mind involves naturalistic settings to which the apes have already adapted through past learning. Their "reinterpretation hypothesis" explains away evidence supporting attribution of mental states to others in chimpanzees as merely evidence of risk-based learning; that is, the chimpanzees learn through experience that certain behaviors in other chimpanzees have a probability of leading to certain responses, without necessarily attributing knowledge or other intentional states to those other chimpanzees. They have proposed testing theory of mind abilities in great apes in novel, and not naturalistic settings. Experimenters since then, such as demonstrated in
Krupenye et al. (2016), have gone to extensive lengths to control for behavioral cues by placing the apes in novel settings as suggested by Povinelli and colleagues. Research has shown that there is substantial evidence for some non-human primates to track the mental state, like desires and beliefs, of other individuals that cannot be deduced to a response of learned behavioural cues.
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according to the published research literature, apes are not able to ask questions themselves, and in human-primate conversations, questions are asked by the humans only. Ann and David
Premack designed a potentially promising methodology to teach apes to ask questions in the 1970s: "In principle interrogation can be taught either by removing an element from a familiar situation in the animal's world or by removing the element from a language that maps the animal's world. It is probable that one can induce questions by purposefully removing key elements from a familiar situation. Suppose a chimpanzee received its daily ration of food at a specific time and place, and then one day the food was not there. A chimpanzee trained in the interrogative might inquire 'Where is my food?' or, in Sarah's case, 'My food is?' Sarah was never put in a situation that might induce such interrogation because for our purposes it was easier to teach Sarah to answer questions".
244:. A false-belief test is a comprehensive test used to test for an individual's theory of mind. Understanding language is a key component to being able to understand the directions for the false-belief test, and researchers have had to get creative to utilize this test in the research of non-human primates' theory of mind. Recent technology has enabled researchers to closely resemble the false-belief task without needing to use language. In Krupenye et al. (2016), an advanced eye-tracking technology was used to test for false-belief understanding in apes. The findings of this experiment showed that apes understood and accurately anticipated the behavior of an individual who held a false belief.
133:
271:, a ground-dwelling fowl, produce a single type of alarm call for all predators it detects. Diana monkeys have been observed to respond to the most likely reason for the call, typically a human or leopard, based on the situation and respond according to that. If they deem a leopard is the more likely predator in the vicinity they will produce their own leopard-specific alarm call but if they think it is a human, they will remain silent and hidden.
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386:(1917). In this research, Köhler observed the manner in which chimpanzees solve problems, such as that of retrieving bananas when positioned out of reach. He found that they stacked wooden crates to use as makeshift ladders in order to retrieve the food. If the bananas were placed on the ground outside of the cage, they used sticks to lengthen the reach of their arms.
232:. Research on chimpanzees, capuchin monkeys, and Tonkean macaques (Macaca tokeana) has provided evidence that they are sensitive to the goals and intentions of others and are able to differentiate between when an experimenter is unable to give them food versus when the experimenter is just unwilling to.
257:
For most of the 20th century, scientists who studied primates thought of vocalizations as physical responses to emotions and external stimuli. The first observations of primate vocalizations representing and referring to events in the exterior world were observed in vervet monkeys in 1967. Calls with
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In the 1970s and the 1980s, there had been suggestions that apes are unable to ask questions and to give negative answers. According to numerous published studies, apes are able to answer human questions, and the vocabulary of the acculturated apes contains question words. Despite these abilities,
220:
For example, many researchers focus on animals' understanding of intention, gaze, perspective, or knowledge (or rather, what another being has seen). Part of the difficulty in this line of research is that observed phenomena can often be explained as simple stimulus-response learning, since mental
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on all primates equally. A 2012 study identifying individual chimpanzees that consistently performed highly on cognitive tasks found clusters of abilities instead of a general factor of intelligence. This study used individual-based data and claim that their results are not directly comparable to
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A decade later, the
Premacks wrote: "Though understood the question, she did not herself ask any questions—unlike the child who asks interminable questions, such as What that? Who making noise? When Daddy come home? Me go Granny's house? Where puppy? Toy? Sarah never delayed the departure of her
217:
cognition. While it is difficult to study human-like theory of mind and mental states in species which we do not yet describe as "minded" at all, and about whose potential mental states we have an incomplete understanding, researchers can focus on simpler components of more complex capabilities.
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There has been some controversy over the interpretation of evidence purporting to show theory of mind ability—or inability—in animals. Part of this debate has involved whether animals are really able to associate cognitive abilities with another individual, or if they are just able to read and
216:
Non-human research still has a major place in this field, however, and is especially useful in illuminating which nonverbal behaviors signify components of theory of mind, and in pointing to possible stepping points in the evolution of what many claim to be a uniquely human aspect of social
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A different species of monkeys, the wild
Campbell's monkeys have also been known to produce a sequence of vocalization that require a specific order to elicit a specific behaviour in other monkeys. Changing the order of the sounds changes the resulting behaviour, or meaning, of the call.
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when hunting, considered the first evidence of systematic use of weapons in a species other than humans. Captive gorillas have made a variety of tools. In the wild, mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools. Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at
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Theory of mind (also known as mental state attribution, mentalizing, or mindreading) can be defined as the "ability to track the unobservable mental states, like desires and beliefs, that guide others' actions". Premack and
Woodruff's 1978 article "Does the chimpanzee have a
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of 4,000 primate behaviour papers including 62 species found that 47% of the individual variance in cognitive ability tests was accounted for by a single factor, controlling for socio-ecological variables. This value fits within the accepted range of the influence of
225:, who are of most interest in the study of the evolution of human social cognition. Research can be categorized in to three subsections of theory of mind: attribution of intentions, attribution of knowledge (and perception), and attribution of belief.
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were studied in a habituation-dishabituation experiment that demonstrated the ability to attend to the semantic content of calls rather than simply to acoustic nature. Primates have also been observed responding to alarm calls of other species.
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have all been reported as using tools. The use of tools by primates is varied and includes hunting (mammals, invertebrates, fish), collecting honey, processing food (nuts, fruits, vegetables and seeds), collecting water, weapons and shelter.
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Primates are capable of high levels of cognition; some make tools and use them to acquire foods and for social displays; some have sophisticated hunting strategies requiring cooperation, influence and rank; they are status conscious,
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238:. Hare et al. (2001) demonstrates that chimpanzees are aware of what other individuals know. They can also understand what another perceives, and they selectively choose food that is not visible to their competitor.
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of tool use as conferring the highest status in the animal world. One study suggests that primates could use tools due to environmental or motivational clues, rather than an understanding of
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mental abilities. Jordania suggested that asking questions is not a matter of the ability to use syntactic structures, that it is primarily a matter of cognitive ability.
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or an "aha" experience), in which, having realized the answer, they then proceeded to carry it out in a way that was, in Köhler's words, "unwaveringly purposeful."
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The ability for non-human primates to understand call systems that belong to a different species of monkey happens but to a limited extent. In this case
179:; they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax, concepts of number and numerical sequence.
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states can often be inferred based on observed behavioural cues. Recently, most non-human theory of mind research has focused on monkeys and
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359:(UK) stripping down a twig, apparently to make it narrower, and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath its toenails.
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There is some more recent controversy over whether tool use represents a higher level of physical cognition, although this
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Despite all their achievements, Kanzi and
Panbanisha also have not demonstrated the ability to ask questions so far.
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trainer after her lessons by asking where the trainer was going, when she was returning, or anything else".
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often form mixed species groups but they seem only to respond to each other's danger related calls.
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There are many reports of primates making or using tools, both in the wild or when captive.
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1481:"Inferences about guessing and knowing by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)"
197:?" sparked a contentious issue because of the problem of inferring from
5077:
3735:
3694:
3597:
3155:
Brosnan SF, De Waal FB (September 2003). "Monkeys reject unequal pay".
2773:
Hauser MD, Kralik J, Botto-Mahan C, Garrett M, Oser J (November 1995).
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1810:
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847:
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144:
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2183:
The origins of human choral singing, intelligence, language and speech
624:
3659:
3618:
3545:
2128:
Premack AJ, Premack D (October 1972). "Teaching language to an ape".
336:
172:
143:
is the study of the intellectual and behavioral skills of non-human
3247:
3712:
3626:
2553:
804:
473:
factor has since been identified in a number of nonhuman species.
434:
351:
335:
Tool making is much rarer, but has been documented in orangutans,
295:
131:
1387:
Heyes C (April 2015). "Animal mindreading: what's the problem?".
397:
had claimed to be the basis of all animal learning, through his
3905:
3549:
3251:
516:. Further research is required to identify the exact nature of
512:
previous studies using group data that have found evidence for
438:
29:
2060:
The Structure of Learning: From Sign Stimuli To Sign Language
1842:"Savanna chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes verus, hunt with tools"
2201:"The evolution of primate general and cultural intelligence"
1698:"Interspecies semantic communication in two forest primates"
501:
2606:
Parr LA, Winslow JT, Hopkins WD, de Waal FB (March 2000).
2167:. New York, London: W.W. Norton & Company. p. 29.
734:
Parr LA, Winslow JT, Hopkins WD, de Waal FB (March 2000).
3024:
Folia Primatologica; International Journal of Primatology
613:
Folia Primatologica; International Journal of Primatology
2969:
de Waal FB, Dindo M, Freeman CA, Hall MJ (August 2005).
2250:
Clinical assessment of child and adolescent intelligence
343:
monkeys. Research in 2007 shows that chimpanzees in the
1479:
Povinelli DJ, Nelson KE, Boysen ST (September 1990).
507:
However, there is some debate as to the influence of
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3285:
2100:
Language learning by a chimpanzee. The Lana project
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1905:"Chimps Use "Spears" to Hunt Mammals, Study Says"
433:could be the crucial cognitive threshold between
382:started writing a book on problem solving titled
1980:"Mandrill using a tool to clean under its nails"
1646:"Robert Seyfarth: Can Monkeys Talk? - YouTube"
3917:
3561:
3263:
2971:"The monkey in the mirror: hardly a stranger"
2102:. New York: Academic Press. pp. 172–192.
2087:. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
171:and capable of deception; they can recognise
8:
3797:Chimpanzee and Human Communication Institute
2199:Reader SM, Hager Y, Laland KN (April 2011).
1022:"Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?"
413:Asking questions and giving negative answers
2319:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
2058:Gardner RA, Gardner RA, Gardner BT (2013).
953:Journal of Experimental Psychology: General
401:), but rather that they had experienced an
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1958:"Mandrill monkey makes 'pedicuring' tool"
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759:
694:
236:Attribution of knowledge (and perception)
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
5088:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2252:. Springer Science & Business Media.
2085:Language and intelligence in ape and man
2136:(4). W. H. Freeman and Company: 92–99.
2117:. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
1020:Premack D, Woodruff G (December 1978).
576:
458:The general factor of intelligence, or
1528:10.7208/chicago/9780226102429.001.0001
584:Michael Tomasello; Josep Call (1997).
4580:Psychological effects of Internet use
2470:Brown DA, Boysen ST (December 2000).
1840:Pruetz JD, Bertolani P (March 2007).
1321:
1319:
1225:Canteloup C, Meunier H (2017-05-03).
984:
982:
479:in particular have been the focus of
7:
2265:"Are there geniuses among the apes?"
1883:Amanda Pachniewska (November 2015).
1430:Penn DC, Povinelli DJ (April 2007).
136:The chimpanzee Böbe painting in 1967
58:adding citations to reliable sources
27:Study of non-human primate intellect
4560:Digital media use and mental health
2263:Herrmann E, Call J (October 2012).
1746:"Chimps craft ultimate fishing rod"
370:or a capacity for future planning.
292:Tool use by animals § Primates
205:, of the existence of a concept of
4191:Automatic and controlled processes
1683:10.1111/j.1439-0310.1980.tb01062.x
448:factor of intelligence in primates
429:suggested that the ability to ask
25:
4600:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
3091:Journal of Comparative Psychology
3061:Journal of Comparative Psychology
2942:Journal of Comparative Psychology
2746:Journal of Comparative Psychology
2717:Journal of Comparative Psychology
2612:Journal of Comparative Psychology
2476:Journal of Comparative Psychology
2443:Journal of Comparative Psychology
2377:Journal of Comparative Psychology
2348:Journal of Comparative Psychology
2150:10.1038/scientificamerican1072-92
1768:"'Armed' chimp gets honey reward"
1485:Journal of Comparative Psychology
1389:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
918:Journal of Comparative Psychology
871:Journal of Comparative Psychology
740:Journal of Comparative Psychology
648:Journal of Comparative Psychology
469:. First described in humans, the
364:contradicts a long held tradition
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5238:
5226:
5225:
4625:Mobile phones and driving safety
3530:
3529:
2517:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00337.x
1702:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
1204:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00368.x
147:, particularly in the fields of
34:
4528:Computer-mediated communication
3807:Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary
2062:. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis.
2002:Current Opinion in Neurobiology
1671:Zeitschrift fĂĽr Tierpsychologie
1522:. University of Chicago Press.
1518:Cheney DL, Seyfarth RM (2007).
45:needs additional citations for
4805:Empathising–systemising theory
4108:female intrasexual competition
4045:Evolutionarily stable strategy
2163:Premack D, Premack AJ (1983).
2113:Patterson F, Linden E (1981).
1911:. Feb 27, 2007. Archived from
1:
5165:Standard social science model
4218:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
3512:Neuroscience and intelligence
3224:10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00152-5
2663:10.1016/S0376-6357(97)00090-9
2181:Who Asked the First Question?
1936:"Gorillas and Tools - Part I"
1573:10.1126/science.156.3779.1197
1106:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
1026:Behavioral and Brain Sciences
705:10.1016/S0028-3932(02)00152-5
535:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
393:(which American psychologist
213:, or of particular thoughts.
5013:Missing heritability problem
4605:Social aspects of television
4228:Evolution of nervous systems
4196:Computational theory of mind
2850:10.1016/0003-3472(95)80009-3
1696:ZuberbĂĽhler K (April 2000).
1075:10.1016/0376-6357(95)00074-7
489:principal component analysis
483:research due to their close
183:Studies in primate cognition
5259:Evolutionary biology portal
3073:10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.119
2954:10.1037/0735-7036.115.4.432
2758:10.1037/0735-7036.115.2.181
2729:10.1037/0735-7036.115.3.248
2488:10.1037/0735-7036.114.4.392
2455:10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.207
2389:10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.137
2360:10.1037/0735-7036.115.2.159
2331:10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.505
1778:– via news.bbc.co.uk.
1756:– via news.bbc.co.uk.
1497:10.1037/0735-7036.104.3.203
965:10.1037/0096-3445.130.3.505
930:10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.119
883:10.1037/0735-7036.115.2.159
660:10.1037/0735-7036.112.2.207
590:. Oxford University Press.
5307:
5220:Evolutionary psychologists
5093:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
5008:Human–animal communication
4720:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
4570:Imprinted brain hypothesis
4538:Human–computer interaction
3891:Human–animal communication
2624:10.1037/0735-7036.114.1.47
2185:. Tbilisi, Georgia: Logos.
2014:10.1016/j.conb.2009.02.003
752:10.1037/0735-7036.114.1.47
451:
289:
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5140:Environmental determinism
5111:Cultural selection theory
4998:Evolutionary epistemology
4912:evolutionary neuroscience
4585:Rank theory of depression
4087:Parent–offspring conflict
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3525:
3308:Cognitive bias in animals
3103:10.1037/0735-7036.116.1.3
2418:10.1007/s10071-003-0162-2
1859:10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.042
1401:10.3758/s13423-014-0704-4
1118:10.1017/S0140525X00049955
1039:10.1017/S0140525X00076512
350:sharpen sticks to use as
253:Communication in the wild
230:Attribution of intentions
5033:Cultural group selection
4917:Biocultural anthropology
4610:Societal impacts of cars
4543:Media naturalness theory
4233:Fight-or-flight response
3507:Encephalization quotient
3502:Brain-to-body mass ratio
2800:10.1073/pnas.92.23.10811
405:(sometimes known as the
5233:Evolutionary psychology
5197:Sociocultural evolution
5038:Dual inheritance theory
4495:Personality development
3956:Theoretical foundations
3933:Evolutionary psychology
3829:Koko: A Talking Gorilla
2996:10.1073/pnas.0503935102
2047:. London: Eyre Methuen.
1956:Gill V (22 July 2011).
1791:Die Naturwissenschaften
1624:10.1126/science.7433999
1348:10.1126/science.aaf8110
1161:10.1126/science.1146282
5155:Social constructionism
5150:Psychological nativism
5125:Biological determinism
5073:Recent human evolution
5068:Punctuated equilibrium
4891:Behavioral epigenetics
4886:evolutionary economics
4855:Variability hypothesis
4800:Emotional intelligence
4533:Engineering psychology
4223:Evolution of the brain
3812:The Gorilla Foundation
3593:American Sign Language
3353:Tool use by non-humans
3343:Observational learning
3132:10.1006/anbe.1997.0636
2916:10.1006/anbe.1997.0549
2879:10.1006/anbe.1997.0548
2281:10.1098/rstb.2012.0191
2217:10.1098/rstb.2010.0342
1934:Vancatova, M. (2008).
1885:"Spear-Hunting Chimps"
1714:10.1098/rspb.2000.1061
1448:10.1098/rstb.2006.2023
1294:10.1006/anbe.2000.1518
912:), and human infants (
454:g factor in non-humans
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5182:Multilineal evolution
5145:Nature versus nurture
5104:Theoretical positions
4952:Functional psychology
4947:Evolutionary medicine
4922:Biological psychiatry
4630:Texting while driving
4620:Lead–crime hypothesis
4480:Cognitive development
4465:Caregiver deprivation
3976:Gene selection theory
3481:Pain in invertebrates
3318:Comparative cognition
2700:10.1007/s100710050032
2651:Behavioural Processes
2505:Developmental Science
2115:The education of Koko
1192:Developmental Science
1063:Behavioural Processes
999:10.31234/osf.io/c568f
384:The Mentality of Apes
299:
290:Further information:
242:Attribution of belief
135:
5135:Cultural determinism
4942:Evolutionary biology
4927:Cognitive psychology
4875:Academic disciplines
4523:Cognitive ergonomics
4490:Language acquisition
4470:Childhood attachment
4283:Wason selection task
4177:Behavioral modernity
3966:Cognitive revolution
3949:Evolutionary thought
3876:Animal communication
3298:Animal consciousness
3293:Animal communication
2248:Kamphaus RW (2005).
545:Hominid intelligence
54:improve this article
18:Primate intelligence
5281:Animal intelligence
5202:Unilineal evolution
4967:Population genetics
4752:Sexy son hypothesis
4690:Hormonal motivation
4670:Concealed ovulation
4211:Dual process theory
4082:Parental investment
3766:Maurice K. Temerlin
3761:Sue Savage-Rumbaugh
3471:Pain in crustaceans
3466:Pain in cephalopods
3348:Primate archaeology
3177:10.1038/nature01963
3169:2003Natur.425..297B
2987:2005PNAS..10211140D
2981:(32): 11140–11147.
2791:1995PNAS...9210811H
2785:(23): 10811–10814.
2546:1999Natur.399..647P
2275:(1603): 2753–2761.
2211:(1567): 1017–1027.
2178:Jordania J (2006).
2142:1972SciAm.227d..92P
2130:Scientific American
2043:Terrace HS (1980).
1803:1996NW.....83..186V
1616:1980Sci...210..801S
1565:1967Sci...156.1197S
1559:(3779): 1197–1203.
1340:2016Sci...354..110K
1153:2007Sci...317.1360H
1147:(5843): 1360–1366.
797:1999Natur.399..647P
560:Primate archaeology
487:links to humans. A
467:cognitive abilities
269:Crested Guinea fowl
69:"Primate cognition"
5160:Social determinism
5043:Fisher's principle
5003:Great ape language
4993:Cultural evolution
4962:Philosophy of mind
4795:Division of labour
4757:Westermarck effect
4705:Mating preferences
4615:Distracted driving
4349:Literary criticism
4206:Domain specificity
4186:modularity of mind
3837:The Mind of an Ape
3756:Francine Patterson
3577:Great ape language
3456:Pain in amphibians
3323:Emotion in animals
3313:Cognitive ethology
2591:10.1007/BF02381612
2165:The mind of an ape
2083:Premack D (1976).
1915:on August 28, 2018
1811:10.1007/BF01143062
1520:Baboon Metaphysics
1248:10.7717/peerj.3227
848:10.1007/BF02381612
550:Great ape language
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280:Campbell's monkeys
153:behavioral biology
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5246:Psychology portal
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5053:Hologenome theory
5023:Unit of selection
5018:Primate cognition
4932:Cognitive science
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4734:Sexual attraction
4710:Mating strategies
4475:Cinderella effect
4405:Moral foundations
4309:Visual perception
4201:Domain generality
4170:Facial expression
4118:Sexual dimorphism
4077:Natural selection
4023:Hamiltonian spite
3899:
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3881:Primate cognition
3781:William M. Fields
3776:Tetsuro Matsuzawa
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3586:to non-human apes
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3517:Number of neurons
3490:Relation to brain
3163:(6955): 297–299.
3036:10.1159/000021670
2540:(6737): 647–648.
2069:978-1-134-80514-3
1708:(1444): 713–718.
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1537:978-0-226-10244-3
1442:(1480): 731–744.
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908:), an orangutan (
791:(6737): 647–648.
625:10.1159/000156428
597:978-0-19-510624-4
587:Primate cognition
201:the existence of
141:Primate cognition
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4655:Adult attachment
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4125:Social selection
4099:Costly signaling
4094:Sexual selection
3981:Modern synthesis
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3790:Research centers
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675:
645:
644:
640:
610:
609:
605:
598:
583:
582:
578:
573:
555:Primate empathy
526:
456:
450:
427:Joseph Jordania
415:
391:trial-and-error
380:Wolfgang Köhler
376:
374:Problem solving
294:
288:
255:
199:animal behavior
190:
185:
126:
115:
109:
106:
63:
61:
51:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5304:
5302:
5294:
5293:
5288:
5283:
5273:
5272:
5266:
5265:
5263:
5262:
5249:
5236:
5223:
5215:
5212:
5211:
5208:
5207:
5205:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5174:
5169:
5168:
5167:
5162:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5113:
5107:
5105:
5101:
5100:
5098:
5097:
5096:
5095:
5090:
5085:
5080:
5075:
5070:
5065:
5060:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5040:
5035:
5030:
5020:
5015:
5010:
5005:
5000:
4995:
4989:
4987:
4983:
4982:
4980:
4979:
4974:
4969:
4964:
4959:
4954:
4949:
4944:
4939:
4934:
4929:
4924:
4919:
4914:
4897:
4888:
4878:
4876:
4869:
4865:
4864:
4861:
4860:
4858:
4857:
4852:
4847:
4842:
4837:
4832:
4827:
4822:
4817:
4812:
4807:
4802:
4797:
4792:
4787:
4782:
4777:
4771:
4769:
4763:
4762:
4760:
4759:
4754:
4749:
4736:
4727:
4722:
4717:
4712:
4707:
4702:
4697:
4692:
4687:
4682:
4677:
4672:
4667:
4662:
4657:
4652:
4646:
4644:
4638:
4637:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4632:
4627:
4622:
4617:
4607:
4602:
4597:
4592:
4587:
4582:
4577:
4575:Mind-blindness
4572:
4567:
4562:
4557:
4552:
4551:
4550:
4545:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4519:
4517:
4506:
4505:
4503:
4502:
4497:
4492:
4487:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4449:
4444:
4438:
4436:
4430:
4429:
4427:
4426:
4421:
4420:
4419:
4409:
4408:
4407:
4397:
4396:
4395:
4390:
4385:
4375:
4370:
4369:
4368:
4358:
4357:
4356:
4351:
4340:
4338:
4332:
4331:
4329:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4306:
4301:
4296:
4287:
4286:
4285:
4280:
4270:
4268:theory of mind
4261:
4252:
4251:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4215:
4214:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4198:
4193:
4179:
4174:
4173:
4172:
4167:
4162:
4151:
4149:
4135:
4131:
4130:
4128:
4127:
4122:
4121:
4120:
4115:
4110:
4101:
4091:
4090:
4089:
4079:
4074:
4069:
4064:
4063:
4062:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4037:
4035:Baldwin effect
4032:
4031:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4010:
4004:
4002:
3994:
3993:
3991:
3990:
3985:
3984:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3953:
3952:
3951:
3940:
3937:
3936:
3931:
3929:
3928:
3921:
3914:
3906:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3867:
3865:
3861:
3860:
3858:
3857:
3849:
3841:
3833:
3824:
3822:
3818:
3817:
3815:
3814:
3809:
3804:
3799:
3793:
3791:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3752:
3750:
3746:
3745:
3742:
3741:
3739:
3738:
3733:
3727:
3725:
3719:
3718:
3716:
3715:
3710:
3705:
3699:
3697:
3691:
3690:
3688:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3651:
3649:
3643:
3642:
3640:
3639:
3634:
3629:
3623:
3621:
3612:
3607:Non-human apes
3604:
3603:
3601:
3600:
3595:
3589:
3587:
3581:
3580:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3565:
3558:
3550:
3541:
3540:
3538:
3537:
3526:
3523:
3522:
3520:
3519:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3493:
3491:
3487:
3486:
3484:
3483:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3452:
3450:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3436:
3435:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3400:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3388:
3377:
3375:
3371:
3370:
3368:
3367:
3365:Vocal learning
3362:
3361:
3360:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3289:
3287:
3283:
3282:
3277:
3275:
3274:
3267:
3260:
3252:
3245:
3244:
3208:(2): 221–228.
3197:
3152:
3115:
3085:
3067:(2): 119–126.
3056:
3019:
2966:
2948:(4): 432–438.
2936:
2899:
2862:
2823:
2770:
2752:(2): 181–191.
2741:
2723:(3): 248–257.
2712:
2694:(3): 123–129.
2683:
2646:
2603:
2585:(3): 233–245.
2574:
2529:
2511:(2): 185–193.
2500:
2482:(4): 392–400.
2467:
2449:(2): 207–211.
2438:
2401:
2383:(2): 137–152.
2372:
2354:(2): 159–171.
2343:
2325:(3): 505–519.
2313:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2304:
2255:
2240:
2188:
2170:
2155:
2120:
2105:
2090:
2075:
2068:
2050:
2035:
1992:
1971:
1948:
1926:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1852:(5): 412–417.
1832:
1797:(4): 186–188.
1781:
1770:. Mar 18, 2009
1759:
1737:
1688:
1661:
1637:
1594:
1543:
1536:
1510:
1491:(3): 203–210.
1471:
1422:
1395:(2): 313–327.
1379:
1315:
1288:(1): 139–151.
1272:
1217:
1198:(4): 488–498.
1182:
1131:
1112:(2): 267–273.
1096:
1053:
1032:(4): 515–526.
1012:
978:
959:(3): 505–519.
943:
924:(2): 119–126.
910:Pongo pygmaeus
896:
877:(2): 159–171.
861:
842:(3): 233–245.
826:
775:
726:
689:(2): 221–228.
673:
654:(2): 207–211.
638:
619:(1–2): 86–99.
603:
596:
575:
574:
572:
569:
568:
567:
562:
557:
552:
547:
542:
537:
532:
525:
522:
452:Main article:
449:
443:
414:
411:
375:
372:
300:Tool use by a
287:
284:
254:
251:
246:
245:
239:
233:
211:self-awareness
195:theory of mind
189:
188:Theory of mind
186:
184:
181:
128:
127:
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5303:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5284:
5282:
5279:
5278:
5276:
5261:
5260:
5254:
5250:
5248:
5247:
5241:
5237:
5235:
5234:
5224:
5222:
5221:
5217:
5216:
5213:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5187:Neo-Darwinism
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5172:Functionalism
5170:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5158:
5156:
5153:
5151:
5148:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5130:Connectionism
5128:
5126:
5123:
5122:
5121:
5120:indeterminism
5117:
5114:
5112:
5109:
5108:
5106:
5102:
5094:
5091:
5089:
5086:
5084:
5081:
5079:
5076:
5074:
5071:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5046:
5044:
5041:
5039:
5036:
5034:
5031:
5029:
5026:
5025:
5024:
5021:
5019:
5016:
5014:
5011:
5009:
5006:
5004:
5001:
4999:
4996:
4994:
4991:
4990:
4988:
4984:
4978:
4975:
4973:
4970:
4968:
4965:
4963:
4960:
4958:
4955:
4953:
4950:
4948:
4945:
4943:
4940:
4938:
4935:
4933:
4930:
4928:
4925:
4923:
4920:
4918:
4915:
4913:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4898:
4896:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4883:
4880:
4879:
4877:
4873:
4870:
4866:
4856:
4853:
4851:
4848:
4846:
4843:
4841:
4840:Schizophrenia
4838:
4836:
4833:
4831:
4828:
4826:
4825:Mental health
4823:
4821:
4818:
4816:
4813:
4811:
4808:
4806:
4803:
4801:
4798:
4796:
4793:
4791:
4788:
4786:
4783:
4781:
4778:
4776:
4773:
4772:
4770:
4768:
4764:
4758:
4755:
4753:
4750:
4748:
4744:
4740:
4737:
4735:
4731:
4728:
4726:
4723:
4721:
4718:
4716:
4713:
4711:
4708:
4706:
4703:
4701:
4700:Mate guarding
4698:
4696:
4693:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4683:
4681:
4678:
4676:
4673:
4671:
4668:
4666:
4663:
4661:
4660:Age disparity
4658:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4648:
4647:
4645:
4643:
4639:
4631:
4628:
4626:
4623:
4621:
4618:
4616:
4613:
4612:
4611:
4608:
4606:
4603:
4601:
4598:
4596:
4593:
4591:
4590:Schizophrenia
4588:
4586:
4583:
4581:
4578:
4576:
4573:
4571:
4568:
4566:
4563:
4561:
4558:
4556:
4553:
4549:
4546:
4544:
4541:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4525:
4524:
4521:
4520:
4518:
4516:
4515:Mental health
4511:
4510:Human factors
4507:
4501:
4500:Socialization
4498:
4496:
4493:
4491:
4488:
4486:
4483:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4460:paternal bond
4457:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4439:
4437:
4435:
4431:
4425:
4422:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4413:
4410:
4406:
4403:
4402:
4401:
4398:
4394:
4391:
4389:
4386:
4384:
4381:
4380:
4379:
4376:
4374:
4371:
4367:
4364:
4363:
4362:
4359:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4346:
4345:
4342:
4341:
4339:
4337:
4333:
4325:
4324:NaĂŻve physics
4322:
4320:
4317:
4315:
4312:
4311:
4310:
4307:
4305:
4302:
4300:
4297:
4295:
4291:
4290:Motor control
4288:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4274:
4271:
4269:
4265:
4262:
4260:
4256:
4253:
4249:
4248:Ophidiophobia
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4238:Arachnophobia
4236:
4235:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4202:
4199:
4197:
4194:
4192:
4189:
4188:
4187:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4165:Display rules
4163:
4161:
4158:
4157:
4156:
4153:
4152:
4150:
4148:
4143:
4139:
4136:
4132:
4126:
4123:
4119:
4116:
4114:
4111:
4109:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4096:
4095:
4092:
4088:
4085:
4084:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4068:
4067:Kin selection
4065:
4061:
4058:
4057:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4038:
4036:
4033:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4015:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4005:
4003:
4001:
3995:
3989:
3986:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3961:Adaptationism
3959:
3958:
3957:
3954:
3950:
3947:
3946:
3945:
3942:
3941:
3938:
3934:
3927:
3922:
3920:
3915:
3913:
3908:
3907:
3904:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3868:
3866:
3862:
3855:
3854:
3850:
3847:
3846:
3842:
3839:
3838:
3834:
3831:
3830:
3826:
3825:
3823:
3819:
3813:
3810:
3808:
3805:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3788:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3747:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3728:
3726:
3724:
3720:
3714:
3711:
3709:
3706:
3704:
3701:
3700:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3652:
3650:
3648:
3644:
3638:
3635:
3633:
3630:
3628:
3625:
3624:
3622:
3620:
3616:
3613:
3605:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3590:
3588:
3582:
3578:
3571:
3566:
3564:
3559:
3557:
3552:
3551:
3548:
3536:
3528:
3527:
3524:
3518:
3515:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3494:
3492:
3488:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3472:
3469:
3467:
3464:
3462:
3459:
3457:
3454:
3453:
3451:
3447:
3441:
3438:
3434:
3431:
3430:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3383:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3372:
3366:
3363:
3359:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3338:Neuroethology
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3288:
3284:
3280:
3273:
3268:
3266:
3261:
3259:
3254:
3253:
3250:
3241:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3198:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3007:
3002:
2997:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2967:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2947:
2943:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2905:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2868:
2863:
2859:
2855:
2851:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2609:
2604:
2600:
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520:in primates.
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493:meta-analysis
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407:Eureka effect
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399:law of effect
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276:Diana monkeys
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71: –
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65:Find sources:
59:
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49:
48:
43:This article
41:
37:
32:
31:
19:
5257:
5244:
5231:
5218:
5017:
4977:Sociobiology
4835:Neuroscience
4815:Intelligence
4361:Anthropology
4314:Color vision
4299:Multitasking
4278:Flynn effect
4273:Intelligence
4255:Folk biology
3998:Evolutionary
3880:
3851:
3843:
3835:
3827:
3802:Elgin Center
3670:Nim Chimpsky
3476:Pain in fish
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3374:Intelligence
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3030:(1): 17–22.
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2005:
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1974:
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1951:
1939:. Retrieved
1929:
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1913:the original
1908:
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1772:. Retrieved
1762:
1750:. Retrieved
1740:
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1674:
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1653:. Retrieved
1649:
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368:folk physics
361:
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273:
260:
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241:
235:
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191:
177:conspecifics
169:manipulative
165:
161:anthropology
140:
139:
116:
107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
5291:Primatology
5116:Determinism
5028:Coevolution
4972:Primatology
4810:Gender role
4715:Orientation
4595:Screen time
4452:Affectional
4434:Development
4113:Mate choice
4040:By-products
4008:Adaptations
3971:Cognitivism
3856:(2011 film)
3853:Project Nim
3848:(1997 book)
3845:Next of Kin
3840:(1983 book)
3832:(1978 film)
3771:Roger Fouts
3749:Researchers
3647:Chimpanzees
3333:Mirror test
3097:(1): 3–11.
1357:10161/13632
357:Chester Zoo
309:Chimpanzees
157:primatology
5275:Categories
5063:Population
5058:Lamarckism
4904:behavioral
4882:Behavioral
4830:Narcissism
4775:Aggression
4565:Hypophobia
4555:Depression
4442:Attachment
4424:Universals
4388:Psychology
4366:Biological
4354:Musicology
4344:Aesthetics
4243:Basophobia
4050:Exaptation
4028:Reciprocal
3723:Orangutans
3637:Panbanisha
3497:Brain size
3403:Cephalopod
3358:sea otters
1655:2020-11-02
571:References
437:and other
317:orangutans
223:great apes
149:psychology
110:March 2012
80:newspapers
4908:cognitive
4900:Affective
4785:Cognition
4739:Sexuality
4725:Pair bond
4485:Education
4142:Cognition
4060:Inclusive
4000:processes
3988:Criticism
3286:Cognition
3210:CiteSeerX
2836:CiteSeerX
1964:11 August
1941:August 4,
1241:: e3227.
1126:143667510
1048:141321709
1007:237857077
691:CiteSeerX
491:run in a
485:taxonomic
431:questions
378:In 1913,
329:mandrills
5177:Memetics
4937:Ethology
4895:genetics
4730:Physical
4695:Jealousy
4650:Activity
4456:maternal
4412:Religion
4400:Morality
4378:Language
4259:taxonomy
4072:Mismatch
4018:Cheating
4013:Altruism
3695:Gorillas
3535:Category
3418:Elephant
3408:Cetacean
3232:12459220
3185:13679918
3111:11926682
3052:46268265
3044:10050063
3015:16055557
2962:11824907
2932:22836237
2895:43373261
2858:20290540
2766:11459165
2737:11594494
2708:18435189
2679:16819043
2671:24897644
2642:10739311
2599:21042762
2579:Primates
2562:10385114
2525:15320378
2496:11149543
2426:12658533
2368:11459163
2339:11561924
2299:22927574
2235:21357224
2030:18277620
2022:19328675
1876:16551874
1868:17320393
1827:27180148
1732:10821618
1589:84150741
1466:17264056
1417:37581900
1409:25102928
1374:19959653
1366:27846501
1302:11170704
1267:28480137
1212:15484596
1169:17823346
1091:19504558
1083:24897158
991:PsyArXiv
973:11561924
891:11459163
856:21042762
836:Primates
813:10385114
770:10739311
713:12459220
524:See also
477:Primates
348:savannah
313:gorillas
286:Tool use
203:thinking
145:primates
5286:Zoology
5078:Species
4850:Suicide
4685:Fantasy
4665:Arousal
4447:Bonding
4336:Culture
4160:Display
4147:Emotion
4055:Fitness
3944:History
3864:Related
3736:Chantek
3708:Michael
3619:Bonobos
3598:Yerkish
3433:Hominid
3428:Primate
3391:talking
3240:8190458
3193:4425495
3165:Bibcode
3148:3407611
3140:9632490
3081:9642782
3006:1183568
2983:Bibcode
2924:9521802
2887:9521801
2819:7479889
2787:Bibcode
2633:2018744
2570:4424086
2542:Bibcode
2463:9642788
2434:3070975
2397:9642783
2290:3427546
2226:3049098
2138:Bibcode
1985:May 21,
1919:May 21,
1909:Science
1819:8643126
1799:Bibcode
1774:May 21,
1752:May 21,
1723:1690588
1632:7433999
1612:Bibcode
1604:Science
1581:4960943
1561:Bibcode
1553:Science
1505:2225758
1457:2346530
1336:Bibcode
1328:Science
1310:3402554
1258:5419206
1149:Bibcode
1141:Science
938:9642782
821:4424086
793:Bibcode
761:2018744
721:8190458
668:9642788
633:2157651
403:insight
345:Fongoli
337:bonobos
325:baboons
302:gorilla
94:scholar
5256:
5243:
5230:
4820:Memory
4780:Autism
4747:female
4680:Desire
4417:Origin
4393:Speech
4383:Origin
4155:Affect
3685:Washoe
3660:Loulis
3609:taught
3386:Pigeon
3328:Insect
3238:
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3157:Nature
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463:factor
352:spears
327:, and
159:, and
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4373:Crime
4304:Sleep
4294:skill
4134:Areas
3821:Media
3713:Ndume
3675:Sarah
3632:Nyota
3627:Kanzi
3440:Swarm
3236:S2CID
3189:S2CID
3144:S2CID
3048:S2CID
2928:S2CID
2891:S2CID
2854:S2CID
2810:40702
2704:S2CID
2675:S2CID
2595:S2CID
2566:S2CID
2430:S2CID
2026:S2CID
1960:. BBC
1872:S2CID
1823:S2CID
1585:S2CID
1413:S2CID
1370:S2CID
1306:S2CID
1235:PeerJ
1173:S2CID
1122:S2CID
1087:S2CID
1044:S2CID
1003:S2CID
852:S2CID
817:S2CID
717:S2CID
435:human
101:JSTOR
87:books
4743:male
4104:Male
3703:Koko
3680:Viki
3665:Lucy
3655:Lana
3449:Pain
3423:Fish
3381:Bird
3228:PMID
3181:PMID
3136:PMID
3107:PMID
3077:PMID
3040:PMID
3011:PMID
2958:PMID
2920:PMID
2883:PMID
2815:PMID
2762:PMID
2733:PMID
2667:PMID
2638:PMID
2558:PMID
2521:PMID
2492:PMID
2459:PMID
2422:PMID
2393:PMID
2364:PMID
2335:PMID
2295:PMID
2231:PMID
2064:ISBN
2018:PMID
1987:2020
1966:2013
1943:2013
1921:2020
1864:PMID
1815:PMID
1776:2020
1754:2020
1728:PMID
1628:PMID
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1532:ISBN
1501:PMID
1462:PMID
1405:PMID
1362:PMID
1298:PMID
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887:PMID
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766:PMID
709:PMID
664:PMID
629:PMID
592:ISBN
339:and
278:and
207:self
175:and
73:news
4642:Sex
4319:Eye
3731:Azy
3413:Dog
3398:Cat
3220:doi
3173:doi
3161:425
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