2777:
138:); in most protocols, the validators receive a reward for doing so. For the blockchain to remain secure, it must have a mechanism to prevent a malicious user or group from taking over a majority of validation. PoS accomplishes this by requiring that validators have some quantity of blockchain tokens, requiring potential attackers to acquire a large fraction of the tokens on the blockchain to mount an attack.
215:, and are unfeasible in the PoW schemes due to the sheer volume of calculations required. The early stages of a blockchain are much more malleable for rewriting, as they likely have much smaller group of stakeholders involved, simplifying the collusion. If the per-block and per-transaction rewards are offered, the malicious group can, for example, redo the entire history and collect these rewards.
45:
2801:
518:, by voting proportionally to their stakes, then the witnesses take turns in a round-robin fashion to propose new blocks that are then voted upon by the witnesses, usually in the BFT-like fashion. Since there are fewer validators in the DPoS than in many other PoS schemes, the consensus can be established faster. The scheme is used in many chains, including EOS, Lisk, Tron.
2789:
141:
Proof of work (PoW), another commonly used consensus mechanism, uses a validation of computational prowess to verify transactions, requiring a potential attacker to acquire a large fraction of the computational power of the validator network. This incentivizes consuming huge quantities of energy. PoS
592:
Critics have argued that the proof of stake will likely lead cryptocurrency blockchains being more centralized in comparison to proof of work as the system favors users who have a large amount of cryptocurrency, which in turn could lead to users who have a large amount of cryptocurrency having major
277:
This is essentially a modification of the PoW scheme, where the competition is based not on applying brute force to solving the identical puzzle in the smallest amount of time, but instead on varying the difficulty of the puzzle depending on the stake of the participant; the puzzle is solved if on a
263:
Bribery attack, where the attackers financially induce some validators to approve their fork of blockchain, is enhanced in PoS, as rewriting a large portion of history might enable the collusion of once-rich stakeholders that no longer hold significant amounts at stake to claim a necessary majority
234:
attack: the participation in a successful validation increases the validator's earnings, so there is a built-in incentive for the validators to accept all chain forks submitted to them, thus increasing the chances of earning the validation fee. The PoS schemes enable low-cost creation of blockchain
526:
In the liquid PoS anyone with a stake can declare themselves a validator, but for the small holders is makes sense to delegate their voting rights instead to larger players in exchange for some benefits (like periodic payouts). A market is established where the validators compete on the fees,
539:
The exact definition of "stake" varies from implementation to implementation. For instance, some cryptocurrencies use the concept of "coin age", the product of the number of tokens with the amount of time that a single user has held them, rather than merely the number of tokens, to define a
613:
on condition that they did not stake their coins. The level of staking of ether at 27% of total supply was low compared with
Cardano (66%) and Solana (63%). However, not staking their tokens meant that the funds were losing about 3% of potential returns a year.
634:
was about a thousand times higher than that of the highest consuming proof-of-stake system that was studied even under the most favorable conditions and that most proof of stake systems cause less energy consumption in most configurations.
1050:
Li, Wenting; Andreina, SĂ©bastien; Bohli, Jens-Matthias; Karame, Ghassan (2017). "Securing Proof-of-Stake
Blockchain Protocols". In Garcia-Alfaro, Joaquin; Navarro-Arribas, Guillermo; Hartenstein, Hannes; Herrera-JoancomartĂ, Jordi (eds.).
198:
The low amount of computing power involved allows a class of attacks that replace a non-negligible portion of the main blockchain with a hijacked version. These attacks are called in literature by different names,
453:
1099:
1544:
1315:
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145:
Early PoS implementations were plagued by a number of new attacks that exploited the unique vulnerabilities of the PoS protocols. Eventually two dominant designs emerged: so called
1285:
1255:
571:, the world second largest cryptocurrency in 2022, switched from proof of work to a proof of stake consensus mechanism system, after several proposals and some delays.
190:
The additional vulnerabilities of PoS schemes are directly related to their advantage: a relatively low amount of calculations required when constructing a blockchain.
264:
at some point back in time, and grow the alternative blockchain from there, an operation made possible by the low computing cost of adding blocks in the PoS scheme.
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1536:
1375:
102:
that work by selecting validators in proportion to their quantity of holdings in the associated cryptocurrency. This is done to avoid the computational cost of
1345:
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118:
For a blockchain transaction to be recognized, it must be appended to the blockchain. In the proof of stake blockchain the appending entities are named
1307:
1202:
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639:
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602:
2717:
1719:
1507:
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284:
243:, where a digital token can be spent more than once. This can be mitigated through penalizing validators who validate conflicting chains ("
470:
with probabilities of being elected higher with higher stake. Validators then randomly take turns producing blocks. NPoS is utilized by
800:
1277:
496:
A "proposer" with a "proposed block" is randomly selected by adding it to the temporary pool used to select just one consensual block;
230:
Since validators do not need to spend a considerable amount of computing power (and thus money) on the process, they are prone to the
1245:
55:
2727:
1056:
557:
1397:
458:
The smaller amount of calculations required for solving the puzzle for high-value stakeholders helps to avoid excessive hardware.
506:
The scheme works as long as no more than a third of validators are dishonest. BFT schemes are used in
Tendermint and Casper FFG.
527:
reputation, and other factors. Token holders are free to switch their support to another validator at any time. LPoS is used in
2133:
717:
673:
Zhao, Wenbing; Yang, Shunkun; Luo, Xiong; Zhou, Jiong (26 March 2021). "On PeerCoin Proof of Stake for
Blockchain Consensus".
656:
from proof-of-work to proof-of-stake in an upgrade process known as "the Merge". This has cut
Ethereum's energy usage by 99%.
239:), submitting these forks to eager validators endangers the stability of the system. If this situation persists, it can allow
1743:
1513:
2707:
2138:
1476:
Platt, Moritz; Sedlmeir, Johannes; Platt, Daniel; Xu, Jiahua; Tasca, Paolo; Vadgama, Nikhil; Ibañez, Juan
Ignacio (2021).
645:
called on the EU to ban the proof of work model in favor of the proof of stake model due to its lower energy consumption.
2184:
1843:
1653:
Xiao, Y.; Zhang, N.; Lou, W.; Hou, Y. T. (2020). "A Survey of
Distributed Consensus Protocols for Blockchain Networks".
653:
95:
514:
Proof of stake delegated systems use a two-stage process: first, the stakeholders elect a validation committee, a.k.a.
1788:
1367:
1180:
564:
followed. However, as of 2017, PoS cryptocurrencies were still not as widely used as proof-of-work cryptocurrencies.
2621:
2258:
1337:
467:
1338:"Proof of stake vs. proof of work: key differences between these methods of verifying cryptocurrency transactions"
1123:"Proof-of-Stake Consensus Mechanisms for Future Blockchain Networks: Fundamentals, Applications and Opportunities"
2832:
2793:
2781:
2747:
2722:
2702:
2377:
2367:
2179:
1736:
1121:
Nguyen, Cong T.; Hoang, Dinh Thai; Nguyen, Diep N.; Niyato, Dusit; Nguyen, Huynh Tuong; Dutkiewicz, Eryk (2019).
487:
475:
248:
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2752:
2672:
2392:
1246:"Ethereum founder Vitalik Buterin says long-awaited shift to 'proof-of-stake' could solve environmental woes"
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claiming that staking rewards are the equivalent of interest, so coins such as ether and ada are financial
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244:
1482:
2021 IEEE 21st
International Conference on Software Quality, Reliability and Security Companion (QRS-C)
466:
Also known as "committee-based", this scheme involves an election of a committee of validators using a
584:
Critics have argued that the proof of stake model is less secure compared to the proof of work model.
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247:") or by structuring the rewards so that there is no economic incentive to create conflicts.
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894:
892:
849:
822:
240:
642:
1619:
1138:
840:
823:"Evaluation of Energy Consumption in Block-Chains with Proof of Work and Proof of Stake"
759:"A Taxonomy of Blockchain Technologies: Principles of Identification and Classification"
2558:
2488:
2438:
2342:
2090:
1857:
1828:
1759:
1600:
Deirmentzoglou, Evangelos; Papakyriakopoulos, Georgios; Patsakis, Constantinos (2019).
135:
33:
1216:
601:
US regulators have argued over the legal status of the proof-of-stake model, with the
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1877:
1867:
1694:
1207:
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131:
103:
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2014:
1901:
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1711:
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1606:
1601:
1250:
1147:
1122:
499:
The other participants, validators, obtain the pool, validate, and vote for one;
492:
The outline of the BFT PoS "epoch" (adding a block to the chain) is as follows:
1678:
1477:
1278:"'The Merge' to end cryptocurrency mining on gaming GPUs won't come until 2022"
2677:
2568:
2513:
2400:
2352:
2278:
1980:
1975:
1773:
1478:"The Energy Footprint of Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms Beyond Proof-of-Work"
1398:"SEC Says Binance Misused Customer Funds, Ran Illegal Crypto Exchange in U.S."
99:
17:
1686:
1637:
1408:
858:
796:
738:
2508:
2410:
2337:
2243:
2095:
787:
682:
548:
The first functioning implementation of a proof-of-stake cryptocurrency was
66:
by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the
730:
2503:
2483:
2463:
2453:
2448:
2372:
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2005:
1995:
1990:
1950:
1941:
1926:
1921:
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1818:
1172:
649:
568:
561:
549:
222:) that rewrites just a small tail portion of the chain is also possible.
107:
1203:"NFT developers say cryptocurrencies must tackle their carbon emissions"
2651:
2616:
2573:
2468:
2443:
2415:
2189:
1931:
1896:
1157:
956:
944:
913:
898:
871:
715:
Saleh, Fahad (2021-03-01). "Blockchain without Waste: Proof-of-Stake".
695:
631:
106:(POW) schemes. The first functioning use of PoS for cryptocurrency was
448:{\displaystyle Hash(ProposedNewBlock||ClockTime)<target*StakeValue}
2626:
2553:
2473:
2458:
2405:
2209:
2143:
2035:
1985:
1966:
110:
in 2012, although the scheme, on the surface, still resembled a POW.
609:. However, in 2024, the SEC sidestepped the question by recognising
1728:
1669:
1537:"Ban proof of work crypto mining to save energy, EU regulator says"
1490:
1396:
Michaels, Dave; Ostroff, Caitlin; Kowsmann, Patricia (2023-06-05).
1053:
Data
Privacy Management, Cryptocurrencies and Blockchain Technology
777:
675:
ICBCT'21: The 3rd
International Conference on Blockchain Technology
593:
influence on the management and direction for a crypto blockchain.
2656:
2594:
2578:
2538:
2523:
2478:
2194:
2019:
1887:
1567:"Ethereum's Energy Revamp Is No Guarantee of Global Climate Gains"
528:
1308:"Crypto's Energy Guzzling Sparks an Alternative That Merely Sips"
1090:"The Crypto World Is Getting Greener. Is It Too Little Too Late?"
552:, introduced in 2012. Other cryptocurrencies, such as Blackcoin,
1911:
1833:
928:
926:
924:
922:
1732:
1368:"How to clean up crypto mining—and what's at stake if we don't"
251:
based PoS are generally considered robust against this threat (
2599:
2563:
2169:
553:
38:
1602:"A Survey on Long-Range Attacks for Proof of Stake Protocols"
1059:. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 297–315.
27:
System that regulates the formation of blocks on a blockchain
502:
The BFT consensus is used to finalize the most-voted block.
1009:
1007:
994:
992:
967:
965:
63:
1453:"Ethereum ETFs: The SEC's Surprising Shift in Stance"
957:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
945:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
914:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
899:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
872:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
696:
Deirmentzoglou, Papakyriakopoulos & Patsakis 2019
287:
172:
2665:
2639:
2587:
2429:
2391:
2320:
2277:
2208:
2118:
2068:
2044:
2028:
2004:
1965:
1940:
1886:
1876:
1842:
1766:
1702:Bashir, Imran (2022). "Blockchain Age Protocols".
447:
178:
757:Tasca, Paolo; Tessone, Claudio J. (2019-02-15).
1025:
932:
235:alternatives starting at any point in history (
1239:
1237:
1744:
8:
821:Zhang, Rong; Chan, Wai Kin (Victor) (2020).
134:blockchains this task is carried out by the
2800:
2584:
1883:
1751:
1737:
1729:
157:approaches. Bashir identifies three more
1668:
1656:IEEE Communications Surveys and Tutorials
1627:
1489:
1156:
1146:
848:
786:
776:
640:European Securities and Markets Authority
356:
351:
286:
278:tick of the clock (|| is concatenation):
166:
752:
750:
748:
710:
708:
706:
704:
665:
1484:. Vol. 2021. pp. 1135–1144.
1037:
1013:
998:
983:
971:
883:
2718:Decentralized autonomous organization
1102:from the original on January 28, 2022
828:Journal of Physics: Conference Series
7:
2788:
1577:from the original on 7 December 2022
1516:from the original on 29 January 2024
153:
638:In January 2022, Vice-Chair of the
1276:Wickens, Katie (25 October 2021).
1088:Hissong, Samantha (July 9, 2021).
603:Securities and Exchange Commission
252:
218:The classic "Short-Range" attack (
147:
25:
2728:Distributed ledger technology law
1057:Lecture Notes in Computer Science
2799:
2787:
2776:
2775:
1565:Clark, Aaron (6 December 2022).
1288:from the original on 4 July 2022
43:
1547:from the original on 2022-04-19
1429:"Cryptofinance: into the ether"
1378:from the original on 2022-01-26
1348:from the original on 2022-07-14
1318:from the original on 2022-01-29
1258:from the original on 2022-06-04
1223:from the original on 2022-07-14
1201:Sparkes, Matthew (2021-03-30).
1183:from the original on 2022-09-14
850:10.1088/1742-6596/1584/1/012023
803:from the original on 2022-04-22
718:The Review of Financial Studies
534:
510:Delegated proof of stake (DPoS)
148:Byzantine Fault Tolerance-based
388:
357:
352:
300:
1:
1500:10.1109/QRS-C55045.2021.00168
1217:10.1016/S0262-4079(21)00548-0
158:
1706:. Apress. pp. 331–376.
1065:10.1007/978-3-319-67816-0_17
522:Liquid proof of stake (LPoS)
165:committee-based PoS (a.k.a.
1789:Cryptographic hash function
1712:10.1007/978-1-4842-8179-6_8
1629:10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2901858
1535:Bateman, Tom (2022-01-19).
1148:10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2925010
630:of the proof-of-work based
94:) protocols are a class of
2849:
1679:10.1109/COMST.2020.2969706
1366:Lin, Connie (2022-01-21).
1244:Lau, Yvonne (2021-05-27).
626:found that in general the
485:
468:verifiable random function
142:is more energy-efficient.
31:
2771:
2748:Initial exchange offering
2723:Decentralized application
2703:Cryptocurrency in Nigeria
677:. ACM. pp. 129–134.
488:Byzantine fault tolerance
249:Byzantine Fault Tolerance
58:toward certain viewpoints
2753:List of cryptocurrencies
2640:Crypto service companies
2431:Cryptocurrency exchanges
622:In 2021, a study by the
173:delegated proof of stake
32:Not to be confused with
788:10.5195/ledger.2019.140
683:10.1145/3460537.3460547
2688:Complementary currency
1794:Decentralized exchange
1779:Cryptocurrency tumbler
648:On 15 September 2022,
449:
2743:Initial coin offering
2698:Cryptocurrency bubble
2229:Basic Attention Token
1799:Decentralized finance
1784:Cryptocurrency wallet
611:Ethereum market funds
450:
179:liquid proof of stake
2738:Environmental impact
2708:Cryptocurrency scams
1704:Blockchain Consensus
1314:. 17 November 2021.
624:University of London
462:Nominated PoS (NPoS)
285:
96:consensus mechanisms
2393:Inactive currencies
1620:2019IEEEA...728712D
1401:Wall Street Journal
1139:2019IEEEA...785727N
986:, pp. 335–336.
841:2020JPhCS1584a2023Z
731:10.1093/rfs/hhaa075
654:consensus mechanism
567:In September 2022,
540:validator's stake.
237:costless simulation
205:Alternative History
64:improve the article
1853:Proof of authority
1824:Non-fungible token
1804:Distributed ledger
1040:, p. 337-338.
628:energy consumption
618:Energy consumption
597:Legal status in US
535:'Stake' definition
445:
194:Long-range attacks
2815:
2814:
2635:
2634:
2114:
2113:
1814:Lightning Network
1721:978-1-4842-8178-9
1509:978-1-6654-7836-6
1336:Chandler, Simon.
1074:978-3-319-67816-0
652:transitioned its
245:economic finality
209:Alternate History
85:
84:
16:(Redirected from
2840:
2833:Cryptocurrencies
2803:
2802:
2791:
2790:
2779:
2778:
2763:Virtual currency
2713:Digital currency
2693:Crypto-anarchism
2585:
2338:HBAR (Hashgraph)
2321:Other currencies
1957:Ethereum Classic
1884:
1760:Cryptocurrencies
1753:
1746:
1739:
1730:
1725:
1698:
1672:
1663:(2): 1432–1465.
1649:
1631:
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1342:Business Insider
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1078:
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1041:
1035:
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1026:Xiao et al. 2020
1023:
1017:
1011:
1002:
996:
987:
981:
975:
969:
960:
959:, p. 28717.
954:
948:
947:, p. 28723.
942:
936:
933:Xiao et al. 2020
930:
917:
916:, p. 28713.
911:
902:
901:, p. 28716.
896:
887:
881:
875:
874:, p. 28715.
869:
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862:
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811:
809:
808:
790:
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754:
743:
742:
725:(3): 1156–1190.
712:
699:
698:, p. 28714.
693:
687:
686:
670:
454:
452:
451:
446:
360:
355:
232:Nothing-at-Stake
226:Nothing at stake
213:History Revision
129:
128:
80:
77:
71:
47:
46:
39:
21:
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2843:
2842:
2841:
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2733:Double-spending
2683:Blockchain game
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2110:
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2040:
2024:
2000:
1961:
1936:
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1701:
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1614:: 28712–28725.
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1133:: 85727–85745.
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544:Implementations
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490:
484:
472:Ouroboros Praos
464:
283:
282:
275:
273:Chain-based PoS
270:
261:
241:double-spending
228:
196:
188:
124:
123:
116:
81:
75:
72:
61:
48:
44:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2846:
2844:
2836:
2835:
2830:
2820:
2819:
2813:
2812:
2810:
2809:
2797:
2785:
2772:
2769:
2768:
2766:
2765:
2760:
2755:
2750:
2745:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2675:
2669:
2667:
2666:Related topics
2663:
2662:
2660:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2643:
2641:
2637:
2636:
2633:
2632:
2630:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2608:
2607:
2597:
2591:
2589:
2582:
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2541:
2536:
2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2501:
2496:
2491:
2486:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2446:
2441:
2435:
2433:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2397:
2395:
2389:
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2385:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2345:
2340:
2335:
2330:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2283:
2281:
2275:
2274:
2272:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2215:
2213:
2206:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2197:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2146:
2141:
2136:
2131:
2125:
2123:
2120:Proof of stake
2116:
2115:
2112:
2111:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
2091:Nervos Network
2088:
2083:
2078:
2072:
2070:
2066:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2057:
2051:
2049:
2042:
2041:
2039:
2038:
2032:
2030:
2026:
2025:
2023:
2022:
2017:
2011:
2009:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1998:
1993:
1988:
1983:
1978:
1972:
1970:
1963:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1954:
1947:
1945:
1938:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1929:
1924:
1919:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1899:
1893:
1891:
1881:
1874:
1873:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1863:Proof of stake
1860:
1858:Proof of space
1855:
1849:
1847:
1840:
1839:
1837:
1836:
1831:
1829:Smart contract
1826:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1770:
1768:
1764:
1763:
1758:
1756:
1755:
1748:
1741:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1720:
1699:
1650:
1595:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1557:
1527:
1508:
1468:
1444:
1420:
1388:
1358:
1328:
1299:
1268:
1233:
1193:
1164:
1113:
1080:
1073:
1042:
1030:
1018:
1016:, p. 337.
1003:
1001:, p. 336.
988:
976:
974:, p. 335.
961:
949:
937:
918:
903:
888:
886:, p. 334.
876:
864:
813:
744:
700:
688:
664:
663:
661:
658:
619:
616:
598:
595:
589:
588:Centralization
586:
581:
578:
576:
573:
545:
542:
536:
533:
523:
520:
511:
508:
504:
503:
500:
497:
486:Main article:
483:
480:
463:
460:
456:
455:
444:
441:
438:
435:
432:
429:
426:
423:
420:
417:
414:
411:
408:
405:
402:
399:
396:
393:
390:
387:
384:
381:
378:
375:
372:
369:
366:
363:
359:
354:
350:
347:
344:
341:
338:
335:
332:
329:
326:
323:
320:
317:
314:
311:
308:
305:
302:
299:
296:
293:
290:
274:
271:
269:
266:
260:
259:Bribery attack
257:
227:
224:
220:bribery attack
195:
192:
187:
184:
183:
182:
176:
170:
115:
112:
88:Proof-of-stake
83:
82:
51:
49:
42:
34:Proof of space
26:
24:
18:Proof-of-stake
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2845:
2834:
2831:
2829:
2826:
2825:
2823:
2808:
2807:
2798:
2796:
2795:
2786:
2784:
2783:
2774:
2773:
2770:
2764:
2761:
2759:
2756:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2674:
2671:
2670:
2668:
2664:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2638:
2628:
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2612:LocalBitcoins
2610:
2606:
2603:
2602:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2592:
2590:
2586:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2544:ItBit (Paxos)
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
2510:
2507:
2505:
2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2442:
2440:
2437:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2428:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2396:
2394:
2390:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2334:
2331:
2329:
2326:
2325:
2323:
2319:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2276:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2207:
2201:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2191:
2188:
2186:
2183:
2181:
2178:
2176:
2173:
2171:
2168:
2166:
2163:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2117:
2107:
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2087:
2084:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2071:
2067:
2061:
2058:
2056:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2043:
2037:
2034:
2033:
2031:
2029:RandomX-based
2027:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2003:
1997:
1994:
1992:
1989:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1973:
1971:
1968:
1964:
1958:
1955:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1943:
1939:
1933:
1930:
1928:
1925:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1915:
1913:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1892:
1889:
1885:
1882:
1879:
1878:Proof of work
1875:
1869:
1868:Proof of work
1866:
1864:
1861:
1859:
1856:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1841:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1825:
1822:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1754:
1749:
1747:
1742:
1740:
1735:
1734:
1731:
1723:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1657:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1630:
1625:
1621:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1597:
1593:
1576:
1572:
1571:Bloomberg.com
1568:
1561:
1558:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1531:
1528:
1515:
1511:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1492:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1472:
1469:
1458:
1454:
1448:
1445:
1434:
1430:
1424:
1421:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1399:
1392:
1389:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1362:
1359:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1332:
1329:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1300:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1272:
1269:
1257:
1253:
1252:
1247:
1240:
1238:
1234:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1208:New Scientist
1204:
1197:
1194:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1168:
1165:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1117:
1114:
1101:
1097:
1096:
1095:Rolling Stone
1091:
1084:
1081:
1076:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1046:
1043:
1039:
1034:
1031:
1028:, p. 21.
1027:
1022:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1008:
1004:
1000:
995:
993:
989:
985:
980:
977:
973:
968:
966:
962:
958:
953:
950:
946:
941:
938:
935:, p. 22.
934:
929:
927:
925:
923:
919:
915:
910:
908:
904:
900:
895:
893:
889:
885:
880:
877:
873:
868:
865:
860:
856:
851:
846:
842:
838:
835:(1): 012023.
834:
830:
829:
824:
817:
814:
802:
798:
794:
789:
784:
779:
774:
770:
766:
765:
760:
753:
751:
749:
745:
740:
736:
732:
728:
724:
720:
719:
711:
709:
707:
705:
701:
697:
692:
689:
684:
680:
676:
669:
666:
659:
657:
655:
651:
646:
644:
641:
636:
633:
629:
625:
617:
615:
612:
608:
604:
596:
594:
587:
585:
579:
574:
572:
570:
565:
563:
559:
555:
551:
543:
541:
532:
530:
521:
519:
517:
509:
507:
501:
498:
495:
494:
493:
489:
482:BFT-based PoS
481:
479:
477:
473:
469:
461:
459:
442:
439:
436:
433:
430:
427:
424:
421:
418:
415:
412:
409:
406:
403:
400:
397:
394:
391:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
370:
367:
364:
361:
348:
345:
342:
339:
336:
333:
330:
327:
324:
321:
318:
315:
312:
309:
306:
303:
297:
294:
291:
288:
281:
280:
279:
272:
267:
265:
258:
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
233:
225:
223:
221:
216:
214:
210:
206:
202:
193:
191:
185:
180:
177:
174:
171:
168:
167:nominated PoS
164:
163:
162:
160:
156:
155:
150:
149:
143:
139:
137:
133:
132:proof of work
127:
121:
113:
111:
109:
105:
104:proof-of-work
101:
97:
93:
89:
79:
76:December 2021
69:
65:
59:
57:
52:This article
50:
41:
40:
35:
30:
19:
2828:Cryptography
2804:
2792:
2780:
2657:Initiative Q
2119:
2015:Bitcoin Gold
1907:Counterparty
1902:Bitcoin Cash
1862:
1703:
1660:
1654:
1611:
1605:
1579:. Retrieved
1570:
1560:
1549:. Retrieved
1540:
1530:
1518:. Retrieved
1481:
1471:
1460:. Retrieved
1456:
1447:
1436:. Retrieved
1432:
1423:
1412:. Retrieved
1400:
1391:
1380:. Retrieved
1372:Fast Company
1371:
1361:
1350:. Retrieved
1341:
1331:
1320:. Retrieved
1311:
1302:
1290:. Retrieved
1281:
1271:
1260:. Retrieved
1249:
1225:. Retrieved
1206:
1196:
1185:. Retrieved
1176:
1167:
1130:
1126:
1116:
1104:. Retrieved
1093:
1083:
1052:
1045:
1033:
1021:
979:
952:
940:
879:
867:
832:
826:
816:
805:. Retrieved
768:
762:
722:
716:
691:
674:
668:
647:
643:Erik Thedéen
637:
621:
600:
591:
583:
566:
547:
538:
525:
515:
513:
505:
491:
465:
457:
276:
262:
236:
231:
229:
217:
212:
208:
204:
200:
197:
189:
159:types of PoS
152:
146:
144:
140:
125:
119:
117:
91:
87:
86:
73:
53:
29:
2758:Token money
2647:Hyperledger
2519:EDX Markets
2383:WhopperCoin
2279:Stablecoins
1607:IEEE Access
1520:24 December
1292:13 December
1173:"The Merge"
1158:10220/49702
1127:IEEE Access
1038:Bashir 2022
1014:Bashir 2022
999:Bashir 2022
984:Bashir 2022
972:Bashir 2022
884:Bashir 2022
154:chain-based
114:Description
100:blockchains
2822:Categories
2678:BitLicense
2622:QuadrigaCX
2605:bankruptcy
2569:ShapeShift
2514:Crypto.com
2401:BitConnect
2353:MobileCoin
2122:currencies
1981:Bitconnect
1976:Auroracoin
1880:currencies
1846:mechanisms
1774:Blockchain
1767:Technology
1670:1904.04098
1551:2022-01-23
1491:2109.03667
1462:2024-07-09
1438:2024-07-09
1433:www.ft.com
1414:2024-07-09
1382:2022-01-22
1352:2022-01-22
1322:2022-01-22
1262:2021-05-29
1227:2021-04-07
1187:2022-09-15
807:2021-04-26
778:1708.04872
660:References
607:securities
201:Long-Range
126:validators
56:unbalanced
2509:Coincheck
2411:KodakCoin
2259:Shiba Inu
2244:KodakCoin
2234:Chainlink
2160:Injective
2134:Avalanche
2096:Primecoin
1844:Consensus
1695:102352657
1687:1553-877X
1638:2169-3536
1581:1 January
1457:ccdata.io
1409:0099-9660
1312:Bloomberg
859:1742-6596
797:2379-5980
739:0893-9454
516:witnesses
413:∗
253:see below
68:talk page
2782:Category
2504:Coinbase
2484:Bitstamp
2464:Bitpanda
2454:bitFlyer
2449:Bitfinex
2373:SafeMoon
2333:Filecoin
2312:USD Coin
2180:Polkadot
2175:Peercoin
2155:Gridcoin
2149:Ethereum
2129:Algorand
2106:Vertcoin
2076:AmbaCoin
2006:Equihash
1996:Litecoin
1991:Dogecoin
1951:Ethereum
1927:Peercoin
1922:Namecoin
1917:MazaCoin
1819:MetaMask
1646:84185792
1575:Archived
1545:Archived
1541:Euronews
1514:Archived
1376:Archived
1346:Archived
1316:Archived
1286:Archived
1282:PC Gamer
1256:Archived
1221:Archived
1181:Archived
1177:Ethereum
1106:July 22,
1100:Archived
801:Archived
650:Ethereum
580:Security
575:Concerns
569:Ethereum
562:Algorand
550:Peercoin
268:Variants
169:, NPoS);
130:(in the
108:Peercoin
2794:Commons
2673:Airdrop
2652:IQ.Wiki
2617:Mt. Gox
2588:Defunct
2574:Uniswap
2534:Genesis
2469:Bithumb
2444:Binance
2416:OneCoin
2378:Stellar
2264:The DAO
2254:Polygon
2224:Aventus
2139:Cardano
1932:Titcoin
1897:Bitcoin
1888:SHA-256
1616:Bibcode
1594:Sources
1251:Fortune
1135:Bibcode
837:Bibcode
632:Bitcoin
558:Cardano
186:Attacks
181:(LPoS).
175:(DPoS);
120:minters
62:Please
54:may be
2627:Thodex
2554:Kucoin
2549:Kraken
2529:Gemini
2499:Circle
2474:BitMEX
2459:Bitkub
2406:Coinye
2368:Ripple
2343:Helium
2307:Tether
2212:tokens
2210:ERC-20
2185:Solana
2144:EOS.IO
2048:-based
2036:Monero
2008:-based
1986:Coinye
1969:-based
1967:Scrypt
1944:-based
1942:Ethash
1890:-based
1718:
1693:
1685:
1644:
1636:
1506:
1407:
1071:
857:
795:
764:Ledger
737:
560:, and
136:miners
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