Function (computer programming)

530:, for example, the branch instructions BAL or BALR, designed for procedure calling, would save the return address in a processor register specified in the instruction, by convention register 14. To return, the subroutine had only to execute an indirect branch instruction (BR) through that register. If the subroutine needed that register for some other purpose (such as calling another subroutine), it would save the register's contents to a private memory location or a register 636:(namely, which have been called but haven't returned yet). Because of the ways in which programs were usually assembled from libraries, it was (and still is) not uncommon to find programs that include thousands of functions, of which only a handful are active at any given moment. For such programs, the call stack mechanism could save significant amounts of memory. Indeed, the call stack mechanism can be viewed as the earliest and simplest method for 1430:– allow multiple callables with the same name in the same scope, but operating on different types of input. Consider the square root function applied to real number, complex number and matrix input. The algorithm for each type of input is different, and the return value may have a different type. By writing three separate callables with the same name. i.e. 337:...the structure of the machine need not be complicated one bit. It is possible, since all the logical characteristics essential to this procedure are available, to evolve a coding instruction for placing the subroutines in the memory at places known to the machine, and in such a way that they may easily be called into use. 1713:

BAL 14, SUBRTN01 go to a subroutine, storing return address in R14 B TABLE(15) use returned value in reg 15 to index the branch table, * branching to the appropriate branch instr. TABLE B OK return code =00 GOOD

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implementations, used two separate stacks, one mainly for control information (like return addresses and loop counters) and the other for data. The former was, or worked like, a call stack and was only indirectly accessible to the programmer through other language constructs while the latter was more

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Compilers for Fortran and other languages could easily make use of these instructions when available. This approach supported multiple levels of calls; however, since the return address, parameters, and return values of a subroutine were assigned fixed memory locations, it did not allow for recursive

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The JSB instruction placed the address of the NEXT instruction (namely, BB) into the location specified as its operand (namely, MYSUB), and then branched to the NEXT location after that (namely, AA = MYSUB + 1). The subroutine could then return to the main program by executing the indirect jump JMP

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is a useful means to simplify some complex algorithms and break down complex problems. Recursive languages provide a new copy of local variables on each call. If the programmer desires the recursive callable to use the same variables instead of using locals, they typically declare them in a shared

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When stack-based procedure calls were first introduced, an important motivation was to save precious memory. With this scheme, the compiler does not have to reserve separate space in memory for the private data (parameters, return address, and local variables) of each procedure. At any moment, the

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In other words, one can designate subroutine A as division and subroutine B as complex multiplication and subroutine C as the evaluation of a standard error of a sequence of numbers, and so on through the list of subroutines needed for a particular problem. ... All these subroutines will then be

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The idea of a subroutine was worked out after computing machines had already existed for some time. The arithmetic and conditional jump instructions were planned ahead of time and have changed relatively little, but the special instructions used for procedure calls have changed greatly over the

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providing information about the argument, such as string lengths and array bounds. This allows the procedure to be more general and eliminates the need for the programmer to pass such information. By default PL/I passes arguments by reference. A (trivial) function to change the sign of each

469:. Each subroutine could then be provided by a separate piece of tape, loaded or spliced before or after the main program (or "mainline"); and the same subroutine tape could then be used by many different programs. A similar approach was used in computers that loaded program instructions from 619:

The call stack is usually implemented as a contiguous area of memory. It is an arbitrary design choice whether the bottom of the stack is the lowest or highest address within this area, so that the stack may grow forwards or backwards in memory; however, many architectures chose the latter.

541:, the JSB instruction would perform a similar task, except that the return address was stored in the memory location that was the target of the branch. Execution of the procedure would actually begin at the next memory location. In the HP 2100 assembly language, one would write, for example 1077:

In some languages, such as BASIC, a callable has different syntax (i.e. keyword) for a callable that returns a value vs. one that does not. In other languages, the syntax is the same regardless. In some of these languages an extra keyword is used to declare no return value; for example

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On those computers, instead of modifying the function's return jump, the calling program would store the return address in a variable so that when the function completed, it would execute an indirect jump that would direct execution to the location given by the predefined variable.

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In the very early assemblers, subroutine support was limited. Subroutines were not explicitly separated from each other or from the main program, and indeed the source code of a subroutine could be interspersed with that of other subprograms. Some assemblers would offer predefined

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In January 1947 John Mauchly presented general notes at 'A Symposium of Large Scale Digital Calculating Machinery' under the joint sponsorship of Harvard University and the Bureau of Ordnance, United States Navy. Here he discusses serial and parallel operation suggesting

1129:, which means it cannot change the state of the program. Functions always return the same result for the same input. Such languages typically only support functions that return a value, since there is no value in a function that has neither return value nor side effect. 1690:

Languages that do not support exceptions can use the return value to indicate success or failure of a call. Another approach is to use a well-known location like a global variable for success indication. A callable writes the value and the caller reads it after a call.

1939:(i.e. most languages offer ways to obtain the call trace which includes the names of the involved functions and perhaps even more information such as file names and line numbers); by not decomposing the code into functions, debugging would be severely impaired 1191:

and modern languages, almost invariably use a call stack, usually supported by the instruction sets to provide an activation record for each call. That way, a nested call can modify its local variables without affecting any of the suspended calls variables.

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Even with this cumbersome approach, subroutines proved very useful. They allowed the use of the same code in many different programs. Memory was a very scarce resource on early computers, and subroutines allowed significant savings in the size of programs.

385:, have a single-instruction subroutine call that uses a dedicated hardware stack to store return addresses—such hardware supports only a few levels of subroutine nesting, but can support recursive subroutines. Machines before the mid-1960s—such as the 1643:

Multiple argument definitions may be specified for each entry. A call to "gen_name" will result in a call to "name" when the argument is FIXED BINARY, "flame" when FLOAT", etc. If the argument matches none of the choices "pathname" will be called.

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did not initially support recursion because only one set of variables and return address were allocated for each callable. Early computer instruction sets made storing return addresses and variables on a stack difficult. Machines with

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code of the caller more effectively by taking into account the context and arguments at that call. Inlining, however, usually increases the compiled code size, except when only called once or the body is very short, like one line.

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We could supply our assembling clerk with copies of the source code for all of our useful subroutines and then when presenting him with a mainline program for assembly, tell him which subroutines will be called in the mainline

1830:. For code compiled by the same or a compatible compiler, functions can be compiled separately from the programs that call them. The instruction sequences corresponding to call and return statements are called the procedure's 670:

One disadvantage of the call stack mechanism is the increased cost of a procedure call and its matching return. The extra cost includes incrementing and decrementing the stack pointer (and, in some architectures, checking for

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cannot be called only once with its value used two times since the two calls may return different results. Moreover, in the few languages which define the order of evaluation of the division operator's operands, the value of

1453:. Often the compiler selects the overload to call based on the type of the input arguments or it fails if the input arguments do not select an overload. Older and weakly-typed languages generally do not support overloading. 405:

had a subroutine call instruction that placed the saved instruction counter value into a general-purpose register; this can be used to support arbitrarily deep subroutine nesting and recursive subroutines. The Burroughs

2723:/* first array bounds from -5 to +10 and 3 to 9 */ declare array1 (-5:10, 3:9)float; /* second array bounds from 1 to 16 and 1 to 16 */ declare array2 (16,16) float; call change_sign(array1); call change_sign(array2); 1082:

in C, C++ and C#. In some languages, such as Python, the difference is whether the body contains a return statement with a value, and a particular callable may return with or without a value based on control flow.

1782:. So, while this optimization is safe in a purely functional programming language, a compiler for an language not limited to functional typically assumes the worst case, that every callable may have side effects. 686:, which return without making any procedure calls themselves. To reduce that overhead, many modern compilers try to delay the use of a call stack until it is really needed. For example, the call of a procedure 675:), and accessing the local variables and parameters by frame-relative addresses, instead of absolute addresses. The cost may be realized in increased execution time, or increased processor complexity, or both. 714:

In general, a callable unit is a list of instructions that, starting at the first instruction, executes sequentially except as directed via its internal logic. It can be invoked (called) many times during the

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Some programmers suggest that a callable should perform exactly one task, and if it performs more than one task, it should be split up into multiple callables. They argue that callables are key components in

2038:) that orders the lines for execution, provides no separation of the code that is callable, no mechanism for passing arguments or to return a value and all variables are global. It provides the command 2739:

denotes the start of a function definition. The statements of the function body follow as indented on subsequent lines and end at the line that is indented the same as the first line or end of file.

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and to assign the chunks meaningful names (unless they are anonymous). Judicious application can reduce the cost of developing and maintaining software, while increasing its quality and reliability.

1434:, the resulting code may be easier to write and to maintain since each one has a name that is relatively easy to understand and to remember instead of giving longer and more complicated names like 401:

which saved the instruction counter in the first memory location of the called subroutine. This allows arbitrarily deep levels of subroutine nesting but does not support recursive subroutines. The

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This function requires C++ – would not compile as C. It has the same behavior as the preceding example but passes the actual parameter by reference rather than passing its address. A call such as

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to generate the call and return sequences. By the 1960s, assemblers usually had much more sophisticated support for both inline and separately assembled subroutines that could be linked together.

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Like a macro – replace the parameters with the unevaluated argument expressions, then evaluate the argument in the context of the caller every time that the callable uses the parameter

417:(1964) is one of the first accumulator-based machines to have a subroutine call instruction that saved the return address in a stack addressed by an accumulator or index register. The later 2351:

copies the reference; not the state of the object. The called procedure can modify the state of the object via its methods yet cannot modify the object reference of the actual parameter.

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is a callable plus values of some of its variables captured from the environment in which it was created. Closures were a notable feature of the Lisp programming language, introduced by

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eliminates calls for particular callables. The compiler replaces each call with the compiled code of the callable. Not only does this avoid the call overhead, but it also allows the

601:, at the top of the stack; when the procedure returns, its stack frame is deleted from the stack, and its space may be used for other procedure calls. Each stack frame contains the 86:

Callable units provide a powerful programming tool. The primary purpose is to allow for the decomposition of a large and/or complicated problem into chunks that have relatively low

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may store the return address and parameters of the called procedure in certain processor registers, and transfer control to the procedure's body by a simple jump. If the procedure

109:. There is a callable unit in the source code and an associated one in the machine code, but they are different kinds of callable units – with different implications and features. 307:, did not have a single subroutine call instruction. Subroutines could be implemented, but they required programmers to use the call sequence—a series of instructions—at each 577:

are not allowed for natural recalculation order, this allows a tree walk without reserving space for a stack in memory, which was very limited on small computers such as the

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Most modern languages support exceptions which allows for exceptional control flow that pops the call stack until an exception handler is found to handle the condition.

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Callable unit: (Of a software program or logical design) Function, method, operation, subroutine, procedure, or analogous structural unit that appears within a module.

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Report by Dr. A.M. Turing on proposals for the development of an Automatic Computing Engine (ACE): Submitted to the Executive Committee of the NPL in February 1946

1714:} B BAD return code =04 Invalid input } Branch table B ERROR return code =08 Unexpected condition } 1774:

must be fetched again before the second call, since the first call may have changed it. Determining whether a callable has a side effect is difficult – indeed,

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MYSUB NOP (Storage for MYSUB's return address.) AA ... (Start of MYSUB's body.) ... JMP MYSUB,I (Returns to the calling program.)

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Some optimizations for minimizing call overhead may seem straight forward, but cannot be used if the callable has side effects. For example, in the expression

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is generally deemed unwise, because it adds coupling between all callables that use the global variables. If such coupling is not necessary, they advise to

1380:, support declaring and defining a function inside, e.g., a function body, such that the name of the inner is only visible within the body of the outer. 264: 3275: 1702:

index into a branch table often located immediately after the call instruction to avoid extra conditional tests, further improving efficiency. In the

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function name serves to describe the block of code. This makes the calling code concise and readable even if the function is not meant to be reused.

1698:, where return code was expected from a subroutine, the return value was often designed to be a multiple of 4—so that it could be used as a direct 356:

computer she was programming during World War II. She and the other ENIAC programmers used the subroutines to help calculate missile trajectories.

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have essentially the same meaning but describe a hierarchical relationship, much like how a subdirectory is structurally subordinate to its parent

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to indicate that it does not return a value. This is followed by the function name, formal arguments in parentheses, and body lines in braces.

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The first function returns greeting text that includes the name passed by the caller. The second function calls the first and is called like

637: 569:, in the early 1980s, to discover the recalculation dependencies in a spreadsheet. Namely, a location was reserved in each cell to store the 1388:

If a callable can be executed properly even when another execution of the same callable is already in progress, that callable is said to be

4114: 3623: 616:(VLIW) architectures), but many traditional machines designed since the late 1960s have included special instructions for that purpose. 3487: 1866:

or provides in a way other than for other functions. A built-in function does not need to be defined like other functions since it is

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where the ampersand (&) tells the compiler to pass the address of a variable. Giving v is 5 before the call, it will be 7 after.

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This function has a side-effect – modifies the value passed by address to the input value plus 2. It could be called for variable

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keyword denotes the start of a subroutine and is followed by a name identifier. Subsequent lines are the body which ends with the

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of callable units evolved over time and varies by context. This section describes features of the various common implementations.

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originally meant a library, in the literal sense, which kept indexed collections of tapes or decks of cards for collective use.

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stored in the machine, and all one needs to do is make a brief reference to them by number, as they are indicated in the coding.

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does not. For an object, semantics can confuse programmers since an object is always treated as a reference. Passing an object

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This code repeatedly asks the user to enter a number and reports the square root of the value. Lines 100-130 are the callable.

702:, it will then use the call stack to save the contents of any registers (such as the return address) that will be needed after 605:

of the corresponding call, which typically includes the procedure's parameters and internal variables, and the return address.

3994:

Adventures Between Lower Bounds and Higher Altitudes: Essays Dedicated to Juraj Hromkovič on the Occasion of His 60th Birthday

1929: 2845: 1126: 1122: 1092: 890: 744: 218: 429:(1976) lines followed suit; this feature also supports both arbitrarily deep subroutine nesting and recursive subroutines. 2732: 1405: 1377: 1369: 846: 227: 3269: 1009:, such as Algol 68, Pascal, Delphi, Simula, CPL, PL/M, Modula, Oberon, Ada, and many others including C++, Fortran, PL/I 3701: 2511: 1681: 1200: 1053: 1036: 948: 925: 834: 644: 624: 124:

The term used tends to reflect the context in which it is used – usually based on the language being used. For example:

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was a slightly less restrictive, but similar, requirement for application programs that were shared by many threads.

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attribute to define a generic name for a set of entry references called with different types of arguments. Example:

1660: 1653: 1365: 1156: 854: 613: 288: 190: 3613:(NB. Presented on 1946-03-19 before the Executive Committee of the National Physical Laboratory (Great Britain).) 1398:

situations since multiple threads can call the same callable without fear of interfering with each other. In the

1395: 1323: 830: 651: 232: 31: 3880: 2488: 1964: 1956: 1188: 932:. This syntax can also be used for a callable unit that returns a value, but the return value will be ignored. 914: 882: 805: 439: 280: 2200:, targeted to the student first learning how to program in a text-based language, a callable unit is called a 1032:

A copy of the argument is passed in and the value computed during the call is copied to the argument on return

3794: 992:, such as Pascal, Delphi, Simula, CPL, PL/M, Modula, Oberon, Ada, and many others including C, C++ and Java 4180: 3754: 3305: 3300: 2695:

does not include an ampersand since the compiler handles passing by reference without syntax in the call.

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The meaning of each callable term (function, procedure, method, ...) is, in fact, different. They are not

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If supported by the language, a callable may call itself, causing its execution to suspend while another

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DECLARE gen_name GENERIC( name WHEN(FIXED BINARY), flame WHEN(FLOAT), pathname OTHERWISE);

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The call sequence can be implemented by a sequence of ordinary instructions (an approach still used in

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instruction, which combined the saving of the return address with the calling jump, thereby minimizing

3795:'Debunking the "Expensive Procedure Call" Myth; or, Procedure call implementations considered harmful" 545:... JSB MYSUB (Calls subroutine MYSUB.) BB ... (Will return here after MYSUB is done.) 4215: 4200: 3928: 3787: 3636: 3627: 3605: 3336: 1995: 1421: 1027: 40: 4025: 3678: 2471:

This has a side-effect – modifies the variable passed by reference and could be called for variable

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owned by a callable to hold intermediate values. These variables are typically stored in the call's

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in order to consume the return value. For example, a square root callable unit might be called like

3951: 3341: 3331: 3286: 3020: 2263: 2002: 1811: 1775: 1111: 858: 826: 822: 486: 382: 3761: 3315: 1922: 1845: 1827: 1343: 963:, to match. Different programming languages provide different conventions for passing arguments. 815: 574: 500: 398: 345: 248: 2585:

This function returns the integer value 5. The call can be stand-alone or in an expression like

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change_sign: procedure(array); declare array(*,*) float; array = -array; end change_sign;

2313: 1960: 1831: 1798: 1779: 1706: 1110:, who is known for promoting design principles. Martin argues that side effects can result in 1096: 997: 786: 762: 4051: 3702:"Part II, Volume I-3, Planning and Coding of Problems for an Electronic Computing Instrument" 719:

of a program. Execution continues at the next instruction after the call instruction when it

647:, since each nested call to the same procedure gets a separate instance of its private data. 597:, to implement function calls and returns. Each procedure call creates a new entry, called a 445:

One of the first programming languages to support user-written subroutines and functions was

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Proposals for Development in the Mathematics Division of an Automatic Computing Engine (ACE)

3502: 3459: 2058:. Control jumps to the specified line number and then continues on the next line on return. 2014: 1826:

translates call and return statements into machine instructions according to a well-defined

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Most modern programming languages provide features to define and call functions, including

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to call a subroutine called MYSUB from the main program. The subroutine would be coded as

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Dividing a large programming task among various programmers or various stages of a project

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Some older languages require a keyword for calls that do not consume a return value, like

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used the terms "bury" and "unbury" as a means of calling and returning from subroutines.

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Improving readability of code by replacing a block of code with a function call where a

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environment, there is generally more than one stack. An environment that fully supports

3578: 2821: 2302: 1906: 1900: 1695: 1668:. Depending on the implementation, closures can serve as a mechanism for side-effects. 1144: 1014: 732: 672: 402: 326: 260: 87: 72: 4075: 3070:. But the same procedure can be called with other input-output patterns. For example: 2499:. A function definition starts with the name of the type of value that it returns or 1978:

With respect to naming, many developers name a callable with a phrase starting with a

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are generally credited with the formal invention of this concept, which they termed a

4194: 3573: 3291: 2309: 1450: 1347: 1100: 980: 319: 3709:

Report on the Mathematical and Logical aspects of an Electronic Computing Instrument

3454:(1982). "Preparation of Problems for EDVAC-Type Machines". In Randell, Brian (ed.). 1895:

a complex programming task into simpler steps: this is one of the two main tools of

3451: 3395: 3346: 2298: 2259: 1936: 1863: 1699: 1044: 470: 466: 268: 244: 186: 3808: 3463: 2282:

to return a value. When used in the context of a class, a procedure is a method.

410:(1961) is one of the first computers to store subroutine return data on a stack. 255:

and recorded in a January 1947 Harvard symposium on "Preparation of Problems for

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For a simple type like a number these conventions are relatively clear. Passing

2035: 1103:, halting the program or the machine, or temporarily pausing program execution. 566: 315: 284: 121:. Nevertheless, they each add a capability to programming that has commonality. 102: 94: 1095:

behavior such as modifying passed or global data, reading from or writing to a

4011: 3866: 3650: 3631: 3266:, a subprogram that is called after its parameters are set by other activities 2005:

advocate that each callable should have minimal dependency on the rest of the

1913: 1703: 1677: 1339: 1152: 755: 590: 527: 378: 374: 292: 118: 98: 17: 2551:

This function does not return a value and is always called stand-alone, like

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returns without making any other call, the call stack is not used at all. If

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may use data structures other than stacks to store their activation records.

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and other early programming languages also supported procedural programming.

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had discussed subroutines in a paper of 1945 on design proposals for the NPL

3295: 3280: 2286: 1983: 1204: 1172: 773: 766: 655: 308: 106: 3366: 3507: 3725:

The Operational Characteristics of the Processors for the Burroughs B5000

2006: 1823: 1794: 1006: 989: 450: 394: 386: 370: 304: 80: 924:

A callable unit that does not return a value is called as a stand-alone

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Many early computers loaded the program instructions into memory from a

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This returns the value 5, and a call can be part of an expression like

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Various techniques are employed to minimize the runtime cost of calls.

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Dispatching such as for a virtual method in an object-oriented language

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Proceedings of the 1952 ACM national meeting (Pittsburgh) on - ACM '52

1975:

Many programming conventions have been developed regarding callables.

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The value computed during the call is copied to the argument on return

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However, another advantage of the call stack method is that it allows

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wrote a paper dated 16 August 1948 discussing the use of subroutines.

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Identify variables outside the function that are accessible within it

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Delimit the implementation of a function from the rest of the program

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stack contains only the private data of the calls that are currently

578: 426: 422: 418: 3992:. In Böckenhauer, Hans-Joachim; Komm, Dennis; Unger, Walter (eds.). 3283:, subprograms that call each other as if both were the main programs 2507: 2492: 2376:

The does not return a value and has to be called stand-alone, like

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allows the procedure to modify the passed variable whereas passing

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Recursion allows direct implementation of functionality defined by

886: 205:, is the name of a callable that does not return a value whereas a 1331: 1180: 862: 558:

MYSUB, I which branched to the location stored at location MYSUB.

414: 407: 390: 353: 349: 256: 252: 3848:

PThreads Programming: A POSIX Standard for Better Multiprocessing

3400:

The Art of Computer Programming, Volume I: Fundamental Algorithms

1948:

Compared to using in-line code, invoking a function imposes some

865:, use a different name for a callable unit that returns a value ( 2704: 2294: 2034:

Early BASIC variants require each line to have a unique number (

1987: 1979: 1402: 1373: 1184: 1063:

Like by-value except that the parameter is treated as a constant

3294:, a subprogram that is called in response to an input event or 299:

years. The earliest computers and microprocessors, such as the

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Buttlar, Dick; Farrell, Jacqueline; Nichols, Bradford (1996).

2816:, logical implications behave as goal-reduction procedures. A 1810:

Callables can be defined within a program, or separately in a

1469:// returns the area of a rectangle defined by height and width 1399: 1203:. Here is an example of a recursive function in C/C++ to find 947:

Most implementations, especially in modern languages, support

3813:. Prentice-Hall software series. Prentice-Hall. p. 195. 139:

were more commonly used in the past but are less common today

1680:

behavior, a callable may need to inform the caller about an

1002:

A reference to the argument is passed; typically its address

913:

If declared to return a value, a call can be embedded in an

27:

Sequence of program instructions invokable by other software

4101:"Small Basic Getting Started Guide: Chapter 9: Subroutines" 369:

Some very early computers and microprocessors, such as the

3524:

Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer

1959:

code – both at the entry to, and exit from, the function (

4181:"4. More Control Flow Tools — Python 3.9.7 documentation" 3797:. Section "C. Why Procedure Calls Have a Bad Reputation". 1888:

Advantages of breaking a program into functions include:

1862:, is a function for which the compiler generates code at 818:

out of a function and to handle it in the calling context

105:

that is compiled to machine code that implements similar

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Overloading is supported in many languages that support

789:

that correspond to a called function's formal parameters

1998:, and their roles in the program must remain distinct. 1740:

Copying values after the call into the caller's context

243:

The idea of a callable unit was initially conceived by

3953:

Clean Code: A Handbook of Agile Software Craftsmanship

449:. The IBM FORTRAN II compiler was released in 1958. 2720:

This could be called with various arrays as follows:

2479:. Giving v is 5 before the call, it will be 7 after. 589:

Most modern implementations of a function call use a

3810:

Introduction to the PDP-11 and Its Assembly Language

2714:

element of a two-dimensional array might look like:

3423:O.-J. Dahl; E. W. Dijkstra; C. A. R. Hoare (1972). 3059: 3035: 2999: 2274:is used for the callable unit concept. The keyword 678:This overhead is most obvious and objectionable in 352:team and developed an idea for subroutines for the 206: 194: 3577: 1520:// returns the area of a circle defined by radius 1066:PL/I NONASSIGNABLE parameters, Ada IN parameters 495:instruction, whose operand, instead of being the 93:Callable units are present at multiple levels of 3584:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 383. 3522:Wilkes, M. V.; Wheeler, D. J.; Gill, S. (1951). 2522:. A function outside of a class can be called a 3323:, a function that is not bound to an identifier 2844:behaves as a procedure that reduces goals that 2289:that can be specified, but if not, defaults to 335: 176:, having no side-effects, but in many contexts 97:in the programming environment. For example, a 3700:Herman H. Goldstine; John von Neumann (1947). 3539:""open subroutine." A Dictionary of Computing" 1684:condition that occurred during its execution. 1005:Selectable in most Algol-like languages after 3713:(see p. 163 of the pdf for the relevant page) 291:, going so far as to invent the concept of a 8: 1731:Allocating and reclaiming call stack storage 489:, computer designers eventually provided an 348:had worked closely with John Mauchly on the 2859:Consider, for example, the Prolog program: 1727:, which may include but is not limited to: 1106:Side effects are considered undesireble by 988:Default in most Algol-like languages after 821:Package functions into a container such as 779:Specify a return value in the function body 565:Incidentally, a similar method was used by 3446: 3444: 2804:to write "Welcome Martin" to the console. 2526:to distinguish it from a member function. 2308:VB supports parameter passing conventions 795:control to the caller at the point of call 499:itself, was the location of a variable or 3649: 3506: 1990:when it is used to substitute variables. 1394:. A reentrant callable is also useful in 1171:execution of the same callable executes. 1155:along with other information such as the 901:. The C-family languages use the keyword 897:, use only one name for a callable unit, 3851:. "O'Reilly Media, Inc.". pp. 2–5. 3580:Alan Turing's Automatic Computing Engine 1734:Saving and restoring processor registers 1346:, could use one of those registers as a 965: 801:Dispose of the values returned by a call 747:for accessing such features, including: 3671:"Walter Isaacson on the Women of ENIAC" 3492:"The use of sub-routines in programmes" 3358: 1955:A function typically requires standard 1814:that can be used by multiple programs. 3763:Programmed Data Processor 6 - Handbook 3669:Isaacson, Walter (18 September 2014). 3321:Lambda function (computer programming) 3019:is represented by a relation, as in a 1091:In many contexts, a callable may have 798:Consume the return value in the caller 3664: 3662: 2998:Notice that the motherhood function, 1986:when it makes an inquiry, and with a 1982:when it does a certain task, with an 1456:Here is an example of overloading in 7: 2812:In the procedural interpretation of 2328:is specified, an argument is passed 1743:Automatic testing of the return code 231:to refer to a member function of an 3950:Martin, Robert C. (1 August 2008). 2707:a called procedure may be passed a 83:and can be invoked multiple times. 4167:"what is meant by a free function" 1967:and return address as a minimum). 25: 3034:For example, the procedure call 2852:to subgoals that are instances of 610:reduced instruction set computing 3456:The Origins of Digital Computers 2336:is rarely explicitly specified. 1709:, one would write, for example: 698:needs to call another procedure 314:Subroutines were implemented in 2834:which has the logical reading: 2278:is used to return no value and 1176:context such static or global. 985:A copy of the argment is passed 951:which the callable declares as 503:containing the return address. 4141:"Dim statement (Visual Basic)" 3458:. Springer. pp. 393–397. 2495:, a callable unit is called a 1961:function prologue and epilogue 1: 4103:. Microsoft. 17 January 2024. 3990:"A Master Class on Recursion" 1923:Hiding implementation details 1870:to the programming language. 1464:that accept different types: 1406:transaction processing system 1201:divide and conquer algorithms 905:to indicate no return value. 881:). Other languages, such as 4115:"Procedures in Visual Basic" 3464:10.1007/978-3-642-61812-3_31 2514:(as non-static) is called a 2293:for later versions based on 3264:Asynchronous procedure call 2510:, a function declared in a 2017:callables to accept passed 776:to the return value, if any 638:automatic memory management 623:Some designs, notably some 4232: 3632:"The other Turing machine" 2009:. For example, the use of 1925:from users of the function 1843: 1654:Closure (computer science) 1651: 1419: 1357: 614:very long instruction word 29: 3996:. Springer. p. 616. 3807:Frank, Thomas S. (1983). 1965:general purpose registers 1324:general-purpose registers 1125:, a function can have no 873:) vs. one that does not ( 4056:. April 2023. p. 87 3881:"ARM Information Center" 3755:"Push-Down Instructions" 3270:Command–query separation 3072: 2861: 2741: 2647: 2590: 2556: 2528: 2421: 2381: 2353: 2324:, respectively. Unless 2214: 2060: 1916:across multiple programs 1711: 1466: 1209: 1179:Languages going back to 845:Some languages, such as 645:recursive function calls 593:, a special case of the 551: 543: 515:Another advance was the 101:may write a function in 75:that has a well-defined 3651:10.1093/comjnl/20.3.269 3624:Carpenter, Brian Edward 1952:in the call mechanism. 1737:Copying input variables 1426:Some languages support 1163:Nested call – recursion 1114:or order dependencies. 739:General characteristics 537:In systems such as the 485:To remove the need for 481:Return by indirect jump 4211:Programming constructs 3988:Verhoeff, Tom (2018). 3537:Dainith, John (2004). 3425:Structured Programming 3367:"Terminology Glossary" 3306:Functional programming 3301:Function (mathematics) 2246:This can be called as 1950:computational overhead 1897:structured programming 1746:Handling of exceptions 1364:Some languages, e.g., 1197:mathematical induction 1139:Most contexts support 1119:functional programming 343: 180:refers to any callable 4053:Study Material Python 3733:Burroughs Corporation 3628:Doran, Robert William 3606:Turing, Alan Mathison 3508:10.1145/609784.609816 2285:Each parameter has a 2258:In later versions of 2198:Microsoft Small Basic 1832:prologue and epilogue 1757:Compiler optimization 1313:Early languages like 816:exceptional condition 758:, name, to a function 628:directly accessible. 275:, contrasted with an 251:during their work on 174:mathematical function 163:are similarly related 4026:"Built-in functions" 3931:. Msdn.microsoft.com 3883:. Infocenter.arm.com 3788:Guy Lewis Steele Jr. 3637:The Computer Journal 3337:Operator overloading 3058:produces the output 2762:"Welcome " 2587:y = x + giveMeFive() 2418:y = x + GiveMeFive() 2365:' Some Code Here 2262:(VB), including the 1996:software maintenance 1422:Function overloading 595:stack data structure 383:PIC microcontrollers 293:return address stack 41:computer programming 30:For other uses, see 4147:. 15 September 2021 4121:. 15 September 2021 3711:(Technical report). 3681:on 12 December 2018 3630:(1 January 1977) . 3342:Protected procedure 3332:Modular programming 3287:Evaluation strategy 3031:as callable units. 3021:relational database 2264:latest product line 2066:REM A BASIC PROGRAM 2003:modular programming 1723:A call has runtime 1672:Exception reporting 1022:Ada OUT parameters 937:CALL print("hello") 575:circular references 487:self-modifying code 209:does return a value 3735:. 1963. 5000-21005 3608:(19 March 1946) , 3427:. Academic Press. 3402:. Addison-Wesley. 3316:Intrinsic function 3276:Compound operation 2792:"Martin" 2235:"Hello!" 1860:intrinsic function 1846:Intrinsic function 1838:Built-in functions 1828:calling convention 1344:UNIVAC 1100 series 1121:languages such as 1039:in-out parameters 955:. A caller passes 804:Provide a private 517:jump to subroutine 511:Jump to subroutine 501:processor register 475:subroutine library 467:punched paper tape 399:calling convention 273:closed sub-routine 249:Kathleen Antonelli 217:languages such as 185:In the context of 4003:978-3-319-98355-4 3903:"x64 stack usage" 3858:978-1-4493-6475-5 3526:. Addison-Wesley. 3473:978-3-642-61814-7 3327:Logic programming 2316:via the keywords 1963:– usually saving 1852:built-in function 1818:Inter-operability 1763:(f(x)-1)/(f(x)+1) 1707:assembly language 1149:activation record 1112:temporal coupling 1097:peripheral device 1070: 1069: 1060:by constant value 957:actual parameters 953:formal parameters 787:actual parameters 763:formal parameters 666:Delayed stacking 397:—typically use a 259:-type Machines." 16:(Redirected from 4223: 4185: 4184: 4177: 4171: 4170: 4163: 4157: 4156: 4154: 4152: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4128: 4126: 4111: 4105: 4104: 4097: 4091: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4072: 4066: 4065: 4063: 4061: 4048: 4042: 4041: 4039: 4037: 4022: 4016: 4015: 3985: 3979: 3978: 3976: 3974: 3947: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3929:"Function Types" 3925: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3899: 3893: 3892: 3890: 3888: 3877: 3871: 3870: 3842: 3836: 3835: 3829: 3827: 3804: 3798: 3785: 3779: 3778: 3776: 3774: 3768: 3759: 3751: 3745: 3744: 3742: 3740: 3730: 3720: 3714: 3712: 3706: 3697: 3691: 3690: 3688: 3686: 3677:. Archived from 3666: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3620: 3614: 3612: 3602: 3596: 3595: 3583: 3570: 3560: 3554: 3553: 3551: 3549: 3543:Encyclopedia.com 3534: 3528: 3527: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3510: 3496: 3484: 3478: 3477: 3448: 3439: 3438: 3420: 3414: 3413: 3392: 3386: 3385: 3380: 3378: 3363: 3253: 3250: 3247: 3244: 3241: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3229: 3226: 3223: 3220: 3217: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3205: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3193: 3190: 3187: 3184: 3181: 3178: 3175: 3172: 3169: 3166: 3163: 3160: 3157: 3154: 3151: 3148: 3145: 3142: 3139: 3136: 3133: 3130: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3118: 3115: 3112: 3109: 3106: 3103: 3100: 3097: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3085: 3082: 3079: 3076: 3069: 3068: 3065: 3062: 3057: 3056: 3053: 3050: 3047: 3044: 3041: 3038: 3018: 3017: 3014: 3011: 3008: 3005: 3002: 2994: 2991: 2988: 2985: 2982: 2979: 2976: 2973: 2970: 2967: 2964: 2961: 2958: 2955: 2952: 2949: 2946: 2943: 2940: 2937: 2934: 2931: 2928: 2925: 2922: 2919: 2916: 2913: 2910: 2907: 2904: 2901: 2898: 2895: 2892: 2889: 2886: 2883: 2880: 2877: 2874: 2871: 2868: 2865: 2855: 2851: 2840: 2830: 2803: 2796: 2793: 2790: 2787: 2784: 2781: 2778: 2775: 2772: 2769: 2766: 2763: 2760: 2757: 2754: 2751: 2748: 2745: 2738: 2694: 2687: 2684: 2681: 2678: 2675: 2672: 2669: 2666: 2663: 2660: 2657: 2654: 2651: 2644: 2640: 2633: 2630: 2627: 2624: 2621: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2609: 2606: 2603: 2600: 2597: 2594: 2588: 2581: 2578: 2575: 2572: 2569: 2566: 2563: 2560: 2554: 2547: 2544: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2532: 2502: 2478: 2474: 2467: 2464: 2461: 2458: 2455: 2452: 2449: 2446: 2443: 2440: 2437: 2434: 2431: 2428: 2425: 2419: 2412: 2409: 2406: 2403: 2400: 2397: 2394: 2391: 2388: 2385: 2379: 2372: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2357: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2292: 2281: 2277: 2249: 2242: 2239: 2236: 2233: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2218: 2211: 2207: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2151: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2121: 2118: 2115: 2112: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2091: 2088: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2067: 2064: 2041: 2011:global variables 1909:within a program 1856:builtin function 1773: 1768: 1764: 1636: 1629: 1626: 1623: 1620: 1617: 1614: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1596: 1593: 1590: 1587: 1584: 1581: 1578: 1575: 1572: 1569: 1566: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1545: 1542: 1539: 1536: 1533: 1530: 1527: 1524: 1521: 1518: 1515: 1512: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1500: 1497: 1494: 1491: 1488: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1473: 1470: 1463: 1460:, two functions 1309: 1306: 1303: 1300: 1297: 1294: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1276: 1273: 1270: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1240: 1237: 1234: 1231: 1228: 1225: 1222: 1219: 1216: 1213: 1108:Robert C. Martin 1081: 966: 938: 931: 920: 904: 765:with a name and 731:The features of 433:Language support 208: 196: 21: 4231: 4230: 4226: 4225: 4224: 4222: 4221: 4220: 4191: 4190: 4189: 4188: 4179: 4178: 4174: 4165: 4164: 4160: 4150: 4148: 4145:Microsoft Learn 4139: 4138: 4134: 4124: 4122: 4119:Microsoft Learn 4113: 4112: 4108: 4099: 4098: 4094: 4084: 4082: 4074: 4073: 4069: 4059: 4057: 4050: 4049: 4045: 4035: 4033: 4024: 4023: 4019: 4004: 3987: 3986: 3982: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3949: 3948: 3944: 3934: 3932: 3927: 3926: 3922: 3912: 3910: 3901: 3900: 3896: 3886: 3884: 3879: 3878: 3874: 3859: 3844: 3843: 3839: 3825: 3823: 3821: 3806: 3805: 3801: 3786: 3782: 3772: 3770: 3766: 3757: 3753: 3752: 3748: 3738: 3736: 3728: 3722: 3721: 3717: 3704: 3699: 3698: 3694: 3684: 3682: 3668: 3667: 3660: 3622: 3621: 3617: 3604: 3603: 3599: 3592: 3574:Copeland, B. J. 3572: 3564:Turing, Alan M. 3562: 3561: 3557: 3547: 3545: 3536: 3535: 3531: 3521: 3520: 3516: 3501:. p. 235. 3494: 3486: 3485: 3481: 3474: 3450: 3449: 3442: 3435: 3422: 3421: 3417: 3410: 3396:Donald E. Knuth 3394: 3393: 3389: 3376: 3374: 3365: 3364: 3360: 3355: 3311:Fused operation 3260: 3255: 3254: 3251: 3248: 3245: 3242: 3239: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3218: 3215: 3212: 3209: 3206: 3203: 3200: 3197: 3194: 3191: 3188: 3185: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3173: 3170: 3167: 3164: 3161: 3158: 3155: 3152: 3149: 3146: 3143: 3140: 3137: 3134: 3131: 3128: 3125: 3122: 3119: 3116: 3113: 3110: 3107: 3104: 3101: 3098: 3095: 3092: 3089: 3086: 3083: 3080: 3077: 3074: 3066: 3063: 3060: 3054: 3051: 3048: 3045: 3042: 3039: 3036: 3015: 3012: 3009: 3006: 3003: 3000: 2996: 2995: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2977: 2974: 2971: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2959: 2956: 2953: 2950: 2947: 2944: 2941: 2938: 2935: 2932: 2929: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2917: 2914: 2911: 2908: 2905: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2893: 2890: 2887: 2884: 2881: 2878: 2875: 2872: 2869: 2866: 2863: 2853: 2849: 2838: 2828: 2824:) of the form: 2810: 2801: 2798: 2797: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2786:format_greeting 2785: 2782: 2779: 2776: 2773: 2770: 2767: 2764: 2761: 2758: 2755: 2752: 2749: 2747:format_greeting 2746: 2743: 2736: 2729: 2724: 2718: 2701: 2692: 2689: 2688: 2685: 2682: 2679: 2676: 2673: 2670: 2667: 2664: 2661: 2658: 2655: 2652: 2649: 2642: 2638: 2635: 2634: 2631: 2628: 2625: 2622: 2619: 2616: 2613: 2610: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2598: 2595: 2592: 2586: 2583: 2582: 2579: 2576: 2573: 2570: 2567: 2564: 2561: 2558: 2552: 2549: 2548: 2545: 2543:/* some code */ 2542: 2539: 2536: 2533: 2530: 2516:member function 2500: 2485: 2476: 2472: 2469: 2468: 2465: 2462: 2459: 2456: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2423: 2417: 2414: 2413: 2410: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2398: 2395: 2392: 2389: 2386: 2383: 2377: 2374: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2364: 2361: 2358: 2355: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2290: 2279: 2275: 2256: 2247: 2244: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2219: 2216: 2209: 2205: 2194: 2186: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2176: 2173: 2170: 2167: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2146: 2143: 2140: 2137: 2134: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2113: 2110: 2107: 2104: 2101: 2098: 2095: 2092: 2089: 2086: 2083: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2039: 2032: 2027: 1973: 1946: 1901:data structures 1886: 1881: 1876: 1848: 1840: 1820: 1808: 1788: 1771: 1766: 1765:, the function 1762: 1759: 1721: 1716: 1715: 1674: 1656: 1650: 1641: 1634: 1631: 1630: 1627: 1624: 1621: 1618: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1582: 1579: 1576: 1573: 1570: 1567: 1564: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1552: 1549: 1546: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1528: 1525: 1522: 1519: 1516: 1513: 1510: 1507: 1504: 1501: 1498: 1495: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1474: 1471: 1468: 1461: 1424: 1418: 1410:quasi-reentrant 1386: 1362: 1360:Nested function 1356: 1328:CDC 6000 series 1320:index registers 1311: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1301: 1298: 1295: 1292: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1274: 1271: 1268: 1265: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1250: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1220: 1217: 1214: 1211: 1165: 1141:local variables 1137: 1135:Local variables 1089: 1079: 1075: 1028:by value-result 945: 936: 929: 918: 911: 902: 843: 782:Call a function 741: 733:implementations 729: 727:Implementations 712: 680:leaf procedures 668: 660:lazy evaluation 587: 573:address. Since 555: 554: 547: 546: 523:significantly. 513: 483: 459: 435: 301:Manchester Baby 277:open subroutine 241: 215:Object-oriented 115: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4229: 4227: 4219: 4218: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4193: 4192: 4187: 4186: 4172: 4158: 4132: 4106: 4092: 4067: 4043: 4032:. 9 March 2017 4017: 4002: 3980: 3966: 3956:(1 ed.). 3942: 3920: 3907:Microsoft Docs 3894: 3872: 3857: 3837: 3819: 3799: 3780: 3746: 3731:. Revision A. 3715: 3692: 3658: 3644:(3): 269–279. 3615: 3597: 3590: 3576:, ed. (2005). 3555: 3529: 3514: 3488:Wheeler, D. J. 3479: 3472: 3440: 3433: 3415: 3408: 3387: 3357: 3356: 3354: 3351: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3318: 3313: 3308: 3303: 3298: 3289: 3284: 3278: 3273: 3267: 3259: 3256: 3073: 2862: 2842: 2841: 2832: 2831: 2814:logic programs 2809: 2806: 2802:greet_martin() 2742: 2735:, the keyword 2728: 2725: 2722: 2716: 2700: 2697: 2648: 2643:addTwo(&v) 2591: 2557: 2529: 2484: 2481: 2422: 2382: 2354: 2255: 2252: 2215: 2193: 2190: 2061: 2031: 2028: 2026: 2023: 2001:Proponents of 1972: 1969: 1945: 1942: 1941: 1940: 1933: 1926: 1920: 1917: 1910: 1907:duplicate code 1903: 1885: 1882: 1880: 1877: 1875: 1872: 1844:Main article: 1839: 1836: 1819: 1816: 1807: 1804: 1787: 1784: 1780:Rice's theorem 1758: 1755: 1751: 1750: 1747: 1744: 1741: 1738: 1735: 1732: 1720: 1717: 1712: 1696:IBM System/360 1673: 1670: 1652:Main article: 1649: 1646: 1639: 1583:rectangle_area 1467: 1420:Main article: 1417: 1414: 1396:multi-threaded 1385: 1382: 1358:Main article: 1355: 1352: 1210: 1199:and recursive 1164: 1161: 1157:return address 1136: 1133: 1099:, accessing a 1088: 1085: 1074: 1071: 1068: 1067: 1064: 1061: 1057: 1056: 1050: 1047: 1041: 1040: 1033: 1030: 1024: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1011: 1010: 1003: 1000: 994: 993: 986: 983: 977: 976: 973: 970: 944: 941: 930:print("hello") 910: 907: 842: 839: 838: 837: 819: 812: 809: 802: 799: 796: 790: 783: 780: 777: 770: 759: 752: 740: 737: 728: 725: 711: 708: 684:leaf functions 673:stack overflow 667: 664: 652:multi-threaded 586: 583: 552: 544: 512: 509: 497:return address 482: 479: 458: 455: 434: 431: 403:IBM System/360 327:Alan M. Turing 261:Maurice Wilkes 240: 237: 236: 235: 211: 210: 182: 181: 168:Some consider 165: 164: 141: 140: 114: 111: 88:cognitive load 73:software logic 26: 24: 18:Procedure call 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4228: 4217: 4214: 4212: 4209: 4207: 4204: 4202: 4199: 4198: 4196: 4182: 4176: 4173: 4168: 4162: 4159: 4146: 4142: 4136: 4133: 4120: 4116: 4110: 4107: 4102: 4096: 4093: 4081: 4077: 4076:"Small Basic" 4071: 4068: 4055: 4054: 4047: 4044: 4031: 4027: 4021: 4018: 4013: 4009: 4005: 3999: 3995: 3991: 3984: 3981: 3969: 3967:9780132350884 3963: 3959: 3955: 3954: 3946: 3943: 3930: 3924: 3921: 3908: 3904: 3898: 3895: 3882: 3876: 3873: 3868: 3864: 3860: 3854: 3850: 3849: 3841: 3838: 3834: 3822: 3820:9780134917047 3816: 3812: 3811: 3803: 3800: 3796: 3792: 3789: 3784: 3781: 3765: 3764: 3756: 3750: 3747: 3734: 3727: 3726: 3719: 3716: 3710: 3703: 3696: 3693: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3652: 3647: 3643: 3639: 3638: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3619: 3616: 3611: 3607: 3601: 3598: 3593: 3591:0-19-856593-3 3587: 3582: 3581: 3575: 3571:reprinted in 3569: 3565: 3559: 3556: 3544: 3540: 3533: 3530: 3525: 3518: 3515: 3509: 3504: 3500: 3493: 3489: 3483: 3480: 3475: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3452:Mauchly, J.W. 3447: 3445: 3441: 3436: 3434:0-12-200550-3 3430: 3426: 3419: 3416: 3411: 3409:0-201-89683-4 3405: 3401: 3397: 3391: 3388: 3384: 3372: 3368: 3362: 3359: 3352: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3322: 3319: 3317: 3314: 3312: 3309: 3307: 3304: 3302: 3299: 3297: 3293: 3292:Event handler 3290: 3288: 3285: 3282: 3279: 3277: 3274: 3271: 3268: 3265: 3262: 3261: 3257: 3071: 3032: 3030: 3026: 3022: 2860: 2857: 2847: 2837: 2836: 2835: 2827: 2826: 2825: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2807: 2805: 2740: 2734: 2726: 2721: 2715: 2712: 2711: 2706: 2698: 2696: 2646: 2589: 2555: 2553:doSomething() 2527: 2525: 2524:free function 2521: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2504: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2482: 2480: 2420: 2380: 2352: 2337: 2332:. 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Microsoft 3685:14 December 3023:. However, 2829:A :- B 2534:doSomething 2378:DoSomething 2359:DoSomething 2270:, the term 2192:Small Basic 2036:line number 2030:Early BASIC 1971:Conventions 1930:descriptive 1893:Decomposing 1874:Programming 1776:undecidable 1682:exceptional 1610:circle_area 1428:overloading 1416:Overloading 1093:side effect 972:Description 919:y = sqrt(x) 909:Call syntax 612:(RISC) and 599:stack frame 567:Lotus 1-2-3 526:In the IBM 473:. The name 425:(1970) and 364:von Neumann 346:Kay McNulty 316:Konrad Zuse 285:Alan Turing 283:. 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