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278:, the Völkerkerker's definition of the defunct monarchy was also used by the authorities of most of the states that arose in its place, including the authorities of the Austrian Republic. Instead, many modern researchers claim that this term in relation to the Habsburg monarchy was largely propaganda, and the situation of «non-titled» peoples and national minorities in most of the states of Central Europe in the interwar period was much worse than under the Habsburgs. The situation in the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Yugoslavia since 1929) was the most egregious, which was also nicknamed the «prison of the peoples» — in particular by the local communists (who referred to Lenin).
385:, Brandenberger argued the important takeaway from "Observations" is not that they included the phrase "tsarism—prison of the peoples", but rather that they replaced the word "Russia" in an earlier turn of phrase with "tsarism" to narrow the target of critique to a form of government. While Stalin used some remaining rubric of internationalism, this shift served a more "pragmatic" interpretation of history, from the Soviet
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420:, and a tendency to depict history as a crudely universal process. The Zhdanov Commission, in consultation with Stalin, issued an influential communique which categorized historians of the Pokrovsky school as conduits of harmful ideas that were at root "anti-Marxist, anti-Leninist, essentially liquidatorist, and anti-scientific."
255:». He, in particular, noted: «No matter how huge this empire is, it is nothing more than a prison, the key to which is kept by the emperor». Custine called him the «prisoner of one third of the globe», alluding to both the aggressive foreign policy of Russian tsarism and the oppression of the peoples already conquered by him.
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peoples.» Instead, the slogan «USSR is the prison of the peoples» was adopted by national liberation movements, not only on the territory of the Soviet Union itself, but also in the Soviet «zone of influence» created after the Second World War in
Eastern and Central Europe, as well as in communist Yugoslavia.
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The national policy of the USSR in many respects reproduced, and even intensified, the national oppression of the times of the
Russian Empire, up to acts of direct genocide of conquered peoples. Therefore, during Stalin's time, Lenin's definition was «softened» to the formula «Tsarism is a prison of
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Pokrovsky's criticism of the old regime as a "prison of peoples" and "international gendarme" was henceforth deemed to be anti-patriotic "national nihilism" and a new
Russian nationalist historical orthodoxy was established. This new official orthodoxy remained in place for the duration of Stalin's
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was at that time much more repressive and aggressive than the actions of the
Habsburg monarchy (which in 1915 began to use the definition of «prison of nations» in its own propaganda against Russia). The formula quickly gained popularity, and when the Bolsheviks came to power, it became part of the
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restricting where to live. Pokrovsky cited Lenin's idea that "the dictatorship of the serf-holding landowners was not only a reflection of our country's economic backwardness, it was also one of the causes of this backwardness. As it rested on outmoded forms of economy, it did not let the economy
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was willing to acknowledge the existence of Lenin's and
Pokrovsky's "prison of the peoples" idea. The "Observations" were a set of messages sent in August 1934 to Soviet editors providing an official interpretation of history of the USSR, which became public with their publication to state organ
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Among the prisoners held in
Spielberg were many representatives of the revolutionary and national liberation movements of peoples who were under the power of the Habsburgs — Hungarian Jacobins, Italian Carbonari, Polish rebels, etc. So, over time, it acquired the nickname
416:, among others. In conjunction with the work of this commission, Bukharin authored a lengthy critique of Pokrovsky and his methodology, accusing the deceased historian of mechanistic adherence to abstract sociological formulas, failure to properly understand and apply the
236:, whose authority in revolutionary, liberal and democratic circles was undeniable, that the nickname Völkerkerker (both in the German original and in the Italian translation as «prigioni dei popoli») was fixed for the entire Habsburg monarchy.
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Russia as the Prison of
Nations M. N. Pokrovskii, Russia as the Prison of Nations. 1930 Original Source: 1905 god (Moscow: OGIZ Moskovskii rabochii, 1930). Reprinted in M. N. Pokrovskii, Izbrannye proizvedeniia (Moscow 1965-67),
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willingness to acknowledge Lenin's observation. However, historian David
Brandenberger disagreed based on the context and time of the original private publications earlier in 1934. In July 1934, Stalin sent a letter to the
185:, the administrative center of Moravia, were «converted». In the political prison created in this way, especially strict conditions of detention were introduced, so it was often called a prison cell (
141:) is a journalistic definition applied to empires and multinational states that pursue a policy of persecution and repression against the peoples whose lands were included in their composition. The
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were most often called «prisons of the peoples». At the same time, the state itself is associated with a prison, and the nations that inhabit it are associated with prisoners or captives.
446:, applied the "prison of nations" idea to the USSR. Thomas Winderl wrote "The USSR became in a certain sense more a prison-house of nations than the old Empire had ever been."
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225:, Pellico published his memoirs under the title «My Prisons», which made a huge impression on readers across the continent. The head of the Austrian government
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In "Russia as the Prison of
Nations" (1930), Pokrovsky wrote that direct coercion was applied most often by the Russian Empire in areas of expansion in the
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combined the
Austrian nickname and Custine's definition of the Russian Empire in the form of a prison of nations. Actually, the policy of the Contents hide
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schools did not exist and that in Polish schools the speaking of Polish language was penalized by depriving meals. Pokrovsky highlighted the
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policies, which included some usage of the phrase "prison of the peoples" after Lenin. On the other hand, historians have debated how much
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under the sentence of the Carbonari case, informed the European public about the terrible conditions of the prisoners in this prison. In
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RGASPI, fond 558, opis 1, delo 3156, listy 11-12; quoted in Brandenberger, "Politics Projected into the Past," pg. 207.
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Tantner Anton. Macht und Widerstand in der Kontrollgesellschaft. Eine historische Perspektive. Hallstatt, 2016, p.10-11
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was forced to admit that the appearance of Pellico's book was «more difficult than a military defeat» for the empire.
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D'Elvert, Christian. Der Spielberg: als residenz der landesfĂĽrsten, landesfestung und strafanstalt. R., 1860, p.53-95
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decided to create a special prison for the enemies of the Habsburg Monarchy. For this purpose, the casemates of the
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move forward at the same time. As long as it was not overthrown, had to remain a backward agrarian country."
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National Bolshevism: Stalinist Mass Culture and the Formation of Modern Russian National Identity, 1931-1956
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in the nineteenth century, rather than the Russian Empire alone. In light of Stalin's narrowing of the
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Veuillot, Louis. Mélanges religieux, historiques, politiques et littéraires. Paris, 1861. Vol.6, p.21
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in January 1936. The contents of these "Observations" have sometimes been seen by historians as a
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was the first to compare the Russian Empire with a large prison in the book «
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Struggle Over Identity: The Official and the Alternative "Belarusianness"
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Reinterpreting Revolutionary Russia: Essays in Honour of James D. White.
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and including a number of top Communist Party functionaries, including
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propaganda poster depicting the USSR as a "prison of peoples".
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The house of the dead : Siberian exile under the tsars
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Brandenberger, "Politics Projected into the Past," pg. 208.
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Brandenberger, "Politics Projected into the Past," pg. 205.
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Brandenberger, "Politics Projected into the Past," pg. 204.
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Some historians evaluating the Soviet Union as a colonial
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Houndmills, England: Palgrave, 2006; pp. 202–214.
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It was thanks to Pellico, not without the efforts of
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