297:, these countries detailed the principles governing the PSI in a document titled the "Statement of Interdiction Principles". The document defines the activities which are to be undertaken by the initiative, specifically "to establish a more coordinated and effective basis through which to impede and stop shipments of WMD, delivery systems, and related materials flowing to and from states and non-state actors of proliferation concern, consistent with national legal authorities and relevant international law and frameworks, including the UN Security Council circumstances in which such operations may be carried out (at sea, on land, or in the air) including, most importantly, the requirement that any action taken must be consistent with international law." Since the initial core group of 2003, PSI has expanded to include an "Operational Experts Group" (OEG) of 21 nations as well as 84 other endorsing states. Key states who have endorsed the initiative since its initial founding include major actors in
408:
1020:(UNCLOS) allows ships "carrying nuclear or other inherently dangerous or noxious substances" the right of innocent passage through territorial seas. Opponents have asserted that the PSI gives states a license to carry out acts of "piracy" on the high seas. It has also been argued the PSI's intent to "interdict nuclear materials and contraband" is a broad enough charter to include any naval operation anywhere and for any actual purpose. There are concerns that such actions could lead to war. Indonesia's Foreign Minister
25:
1123:’s ambassador to the United States, asserted that "the shipment of missiles has fallen significantly in the lifetime of PSI." However, references such as these provide no actual information on or evidence of interdictions which have occurred, leaving critics to remain skeptical of such numbers or of any "metrics" that prove the effectiveness of the initiative.
108:
1025:
violate international laws regarding self-defense, Articles 19 and 88 of UNCLOS. A large proportion of criticisms of the legality of PSI come from Indian news sources. Criticism over the legality of PSI also focus around the fact that the initiative does not fall under any United
Nations committee or body, and that doing so might legitimize it.
419:, with the primary purpose of interdicting subject weapons and materials. Additionally, participants are recommended to enact legal statutes to facilitate effective interdiction and seizure of such items. Finally, participants are to take measures to ensure that their national facilities are not utilized to transfer illicit weapon cargoes.
1034:
ships and planes. Indian publications discouraging participation in PSI have defined PSI as being specifically directed towards Iran and have stated that "India on no account should be a part of any anti-Iranian strategic initiative led by the United States." Other potential suggested targets of PSI have included
1159:
963:
intercepted the ship and requested boarding, which was refused by the vessel operator despite the granting of authority from Belize, consistent with the US-Belize ship boarding agreement (see
History above). The failure of the North Korean crew to comply with the orders of its flag arguably made it a
383:
announced that he planned to transform the PSI into a "durable international institution", indicating that US promotion of the initiative would remain non-partisan and cross over from the previous administration. Indeed, Obama had made the strengthening of the PSI one of his campaign promises in the
1135:
Much of the criticism about the PSI have been faced with counter-arguments, given the inaccurate or outdated nature of much of the information about the initiative. The most common negative portrayal of PSI represents it as an illegal, US-led effort to interdict third party vessels on the high seas.
870:
missiles, 15 conventional warheads with 250 kg of high explosive, 23 fuel tanks of nitric acid and 85 drums of chemicals. Yemen subsequently reported that the cargo belonged to them and protested against interception, ordering the materials returned. Although this incident occurred prior to the
1206:
As noted within the PSI principles, PSI is an "activity, not an organization" and grants no state any additional authorities to take action. All states are merely asked to take actions consistent with domestic and international law. Therefore, PSI as an initiative explicitly recommends only actions
1110:
Some criticism of PSI has been pointed towards the "secretive" nature of the initiative. It has been argued that "the secretiveness surrounding PSI interdictions and the methods employed make it difficult to evaluate its effectiveness or its legitimacy," and that the lack of formality and structure
1024:
argued that the PSI "initiative was not initiated through a multilateral process, but only a group of nations that have a common goal to conduct a certain initiatives." He also believed that PSI violates the UNCLOS. (Xinhua News Agency, March 17, 2006). Other critics have argued that PSI activities
834:
The PSI has no central body or secretariat and is not a coordinator of real-world interdictions. It is a political commitment, a flexible arrangement of international cooperation and is consistent with domestic and international legal authorities. Endorsing states seek a robust capacity to conduct
398:
The PSI has evolved considerably since 2003, embracing a much wider array of proliferation security issues, such as customs enforcement, export controls, proliferation finance, and intangible transfers of technology. Given its broad and flexible mandate, the PSI now plays a vital role in advancing
1033:
Many of academic and news articles about the initiative state that the PSI is focused specifically on states such as Iran and the DPRK. North Korea has stated that it feels the PSI is an instrument for an aggressive war planned by the United States against the DPRK under the pretext of blockading
1050:
The preponderance of news sources and academic analysis on the initiative often describe PSI as being a "US-led" initiative. Like the issue of whether PSI targets specific states, participants in the initiative itself explicitly deny that it is an effort "led" by the United States and that PSI is
1041:
Despite these accusations and perceptions, all official PSI documentation and press releases state that PSI does not target any particular state, and that individual nations within the initiative are able to make self-determinations on what shipments are targeted. Several PSI-endorsee states have
825:
The CCP effort is advanced by the CCP Review Team, launched in 2015. The Review Team seeks to enhance the resources available to PSI endorsing countries through compiling a library of tools and resources and through assisting in the coordination of capacity building events and exercises. Review
1126:
While these criticisms persist, many PSI events, such as annual
Operational Experts Group meetings, contain a very high degree of civil society participation. Think tanks and industry representatives, for instance, participated in the 2016 Operational Experts Group meeting and were permitted to
391:
The 2013 PSI High Level
Political Meeting facilitated the adoption of a set of four Joint Statements, advancing cooperation among PSI endorsing states toward: - Ensuring a Robust Initiative - Enhancing Critical Interdiction Capabilities and Practices - Strengthening Authorities for Action -
1198:
The vast majority of PSI exercises (see exercises section above) include activities involving customs services, law enforcement officials, and focus on cargo traveling by air and land as well as sea - including cargo transiting within a country's territory. This directly contradicts the common
886:
proliferation network. The German government dispatched intelligence experts to Italy, who conducted an inspection of the ship in the
Mediterranean with the support of the US Navy. The inspection revealed that the ship's container number was fabricated and the German government confiscated the
964:"stateless" vessel under international maritime law, however the ship was allowed to return to North Korea. Although the materials were not "interdicted" or even inspected to verify a violation, the fact that the commodity never reached its planned target arguably made it a "success" for PSI.
973:
PSI activities include the regular holding of activities known as "exercises," which aim to test the authorities and capabilities of endorsee nations to interdict WMD-related materials. Exercises can include "live action" events such as ship boardings or container searches, or be limited to
1155:(on Iran's WMD program) explicitly call on or require UN Members to take interdiction and inspection actions against WMD-related materials that are consistent with PSI's principles. Thus inspection of such vessels are international mandates rather than "piracy," as accused by DPRK and Iran.
909:
turned around after being tracked by the US Navy. In the same timeframe, two
Japanese and one Korean man were arrested for trying to import WMD technology to Myanmar. After this incident, North Korea claimed that it would engage in military action in retaliation for any searching of its
1101:
With
President Obama's continued promotion of the initiative and commitment to expand and institutionalize it, many initial opponents of the initiative have reduced their negative comments and begun efforts to explore joining the initiative in order to be recognized as a player in global
1174:
1221:
China's objections for supposed legal reasons also come into question, as it has been identified as a neighboring country which has supported transshipment of DPRK's WMD materials, and "turns a blind eye to North Korea’s proliferation whenever it can get away with
1170:
1214:, which indicates that while nominally claiming objections to the initiative for "legal" reasons, actual hesitation towards endorsement might be more aligned with political considerations, such as not wanting to be seen as supporting United States or "
791:
Endorsing states are developing a formal set of tools called
Critical Capabilities and Practices (CCP) for use by all PSI partners to aid in their ability to interdict WMD. An ongoing effort, the CCP is organized into four elements:
1322:
1190:
In
February 2004, the PSI was "expanded" beyond a military and intelligence effort to include greater cooperation with law enforcement entities. PSI has largely evolved from a focus on interdiction of ships at sea to
1922:
1118:
claimed that between April 2005 and April 2006 the United States had cooperated with other PSI participants on "roughly two dozen" occasions to prevent transfers of concern; and in May 2005 Ulrik
Federspiel,
444:
Participation in PSI activities generally include OEG meetings, live exercises, command post exercises, tabletop exercises, seminars, workshops, and other WMD Interdiction training. Current members include:
1016:(DPRK), argue that the declared intent of PSI members to stop ships on the high seas is a violation of international law guaranteeing freedom of the seas. In particular, it's argued that Article 23 of the
395:
Progress on implementation was reviewed at the PSI Mid-Level Political Meeting in January 2016, hosted in Washington, DC. Another PSI High Level Political Meeting will be hosted in France in 2018.
2663:
2668:
1144:
places an international obligation on all Members of the UN to take action against the proliferation of WMD, and its language matches closely with the PSI Statement of Interdiction Principles.
924:
stopped a North Korean shipment of mixed conventional arms and missile technology, based on information from US intelligence, which had been tracking the shipment since it departed
795:
Element 1. Prohibiting Proliferation-Related Conduct – Having in place appropriate legal authorities to prohibit and prevent proliferation activity within and across one’s border
1450:
Fabio Spadi (2006). "Bolstering the Proliferation Security Initiative at Sea: A Comparative Analysis of Ship-boarding as a Bilateral and Multilateral Implementing Mechanism".
1932:
974:"tabletop" activities where subject matter experts explore legal and operational interdiction questions related to a fictional scenario. Recent PSI exercises have included:
275:
did not allow them to be confiscated. Given this apparent gap in international law, several months later US President Bush announced the initiative with his counterpart,
2357:
1801:
2343:
1247:
1152:
1148:
1141:
1017:
54:
894:
In an embarrassing "failure" of the PSI, in April 2005 Germany authorized the export of a high-tech crane aboard the vessel Hual Africa that could be utilized in
249:
2648:
1505:
1237:
1585:
2579:
1909:"India's Participation in the Proliferation Security Initiative: Issues in Perspective | Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses"
1491:
862:
after firing four warning shots into the water at the bow of the ship and rifle fire on the ship's hull, getting no answer, fired on a cable crossing the
2653:
2389:
2329:
2241:
2093:
1997:
1858:
1786:
1348:
422:
The PSI also supports the maintenance of an informal network of transgovernmental linkages that sustain cooperation outside of the formal PSI framework.
310:
798:
Element 2. Inspection and Identification – The ability to effectively inspect air, land, and sea cargos and to identify proliferation-related materials
1166:
804:
Element 4. Rapid Decision Making – The development of decision-making practices that facilitate timely government responses to interdiction scenarios
2628:
1013:
385:
2633:
426:
1326:
959:
reported on the turning around of the Belize-flagged North Korean Vessel MV Light, suspected of transporting missile technology to Myanmar. The
2643:
70:
1971:
1063:
2673:
2428:
1908:
891:). Although some sources cite this interdiction as an early success of the PSI, others dispute the initiative's relationship to this event.
866:
from bow to stern to remove obstacles and proceeded to approach it from a helicopter. The ship from North Korea was carrying a cargo of 15
2121:
2061:
320:
with the United States, allowing the mutual expedition of shipboarding requests for ships under those nations' flags. The Eleven are the
928:. The ultimate planned destination of the materials was not determined, but it was thought to be heading towards Iran (to eventually arm
801:
Element 3. Seizure and Disposition – The ability to undertake appropriate actions to seize and dispose of interdiction-related materials
438:
217:
1760:
2658:
1079:
2476:
1959:
434:
94:
2209:
1826:
1054:
Much early criticism of the initiative also explicitly linked PSI to other international activities of the globally controversial
2011:
1872:
1506:"U.S. Strategic Command - the USSTRATCOM Center for Combating WMD (SCC-WMD) Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) Support Cell"
1181:
1180:
Contrary to comments that the PSI works "outside" of international frameworks such as the United Nations, UN officials including
2618:
2549:
2364:
2638:
2297:
1734:
361:
138:
2446:
1802:"Proliferation Security Initiative and the US 1,000-Ship Navy :: Control of the World's Oceans, Prelude to War ::"
2107:
992:•LEADING EDGE 2013 (Feb), a joint UAE/US dedicated PSI exercise featuring air, maritime and ground interdiction activities
2033:
1894:
1232:
1720:
2560:
2195:
1946:
1055:
407:
2047:
2623:
123:
1629:"Germany's Iran Headache: Will a German Crane be Used by the Mullahs to Make Missiles? - DER SPIEGEL - International"
1509:
1477:
364:. Each of these nations maintains a large number of commercial vessels on their registries, and are often considered
46:
317:
59:
1095:
851:
50:
1082:
critics referenced the PSI and its links to Under-Secretary Bolton as an extension of the Bush Administration's "
279:
1425:
2570:
1083:
1160:
2005 Protocol to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation
995:•SAHARAN EXPRESS 2013 (Mar), a US-led maritime exercise with a PSI inject, held off the West Coast of Africa
2613:
2171:"Boloji.com - A Study in Diversity - News, Views, Analysis, Literature, Poetry, Features - Express Yourself"
986:•EASTERN ENDEAVOR 2012 (Sep), a dedicated PSI exercise hosted by South Korea, featuring a maritime scenario
960:
840:
1091:
977:•PHOENIX EXPRESS 2012 (May), a US-led maritime exercise, with a PSI inject, held in the Mediterranean Sea
826:
Team members include: Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Norway, Poland, Russia, and the United States.
35:
2608:
1252:
1242:
1071:
1610:
39:
1570:
1042:
diplomatic and trade relationships with Iran, the DPRK, and other states suggested as likely targets.
1211:
1200:
302:
1628:
2402:
1975:
1373:
1086:." However, over time much of these criticisms have subsided as PSI activities grew to have large
875:
365:
321:
298:
276:
1187:
have "applaud the efforts of the Proliferation Security Initiative to fill a gap in our defenses."
285:
Initially, the PSI included 11 "core" states (Australia, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands,
63:
2432:
1960:
http://www.nuclearfiles.org/menu/key-issues/nuclear-weapons/issues/governance/psi/BP53%5B1%5D.pdf
1927:
1646:
980:•PACIFIC SHIELD 2012 (July), a dedicated PSI exercise hosted by Japan, featuring an air scenario
989:•Eastern European PSI Workshop (Nov 2012), hosted by Moldova, featuring a ground-based scenario
2131:
2068:
1702:
2383:
2323:
2235:
2087:
2027:
1991:
1888:
1852:
1780:
1735:"Association for Asia Research- Chinese Realpolitik and the Proliferation Security Initiative"
1586:"THREATS AND RESPONSES: WAR MATERIEL; Reluctant U.S. Gives Assent For Missiles to Go to Yemen"
1342:
949:
883:
272:
206:
153:, the PSI has now grown to include the endorsement of 105 nations around the world, including
74:
2283:
1764:
1683:
1459:
1175:
Protocol Supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft
850:, several hundred miles southeast of Yemen at the request of the U.S. government as part of
349:
248:, former US Under-Secretary of State for Arms Control and International Security and former
1556:
2487:
1210:
A large portion of states which have been critical of PSI consider themselves part of the
1021:
871:
establishment of the PSI, it is cited as being a major reason for the PSI's establishment.
131:
2526:
2415:"The Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) at a Glance | Arms Control Association"
2256:"The Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) at a Glance | Arms Control Association"
913:
On September 22, 2009, South Korea seized North Korean containers transiting the port of
388:
and continued to promote the PSI through the 2010 White House Nuclear Security Strategy.
2216:
1833:
1171:
Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Relating to International Civil Aviation
956:
376:
245:
221:
162:
142:
127:
2514:
2602:
1215:
1115:
1075:
1059:
135:
2584:
822:• Best practices associated with information sharing and decision-making procedures
2553:
944:
ordered the return of a shipment of North Korean military equipment to the port of
941:
380:
2538:
2304:
1738:
1387:
2574:
430:
309:
and the Republic of Korea, who are geographically close to states designated by
260:
202:
190:
114:
assault by Spanish special forces; see "Interdictions and Events" section below.
107:
2469:
1531:
1463:
1437:
1401:
1297:
1272:
224:, a number of countries have expressed opposition to the initiative, including
1184:
1087:
888:
257:
2196:"Policy Forum 08-043: Put the Proliferation Security Initiative Under the UN"
2145:
2048:"After N Korea's nuclear test, South Korea joins US-led PSI - Indian Express"
2012:"INDIA SHOULD NOT JOIN PROLIFERATION SECURITY INITIATIVE (PSI): A View Point"
1947:"Policy Forum 08-043: Put the Proliferation Security Initiative Under the UN"
1873:"INDIA SHOULD NOT JOIN PROLIFERATION SECURITY INITIATIVE (PSI): A View Point"
1426:
http://125.60.3.200/news.do?mode=detail&thiscode=eng030001&guid=51100
983:•PANAMAX 2012 (Aug), a joint U.S./Panama maritime exercise with a PSI inject
917:
which contained protective clothing used to protect against chemical weapons.
441:
playing lead roles; with other departments and agencies in supporting roles.
2498:
2414:
2284:"The Proliferation Security Initiative: Too Much, Too Soon • Stimson Center"
2255:
2126:
1162:
illegalize the illicit transfer of WMD-related materials by maritime vessel.
929:
925:
233:
198:
182:
166:
2158:
146:
1670:
1078:
outside of United Nations frameworks. Domestically in the United States,
937:
921:
899:
353:
286:
1361:
905:
In June 2009, the North Korean vessel Kang Nam believed to be headed to
1721:"Roland San Juan: Maritime Counter-proliferation: The Case of MV Light"
1192:
1177:" illegalize the illicit transfer of WMD-related materials by aircraft.
1120:
1067:
1051:
truly defined by the nonproliferation activities of endorsing nations.
906:
874:
In September 2003, Germany obtained information that the BBC China, an
341:
333:
325:
174:
945:
887:
nuclear-related equipment (aluminum tubes that can be converted into
372:
357:
337:
329:
306:
210:
194:
170:
158:
154:
150:
16:
Global initiative to stop trafficking of weapons of mass destruction
293:, the United Kingdom, the US and Poland). On September 4, 2003, in
1478:"Obama's Speech on Nuclear Proliferation | RealClearPolitics"
1035:
933:
914:
879:
835:
interdictions that usually involve only two or three governments.
406:
345:
294:
290:
268:
229:
225:
186:
178:
106:
2477:"The Nuclear Fuel Cycle and the Bush Nonproliferation Initiative"
1448:
For an academic analysis of shipboarding in the PSI context, see
126:(WMD), their delivery systems, and related materials to and from
2403:
http://38north.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/38north_SR_PSI.pdf
1009:
895:
867:
253:
878:-flagged vessel, was transporting nuclear-related materials to
2593:
2463:
2269:
18:
2580:
Marrakech Declaration - February 2, 2024 - Five New Endorsers
2561:
The Proliferation Security Initiative: A Challenge Too Narrow
2344:"The Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI), Alberto Dojas"
858:, sailing without a flag, attempted evasive action, so the
2539:"The Proliferation Security Initiative: A Glass Half-Full"
2170:
1374:"Washington touts success of non-proliferation initiative"
813:• Commodity identification guides and associated training
122:(PSI) is a global effort that aims to stop trafficking of
2499:"The Proliferation Security Initiative (PSI) At a Glance"
1703:"North Korean Military Parts Were Intercepted, U.N. Says"
57:
and tools are available to assist in formatting, such as
2447:"Another North Korean Vessel Intercepted, Turned Around"
415:
The primary role of PSI participants is to abide by the
399:
proliferation security norms and standards of practice.
1647:"North Korean ship makes U-turn | DVB Multimedia Group"
1682:
Fuller, Thomas; Sanger, David E. (December 14, 2009).
1207:
within international and domestic legal authorities.
1114:
In a June 2006 speech, then-Undersecretary of State
816:• Legal analyses of UN Security Council Resolutions
425:
In the United States, the program is managed by the
2664:
21st-century military history of the United Kingdom
1584:David E. Sanger, Thom Shanker (December 12, 2002).
1140:United Nations Security Council Resolution (UNSCR)
807:Examples of these capacity building tools include:
2669:21st-century military history of the United States
2130:. Chennai, India. January 13, 2004. Archived from
1571:"S. Korea to Join US-Led Anti-Proliferation Drill"
2108:"North Korea Blasts Seoul over US-Led Sea Drills"
2014:. Archived from the original on December 17, 2010
1875:. Archived from the original on December 17, 2010
1684:"Officials Seek Destination of North Korean Arms"
2585:Timeline resources and general review of PSI at
1532:"Proliferation Security Initiative Participants"
1436:For the text of these bilateral agreements, see
1298:"Proliferation Security Initiative Participants"
1074:, and a general international perception of US
2429:"Home Security Systems : My Home Security"
1248:Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear
1094:and the PSI continued to be promoted under the
1018:United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
819:• Expert briefings on inspection methodologies
2122:"Singapore joins U.S.-led security initiative"
250:United States Ambassador to the United Nations
1238:Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism
244:The idea of the PSI is generally credited to
8:
2550:New U.S. policy to block freedom of the seas
2527:"Interdiction Initiative Successes Assessed"
1199:perceptions of PSI as military, maritime or
38:, which are uninformative and vulnerable to
2468:Official United States Department of State
311:United Nations Security Council resolutions
282:at Wawel Castle in Kraków on May 31, 2003.
271:had to be released when it turned out that
53:and maintains a consistent citation style.
1923:"India's fears of terror-via-sea real: US"
1111:in the initiative are causes for concern.
1167:International Civil Aviation Organization
787:Critical Capabilities and Practices (CCP)
95:Learn how and when to remove this message
2501:. Arms Control Association. October 2007
2159:https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/RL34327.pdf
948:, ostensibly declared as heading to the
216:Despite the support of over half of the
1701:MacFarquhar, Neil (February 26, 2010).
1671:https://fas.org/sgp/crs/nuke/R40684.pdf
1264:
2388:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2381:
2328:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2321:
2240:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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1996:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1989:
1886:
1857:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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1785:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
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1438:this U.S. Department of State web page
1402:"Statement of Interdiction Principles"
1347:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
1340:
846:intercepted and boarded the freighter
134:of proliferation concern. Launched by
1362:http://www.armscontrol.org/print/1579
1014:Democratic People's Republic of Korea
316:Eleven nations have signed bilateral
7:
2649:International military organizations
1611:"防衛省・自衛隊：防衛省ウェブサイトのＨｔｔｐｓへの切り替えのお知らせ"
1136:PSI proponents have countered that:
417:Statement of Interdiction Principles
2515:"GAO Report Calls for Revamped PSI"
1557:"Proliferation Security Initiative"
1452:Nordic Journal of International Law
1273:"Proliferation Security Initiative"
1046:Perception as a "US-led" initiative
439:United States Department of Defense
392:Expanding Strategic Communications
45:Please consider converting them to
14:
2654:Organizations established in 2003
2571:Proliferation Security Initiative
2431:. January 7, 2023. Archived from
1931:. August 25, 2007. Archived from
1800:Rozoff, Rick (January 31, 2009).
1492:"The Obameter: | PolitiFact"
940:. Months later, in February 2010
435:United States Department of State
120:Proliferation Security Initiative
2475:Thomas L. Neff (April 1, 2004).
1627:Stark, Holger (April 25, 2005).
1151:(on the DPRK's WMD program) and
411:PSI-endorsing states, as of 2013
23:
2629:21st-century military alliances
2594:PSI Website (Hosted by Germany)
2464:PSI website (hosted by Germany)
1008:Critics of PSI, such as China,
305:, as well as countries such as
2634:Military of the United Kingdom
1388:"Unauthorized Request Blocked"
728:St. Vincent and the Grenadines
557:Federated States of Micronesia
379:, newly inaugurated President
371:In April 2009, at a speech in
362:St. Vincent and the Grenadines
318:Mutual Shipboarding Agreements
49:to ensure the article remains
1:
2644:Military of the United States
2484:World Nuclear Fuel Cycle 2004
1233:Container Security Initiative
1056:George W. Bush administration
386:Presidential election of 2008
2674:Presidency of George W. Bush
1806:Media Monitors Network (MMN)
145:in May 2003 at a meeting in
1102:non-proliferation efforts.
256:missiles found on board an
124:weapons of mass destruction
2690:
2146:"Bolton and the PSI Posse"
1464:10.1163/157181006778666614
1096:Presidency of Barack Obama
852:Operation Enduring Freedom
313:as proliferation threats.
301:such as Singapore and the
2659:History of the Royal Navy
2032:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1893:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1038:, Myanmar, and Pakistan.
1084:Coalition of the willing
839:On December 9, 2002 the
830:Interdictions and events
2565:Foreign Policy In Focus
1064:invasion of Afghanistan
1058:, including namely the
1029:Targets specific states
427:National Security Staff
2619:International security
1131:Responses to criticism
1092:United States Congress
497:Bosnia and Herzegovina
412:
280:Aleksander Kwaśniewski
115:
2639:Military of Australia
2556:, September 17, 2003.
2310:on September 29, 2011
2222:on September 28, 2011
2148:. September 12, 2006.
1935:on September 5, 2012.
1839:on September 28, 2011
1767:on September 27, 2007
1253:Global Trade Exchange
1243:Nuclear proliferation
1072:2003 invasion of Iraq
410:
110:
1376:. AFP. May 27, 2008.
1212:Non-Aligned Movement
1106:Lack of transparency
882:as on behalf of the
810:• Model Legislation
761:United Arab Emirates
303:United Arab Emirates
2587:Biosecurity Commons
2533:. July–August 2008.
1536:2009-2017.state.gov
1406:2009-2017.state.gov
1302:2009-2017.state.gov
1277:2009-2017.state.gov
1193:inspection in ports
876:Antigua and Barbuda
755:Trinidad and Tobago
461:Antigua and Barbuda
429:working out of the
366:flag of convenience
322:Antigua and Barbuda
299:international trade
2624:Military alliances
2543:Arms Control Today
2531:Arms Control Today
2519:Arms Control Today
2493:on March 27, 2009.
2286:. August 13, 2007.
2134:on March 15, 2004.
1928:The Times of India
1707:The New York Times
1688:The New York Times
1127:Tweet throughout.
955:In June 2011, the
920:In December 2009,
605:Korea, Republic of
536:Dominican Republic
413:
267:, heading towards
116:
2590:, a Wiki database
2074:on March 12, 2012
1741:on April 24, 2009
1182:Secretary General
1158:Article 4 of the
1066:to overthrow the
950:Republic of Congo
936:) or potentially
884:Abdul Qadeer Khan
545:Equatorial Guinea
500:Brunei Darussalam
273:international law
207:Republic of Korea
105:
104:
97:
55:Several templates
2681:
2546:
2534:
2522:
2521:. December 2008.
2510:
2508:
2506:
2494:
2492:
2486:. Archived from
2481:
2451:
2450:
2449:. June 14, 2011.
2443:
2437:
2436:
2435:on May 18, 2011.
2425:
2419:
2418:
2411:
2405:
2400:
2394:
2393:
2387:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2369:
2363:. Archived from
2362:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2340:
2334:
2333:
2327:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2309:
2303:. Archived from
2302:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2280:
2274:
2273:
2270:"1540 Committee"
2266:
2260:
2259:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2239:
2231:
2229:
2227:
2221:
2215:. Archived from
2214:
2206:
2200:
2199:
2192:
2186:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2167:
2161:
2156:
2150:
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2135:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2104:
2098:
2097:
2091:
2083:
2081:
2079:
2073:
2067:. Archived from
2066:
2058:
2052:
2051:
2044:
2038:
2037:
2031:
2023:
2021:
2019:
2008:
2002:
2001:
1995:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1974:. Archived from
1968:
1962:
1957:
1951:
1950:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1905:
1899:
1898:
1892:
1884:
1882:
1880:
1869:
1863:
1862:
1856:
1848:
1846:
1844:
1838:
1832:. Archived from
1831:
1823:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1784:
1776:
1774:
1772:
1763:. Archived from
1757:
1751:
1750:
1748:
1746:
1737:. Archived from
1731:
1725:
1724:
1723:. June 29, 2011.
1717:
1711:
1710:
1698:
1692:
1691:
1679:
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1547:
1546:
1544:
1542:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1517:
1512:on June 18, 2011
1508:. Archived from
1502:
1496:
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1482:
1481:
1474:
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1446:
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1384:
1378:
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1370:
1364:
1359:
1353:
1352:
1346:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1325:. Archived from
1319:
1313:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1294:
1288:
1287:
1285:
1283:
1269:
902:missile program.
677:Papua New Guinea
644:Marshall Islands
350:Marshall Islands
277:Polish President
132:non-state actors
100:
93:
89:
86:
80:
78:
67:
27:
26:
19:
2689:
2688:
2684:
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2599:
2598:
2567:, October 2003.
2537:
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2360:
2358:"Archived copy"
2356:
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2307:
2300:
2298:"Archived copy"
2296:
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2268:
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2253:
2249:
2232:
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2212:
2210:"Archived copy"
2208:
2207:
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2198:. May 29, 2008.
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2062:"Archived copy"
2060:
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2055:
2046:
2045:
2041:
2024:
2017:
2015:
2010:
2009:
2005:
1988:
1981:
1979:
1978:on May 31, 2009
1972:"Archived copy"
1970:
1969:
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1949:. May 29, 2008.
1945:
1944:
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1921:
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1907:
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1885:
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1829:
1827:"Archived copy"
1825:
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1761:"Archived copy"
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1573:. May 26, 2009.
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1329:on May 25, 2024
1323:"Archived copy"
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1108:
1090:support in the
1048:
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1022:Hassan Wirajuda
1006:
1001:
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832:
789:
659:The Netherlands
405:
263:freighter, the
242:
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2459:
2458:External links
2456:
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2406:
2395:
2370:on May 9, 2011
2349:
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143:George W. Bush
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47:full citations
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30:
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2609:Arms control
2586:
2564:
2554:The Guardian
2545:. June 2007.
2542:
2530:
2518:
2503:. Retrieved
2488:the original
2483:
2470:PSI Homepage
2441:
2433:the original
2423:
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2372:. Retrieved
2365:the original
2352:
2338:
2312:. Retrieved
2305:the original
2292:
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2250:
2224:. Retrieved
2217:the original
2204:
2190:
2180:December 23,
2178:. Retrieved
2174:
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2132:the original
2125:
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2076:. Retrieved
2069:the original
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1976:the original
1966:
1955:
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1926:
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1867:
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1821:
1811:December 23,
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1739:the original
1729:
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1656:December 17,
1654:. Retrieved
1650:
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1593:. Retrieved
1589:
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