1767:
the cathode, oxygen can be catalytically reacted with hydrogen on the platinum surface of the cathodic catalyst. At the anode, hydrogen and oxygen do not react at the iridium oxide catalyst. Thus, safety hazards due to explosive anodic mixtures hydrogen in oxygen can result. The supplied energy for the hydrogen production is lost, when hydrogen is lost due to the reaction with oxygen at the cathode and permeation from the cathode across the membrane to the anode corresponds. Hence, the ratio of the amount of lost and produced hydrogen determines the faradaic losses. At pressurized operation of the electrolyzer, the crossover and the correlated faradaic efficiency losses increase.
1324:. The calculation of cell voltage assuming no irreversibilities exist and all of the thermal energy is utilized by the reaction is referred to as the lower heating value (LHV). The alternative formulation, using the higher heating value (HHV) is calculated assuming that all of the energy to drive the electrolysis reaction is supplied by the electrical component of the required energy which results in a higher reversible cell voltage. When using the HHV the voltage calculation is referred to as the
1618:
1832:
1818:
614:
40:
1802:
higher overall electrical efficiency. The LHV must be used for alkaline electrolysers as the process within these electrolysers requires water in liquid form and uses alkalinity to facilitate the breaking of the bond holding the hydrogen and oxygen atoms together. The lower heat value must also be used for fuel cells, as steam is the output rather than input.
1793:
coupling these to energy sources such as wind and solar, the demand of the grid rarely matches the generation of renewable energy. This means energy produced from renewable sources such as wind and solar benefit by having a buffer, or a means of storing off-peak energy. As of 2021, the largest PEM electrolyzer is 20 MW.
1693:. Much of this heat energy is carried away with the reactant water supply and lost to the environment, however a small portion of this energy is then recaptured as heat energy in the electrolysis process. The amount of heat energy that can be recaptured is dependent on many aspects of system operation and cell design.
311:
An electrolyzer is an electrochemical device to convert electricity and water into hydrogen and oxygen, these gases can then be used as a means to store energy for later use. This use can range from electrical grid stabilization from dynamic electrical sources such as wind turbines and solar cells to
1775:
Hydrogen evolution due to pressurized electrolysis is comparable to an isothermal compression process, which is in terms of efficiency preferable compared to mechanical isotropic compression. However, the contributions of the aforementioned faradaic losses increase with operating pressures. Thus, in
1766:
Faradaic losses describe the efficiency losses that are correlated to the current, that is supplied without leading to hydrogen at the cathodic gas outlet. The produced hydrogen and oxygen can permeate across the membrane, referred to as crossover. Mixtures of both gases at the electrodes result. At
1460:
1805:
PEM electrolysis has an electrical efficiency of about 80% in working application, in terms of hydrogen produced per unit of electricity used to drive the reaction. The efficiency of PEM electrolysis is expected to reach 82-86% before 2030, while also maintaining durability as progress in this area
1273:
1801:
When determining the electrical efficiency of PEM electrolysis, the HHV can be used. This is because the catalyst layer interacts with water as steam. As the process operates at 80 °C for PEM electrolysers the waste heat can be redirected through the system to create the steam, resulting in a
274:
One of the largest advantages to PEM electrolysis is its ability to operate at high current densities. This can result in reduced operational costs, especially for systems coupled with very dynamic energy sources such as wind and solar, where sudden spikes in energy input would otherwise result in
341:
The actual value for open circuit voltage of an operating electrolyzer will lie between the 1.23 V and 1.48 V depending on how the cell/stack design utilizes the thermal energy inputs. This is however quite difficult to determine or measure because an operating electrolyzer also experiences other
1792:
The ability of the PEM electrolyzer to operate, not only under highly dynamic conditions but also in part-load and overload conditions is one of the reasons for the recently renewed interest in this technology. The demands of an electrical grid are relatively stable and predictable, however when
233:
in a cell equipped with a solid polymer electrolyte (SPE) that is responsible for the conduction of protons, separation of product gases, and electrical insulation of the electrodes. The PEM electrolyzer was introduced to overcome the issues of partial load, low current density, and low pressure
262:
technology of that time, very efficient. In the late 1970s the alkaline electrolyzers were reporting performances around 0.215 A/cm at 2.06 V, thus prompting a sudden interest in the late 1970s and early 1980s in polymer electrolytes for water electrolysis. PEM water electrolysis technology is
1785:
248:
to be used as an energy carrier. With fast dynamic response times, large operational ranges, and high efficiencies, water electrolysis is a promising technology for energy storage coupled with renewable energy sources. In terms of sustainability and environmental impact, PEM electrolysis is
1101:
The thermal and electrical inputs shown above represent the minimum amount of energy that can be supplied by electricity in order to obtain an electrolysis reaction. Assuming that the maximum amount of heat energy (48.6 kJ/mol) is supplied to the reaction, the reversible cell voltage
275:
uncaptured energy. The polymer electrolyte allows the PEM electrolyzer to operate with a very thin membrane (~100-200 μm) while still allowing high pressures, resulting in low ohmic losses, primarily caused by the conduction of protons across the membrane (0.1 S/cm) and a
498:
The half reaction taking place on the cathode side of a PEM electrolyzer is commonly referred to as the
Hydrogen Evolution Reaction (HER). Here the supplied electrons and the protons that have conducted through the membrane are combined to create gaseous hydrogen.
282:
The polymer electrolyte membrane, due to its solid structure, exhibits a low gas crossover rate resulting in very high product gas purity. Maintaining a high gas purity is important for storage safety and for the direct usage in a fuel cell. The safety limits for
354:
The half reaction taking place on the anode side of a PEM electrolyzer is commonly referred to as the Oxygen
Evolution Reaction (OER). Here the liquid water reactant is supplied to catalyst where the supplied water is oxidized to oxygen, protons and electrons.
719:
605:
The illustration below depicts a simplification of how PEM electrolysis works, showing the individual half-reactions together along with the complete reaction of a PEM electrolyzer. In this case the electrolyzer is coupled with a solar panel for the
257:
The use of a PEM for electrolysis was first introduced in the 1960s by
General Electric, developed to overcome the drawbacks to the alkaline electrolysis technology. The initial performances yielded 1.0 A/cm at 1.88 V which was, compared to the
1573:
1336:
1149:
1476:, is typically compared through polarization curves, which are obtained by plotting cell voltages against current densities. The primary sources of increased voltage in a PEM electrolyzer (the same also applies for
332:
required for the decomposition of water is 285.9 kJ/mol. A portion of the required energy for a sustained electrolysis reaction is supplied by thermal energy and the remainder is supplied through electrical energy.
249:
considered as a promising technique for high purity and efficient hydrogen production since it emits only oxygen as a by-product without any carbon emissions. The IEA said in 2022 that more effort was needed.
483:
1688:
The energy loss due to the electrical resistance is not entirely lost. The voltage drop due to resistivity is associated with the conversion the electrical energy to heat energy through a process known as
904:
2398:
266:
A thorough review of the historical performance from the early research to that of today can be found in chronological order with many of the operating conditions in the 2013 review by Carmo et al.
1630:
Ohmic losses are an electrical overpotential introduced to the electrolysis process by the internal resistance of the cell components. This loss then requires an additional voltage to maintain the
596:
1488:
and mass transport losses. Due to the reversal of operation between a PEM fuel cell and a PEM electrolyzer, the degree of impact for these various losses is different between the two processes.
1092:
1737:
1134:
644:
1776:
order to produce compressed hydrogen, the in-situ compression during electrolysis and subsequent compression of the gas have to be pondered under efficiency considerations.
1679:
796:
749:
2503:
1498:
1610:
of a 25 cm single cell PEM electrolyzer under thermoneutral operation depicting the primary sources of voltage loss and their contributions for a range of
1318:
1298:
773:
2390:
1455:{\displaystyle V_{\textrm {th}}^{0}={\frac {\Delta H^{0}}{n\cdot F}}={\frac {285.9\ {\textrm {kJ/mol}}}{2\times 96,485\ {\textrm {C/mol}}}}=1.48{\textrm {V}}}
1268:{\displaystyle V_{\textrm {rev}}^{0}={\frac {\Delta G^{0}}{n\cdot F}}={\frac {237\ {\textrm {kJ/mol}}}{2\times 96,485\ {\textrm {C/mol}}}}=1.23{\textrm {V}}}
2036:
2443:
2024:
263:
similar to PEM fuel cell technology, where solid poly-sulfonated membranes, such as nafion, fumapem, were used as a electrolyte (proton conductor).
2362:
2478:
2335:
2295:
Schröder, V; Emonts B; Janßen H; Schulze HP (2004). "Explosion Limits of
Hydrogen/Oxygen Mixtures at Initial Pressures up to 200 bar".
366:
1881:
2360:
Schalenbach, M; Carmo M; Fritz DL; Mergel J; Stolten D (2013). "Pressurized PEM water electrolysis: Efficiency and gas crossover".
2322:
Mergel, J; Carmo M; Fritz, D (2013). "Status on
Technologies for Hydrogen Production by Water Electrolysis". In Stolten, D (ed.).
812:
1871:
329:
2246:
509:
2576:
627:
1586:. This essentially results in a curve that represents the power per square centimeter of cell area required to produce
2581:
1851:
1607:
2163:
LeRoy, RL; Janjua MB; Renaud R; Leuenberger U (1979). "Analysis of Time-Variation
Effects in Water Electrolyzers".
1901:
2148:
Russell, JH; Nuttall LJ; Ficket AP (1973). "Hydrogen generation by solid polymer electrolyte water electrolysis".
923:
2571:
2532:
2043:
2200:"An overview of polymer electrolyte membrane electrolyzer for hydrogen production: Modeling and mass transport"
1755:
321:
235:
1837:
714:{\displaystyle \Delta H=\underbrace {\Delta G} _{\textrm {elec.}}+\underbrace {T\Delta S} _{\textrm {heat}}}
1703:
1105:
1746:
The Ohmic losses due to the conduction of protons contribute to the loss of efficiency which also follows
245:
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to conduct protons from the anode to the cathode while insulating the electrodes electrically. Under
17:
1957:
Carmo, M; Fritz D; Mergel J; Stolten D (2013). "A comprehensive review on PEM water electrolysis".
1861:
1617:
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607:
325:
313:
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is very dependent on the hydration, temperature, heat treatment, and ionic state of the membrane.
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2007:
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317:
1652:
346:, proton conductivity, mass transport through the cell and catalyst utilization to name a few.
2331:
2227:
2098:
1621:
Polarization curve depicting the various losses attributed to PEM electrolysis cell operation.
1582:
A PEM electrolysis system's performance can be compared by plotting overpotential versus cell
778:
752:
731:
2371:
2304:
2269:
2219:
2180:
2088:
1997:
1966:
1896:
1846:
1568:{\displaystyle V_{\textrm {cell}}=E+V_{\textrm {act}}+V_{\textrm {trans}}+V_{\textrm {ohm}}}
1321:
1639:
1611:
1603:
1583:
2265:
2215:
2198:
Abdol Rahim, A. H.; Tijani, Alhassan Salami; Kamarudin, S. K.; Hanapi, S. (2016-03-31).
2176:
2084:
1303:
1283:
758:
2560:
2110:
2011:
1986:"An analysis of PEM water electrolysis cells operating at elevated current densities"
1891:
1823:
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292:
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2002:
1985:
1970:
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613:
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2068:
1813:
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1473:
39:
2231:
2102:
2327:
2124:
1817:
610:, however the solar panel could be replaced with any source of electricity.
2391:"World's largest green-hydrogen plant inaugurated in Canada by Air Liquide"
2308:
1747:
1635:
1587:
913:
The overall cell reaction with thermodynamic energy inputs then becomes:
631:
2444:"RWE's former, current and possible future energy storage applications"
799:
617:
Diagram of PEM electrolyzer cell and the basic principles of operation.
2273:
2247:"Ionic conductivity of an extruded Nafion 1100 EW series of membranes"
2184:
234:
operation currently plaguing the alkaline electrolyzer. It involves a
1591:
960:
1000:
1783:
1616:
612:
478:{\displaystyle {\ce {2 H2O (l) -> O2 (g) + 4H+ (aq) + 4 e^-}}}
2037:"2014 - Development of water electrolysis in the European Union"
2504:"Cost reduction and performance increase of PEM electrolysers"
2450:
2150:
American
Chemical Society Division of Fuel Chemistry Preprints
899:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O (l) + \Delta H -> H2 + 1/2 O2}}}
2468:"ITM – Hydrogen Refuelling Infrastructure – February 2017"
2069:"Hydrogen production by PEM water electrolysis – A review"
1606:. The figure below is the result of a simulation from the
1080:
1053:
938:
892:
866:
827:
573:
415:
385:
1060:
872:
591:{\displaystyle {\ce {4H+ (aq) + 4 e^- -> 2H2 (g)}}}
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1152:
1108:
926:
815:
781:
761:
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647:
512:
369:
2455:
Total
Efficiency: 70%, or 86% (usage of waste heat)
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117:
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96:
88:
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62:
54:
49:
32:
2245:Slade, S; Campbell SA; Ralph TR; Walsh FC (2002).
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1312:
1292:
1267:
1128:
1086:
898:
790:
767:
743:
713:
590:
477:
1598:, the better the PEM electrolyzer the lower the
2533:"Report and Financial Statements 30 April 2016"
1771:Hydrogen compression during water electrolysis
1634:reaction, the prediction of this loss follows
2067:Shiva Kumar, S.; Himabindu, V. (2019-12-01).
1952:
1950:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1087:{\displaystyle {\ce {H2O(l)->{H2}+1/2O2}}}
8:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1930:
1928:
1926:
1924:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1480:) can be categorized into three main areas,
1472:The performance of electrolysis cells, like
244:of water is an important technology for the
2513:. Fuel Cells and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking
2025:2012 - PEM water electrolysis fundamentals
2092:
2073:Materials Science for Energy Technologies
2001:
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2363:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1990:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
1959:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy
27:Technology for splitting water molecules
2395:Recharge | Latest renewable energy news
1914:
1754:effect. The proton conductivity of the
1638:and holds a linear relationship to the
775:is the temperature of the reaction and
2324:Transition to Renewable Energy Systems
2254:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
2165:Journal of the Electrochemical Society
44:Diagram of PEM electrolysis reactions.
29:
2297:Chemical Engineering & Technology
1788:PEM high pressure electrolyzer system
1732:{\displaystyle Q\propto I^{2}\cdot R}
1129:{\displaystyle V_{\textrm {rev}}^{0}}
33:Proton exchange membrane electrolysis
18:Proton exchange membrane electrolyzer
7:
2442:Bernholz, Jan (September 13, 2018).
2401:from the original on 25 March 2021.
2484:from the original on 17 April 2018
2389:Collins, Leigh (27 January 2021).
1363:
1176:
847:
782:
735:
691:
661:
648:
320:. The PEM electrolyzer utilizes a
291:are at standard conditions 4
174:Specific energy consumption system
25:
1882:Timeline of hydrogen technologies
166:Specific energy consumption stack
113:State-of-the-art Operating Ranges
1830:
1816:
89:Catalyst material on the cathode
71:Bipolar/separator plate material
38:
2414:"Hydrogen Status og muligheter"
1642:of the operating electrolyzer.
1300:is the number of electrons and
322:solid polymer electrolyte (SPE)
190:System hydrogen production rate
2376:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.09.013
2224:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2016.01.012
2003:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2018.11.179
1984:Villagra, A; Millet P (2019).
1971:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.01.151
1872:Photocatalytic water splitting
951:
945:
853:
840:
834:
583:
577:
556:
535:
529:
453:
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425:
419:
402:
398:
392:
81:Catalyst material on the anode
1:
1762:Faradaic losses and crossover
342:voltage losses from internal
628:second law of thermodynamics
622:Second law of thermodynamics
1852:Electrochemical engineering
206:Acceptable degradation rate
63:Style of membrane/diaphragm
2598:
2125:"Electrolysers – Analysis"
2094:10.1016/j.mset.2019.03.002
1902:High-pressure electrolysis
1674:{\displaystyle V=I\cdot R}
1140:Open circuit voltage (OCV)
108:Carbon paper/carbon fleece
37:
2204:Journal of Power Sources
1608:Forschungszentrum Jülich
791:{\displaystyle \Delta S}
744:{\displaystyle \Delta G}
236:proton-exchange membrane
224:Proton exchange membrane
76:platinum coated titanium
1838:Renewable energy portal
182:Cell voltage efficiency
2309:10.1002/ceat.200403174
1789:
1750:, however without the
1733:
1675:
1622:
1569:
1456:
1314:
1294:
1269:
1130:
1088:
1040:
900:
792:
769:
745:
715:
618:
608:production of hydrogen
592:
479:
344:electrical resistances
246:production of hydrogen
1887:Electrolysis of water
1806:continues at a pace.
1787:
1734:
1676:
1620:
1570:
1457:
1326:thermoneutral voltage
1315:
1295:
1270:
1131:
1089:
956:
901:
793:
770:
746:
716:
616:
593:
480:
260:alkaline electrolysis
231:electrolysis of water
74:Titanium or gold and
55:Type of Electrolysis:
1704:
1653:
1594:. Conversely to the
1499:
1337:
1304:
1284:
1150:
1106:
924:
813:
779:
759:
732:
645:
634:of the reaction is:
510:
367:
105:Cathode PTL material
2577:Hydrogen production
2370:(35): 14921–14933.
2266:2002JElS..149A1556S
2216:2016JPS...309...56A
2177:1979JElS..126.1674L
2085:2019MSET....2..442S
1862:Hydrogen production
1356:
1169:
1136:can be calculated.
1125:
1082:
1055:
1039:
999:
940:
894:
868:
829:
575:
417:
387:
326:standard conditions
314:hydrogen production
277:compressed hydrogen
2582:Electrolytic cells
1877:Water purification
1790:
1729:
1671:
1623:
1565:
1452:
1340:
1322:Faraday's constant
1310:
1290:
1265:
1153:
1126:
1109:
1084:
1070:
1069:
1043:
998:
991:
928:
896:
882:
881:
856:
817:
788:
765:
741:
711:
710:
701:
680:
671:
619:
588:
563:
475:
405:
375:
318:fuel cell vehicles
227:(PEM) electrolysis
97:Anode PTL material
2540:www.itm-power.com
2511:www.fch.europa.eu
2475:level-network.com
2337:978-3-527-33239-7
2274:10.1149/1.1517281
2185:10.1149/1.2128775
1996:(20): 9708–9717.
1965:(12): 4901–4934.
1742:
1741:
1684:
1683:
1612:current densities
1578:
1577:
1561:
1546:
1531:
1510:
1486:activation losses
1465:
1464:
1449:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1406:
1401:
1388:
1348:
1313:{\displaystyle F}
1293:{\displaystyle n}
1278:
1277:
1262:
1250:
1246:
1241:
1219:
1214:
1201:
1161:
1117:
1097:
1096:
1073:
1068:
1046:
1038:
1036:
1031:
1025:
1017:
1013:
996:
985:
977:
973:
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964:
950:
943:
931:
909:
908:
885:
880:
859:
852:
839:
832:
820:
798:is the change in
768:{\displaystyle T}
755:of the reaction,
753:Gibbs free energy
724:
723:
707:
686:
684:
677:
659:
657:
601:
600:
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521:
489:
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378:
221:
220:
50:Typical Materials
16:(Redirected from
2589:
2572:Hydrogen economy
2551:
2550:
2548:
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2537:
2529:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2518:
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2500:
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2439:
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2423:. Bellona Norway
2418:
2412:Kruse, Bjørnar.
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2135:
2121:
2115:
2114:
2096:
2064:
2058:
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2055:
2054:
2048:
2042:. Archived from
2041:
2033:
2027:
2022:
2016:
2015:
2005:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1954:
1897:Hydrogen economy
1847:Electrochemistry
1840:
1835:
1834:
1826:
1821:
1820:
1780:System operation
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1163:
1162:
1159:
1144:
1143:
1135:
1133:
1132:
1127:
1124:
1119:
1118:
1115:
1093:
1091:
1090:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1071:
1061:
1056:
1054:
1051:
1044:
1041:
1037:
1034:
1032:
1027:
1026:
1023:
1022:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1004:
997:
994:
992:
987:
986:
983:
982:
975:
971:
954:
948:
941:
939:
936:
929:
918:
917:
905:
903:
902:
897:
895:
893:
890:
883:
873:
867:
864:
857:
850:
843:
837:
830:
828:
825:
818:
807:
806:
797:
795:
794:
789:
774:
772:
771:
766:
750:
748:
747:
742:
720:
718:
717:
712:
709:
708:
705:
702:
697:
679:
678:
675:
672:
667:
639:
638:
597:
595:
594:
589:
587:
586:
580:
574:
571:
564:
555:
554:
547:
538:
532:
527:
526:
519:
504:
503:
494:Cathode reaction
484:
482:
481:
476:
474:
473:
472:
465:
456:
450:
445:
444:
437:
428:
422:
416:
413:
406:
401:
395:
388:
386:
383:
376:
360:
359:
118:Cell temperature
58:PEM Electrolysis
42:
30:
21:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2557:
2556:
2555:
2554:
2544:
2542:
2535:
2531:
2530:
2526:
2516:
2514:
2506:
2502:
2501:
2497:
2487:
2485:
2481:
2470:
2466:
2465:
2461:
2446:
2441:
2440:
2436:
2426:
2424:
2416:
2411:
2410:
2406:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2359:
2358:
2345:
2338:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2294:
2293:
2289:
2249:
2244:
2243:
2239:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2162:
2161:
2157:
2147:
2146:
2142:
2133:
2131:
2123:
2122:
2118:
2066:
2065:
2061:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2039:
2035:
2034:
2030:
2023:
2019:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1956:
1955:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1836:
1829:
1822:
1815:
1812:
1799:
1782:
1773:
1764:
1713:
1702:
1701:
1651:
1650:
1640:current density
1628:
1604:current density
1584:current density
1553:
1538:
1523:
1502:
1497:
1496:
1470:
1410:
1395:
1377:
1366:
1362:
1335:
1334:
1302:
1301:
1282:
1281:
1223:
1208:
1190:
1179:
1175:
1148:
1147:
1142:
1104:
1103:
1007:
967:
922:
921:
811:
810:
802:of the system.
777:
776:
757:
756:
730:
729:
687:
660:
643:
642:
624:
546:
518:
508:
507:
496:
464:
436:
365:
364:
352:
339:
309:
302:
298:
290:
286:
272:
255:
214:System lifetime
158:Part-load range
134:Current density
75:
45:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2595:
2593:
2585:
2584:
2579:
2574:
2569:
2559:
2558:
2553:
2552:
2524:
2495:
2459:
2453:. p. 10.
2434:
2404:
2381:
2343:
2336:
2314:
2303:(8): 847–851.
2287:
2237:
2190:
2155:
2140:
2116:
2079:(3): 442–454.
2059:
2028:
2017:
1976:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1904:
1899:
1894:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1874:
1869:
1864:
1859:
1854:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1841:
1827:
1811:
1808:
1798:
1797:PEM efficiency
1795:
1781:
1778:
1772:
1769:
1763:
1760:
1744:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1728:
1725:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1709:
1686:
1685:
1682:
1681:
1670:
1667:
1664:
1661:
1658:
1627:
1624:
1580:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1556:
1552:
1541:
1537:
1526:
1522:
1519:
1516:
1505:
1478:PEM fuel cells
1469:
1468:Voltage losses
1466:
1463:
1462:
1444:
1441:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1398:
1392:
1386:
1383:
1380:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1359:
1354:
1343:
1309:
1289:
1276:
1275:
1257:
1254:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1211:
1205:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1172:
1167:
1156:
1141:
1138:
1123:
1112:
1099:
1098:
1095:
1094:
1077:
1067:
1064:
1059:
1050:
1030:
1021:
1010:
1003:
990:
981:
970:
963:
959:
953:
947:
935:
911:
910:
907:
906:
889:
879:
876:
871:
863:
855:
849:
846:
842:
836:
824:
787:
784:
764:
740:
737:
726:
725:
722:
721:
700:
696:
693:
690:
683:
670:
666:
663:
656:
653:
650:
623:
620:
603:
602:
599:
598:
585:
579:
570:
561:
558:
553:
544:
541:
537:
531:
525:
516:
495:
492:
491:
490:
487:
486:
471:
462:
459:
455:
449:
443:
434:
431:
427:
421:
412:
404:
400:
394:
382:
373:
351:
350:Anode reaction
348:
338:
335:
316:as a fuel for
308:
305:
300:
296:
288:
284:
271:
268:
254:
251:
219:
218:
215:
211:
210:
207:
203:
202:
199:
198:Lifetime stack
195:
194:
191:
187:
186:
183:
179:
178:
177:4.5-7.5 kWh/Nm
175:
171:
170:
169:4.2-5.6 kWh/Nm
167:
163:
162:
159:
155:
154:
151:
147:
146:
143:
139:
138:
135:
131:
130:
127:
126:Stack pressure
123:
122:
119:
115:
114:
110:
109:
106:
102:
101:
98:
94:
93:
90:
86:
85:
82:
78:
77:
72:
68:
67:
64:
60:
59:
56:
52:
51:
47:
46:
43:
35:
34:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2594:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2564:
2562:
2541:
2534:
2528:
2525:
2512:
2505:
2499:
2496:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2463:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2445:
2438:
2435:
2422:
2415:
2408:
2405:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2385:
2382:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2364:
2356:
2354:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2339:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2318:
2315:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2260:(12): A1556.
2259:
2255:
2248:
2241:
2238:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2194:
2191:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2170:
2166:
2159:
2156:
2151:
2144:
2141:
2130:
2126:
2120:
2117:
2112:
2108:
2104:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2060:
2049:on 2015-03-31
2045:
2038:
2032:
2029:
2026:
2021:
2018:
2013:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1980:
1977:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1953:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1929:
1927:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1915:
1908:
1903:
1900:
1898:
1895:
1893:
1892:PEM fuel cell
1890:
1888:
1885:
1883:
1880:
1878:
1875:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1865:
1863:
1860:
1858:
1855:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1839:
1833:
1828:
1825:
1824:Energy portal
1819:
1814:
1809:
1807:
1803:
1796:
1794:
1786:
1779:
1777:
1770:
1768:
1761:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1752:Joule heating
1749:
1726:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1707:
1700:
1699:
1696:
1695:
1694:
1692:
1691:Joule heating
1668:
1665:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1649:
1648:
1645:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1625:
1619:
1615:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1596:PEM fuel cell
1593:
1589:
1585:
1554:
1550:
1539:
1535:
1524:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1503:
1495:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1489:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1467:
1442:
1439:
1423:
1420:
1417:
1414:
1411:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1381:
1378:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1352:
1341:
1333:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1323:
1307:
1287:
1255:
1252:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1209:
1203:
1197:
1194:
1191:
1184:
1180:
1170:
1165:
1154:
1146:
1145:
1139:
1137:
1121:
1110:
1075:
1065:
1062:
1057:
1048:
1028:
1019:
1008:
1001:
988:
979:
968:
961:
957:
933:
920:
919:
916:
915:
914:
887:
877:
874:
869:
861:
844:
822:
809:
808:
805:
804:
803:
801:
785:
762:
754:
738:
698:
694:
688:
681:
668:
664:
654:
651:
641:
640:
637:
636:
635:
633:
629:
621:
615:
611:
609:
568:
559:
551:
542:
539:
523:
514:
506:
505:
502:
501:
500:
493:
485:
469:
460:
457:
441:
432:
429:
410:
380:
371:
362:
361:
358:
357:
356:
349:
347:
345:
336:
334:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
306:
304:
294:
280:
278:
269:
267:
264:
261:
252:
250:
247:
243:
239:
237:
232:
228:
225:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
196:
192:
188:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
160:
156:
152:
150:Power density
148:
144:
140:
137:0.6-10.0 A/cm
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
111:
107:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
73:
69:
66:Solid polymer
65:
61:
57:
53:
48:
41:
36:
31:
19:
2567:Electrolysis
2543:. Retrieved
2539:
2527:
2515:. Retrieved
2510:
2498:
2486:. Retrieved
2474:
2462:
2454:
2437:
2425:. Retrieved
2421:bellona.org/
2420:
2407:
2394:
2384:
2367:
2361:
2326:. Weinheim:
2323:
2317:
2300:
2296:
2290:
2257:
2253:
2240:
2207:
2203:
2193:
2171:(10): 1674.
2168:
2164:
2158:
2149:
2143:
2132:. Retrieved
2128:
2119:
2076:
2072:
2062:
2051:. Retrieved
2044:the original
2031:
2020:
1993:
1989:
1979:
1962:
1958:
1857:Electrolysis
1804:
1800:
1791:
1774:
1765:
1745:
1687:
1632:electrolysis
1629:
1626:Ohmic losses
1600:cell voltage
1581:
1482:Ohmic losses
1471:
1279:
1100:
912:
727:
625:
604:
497:
363:
353:
340:
310:
281:
273:
265:
256:
242:Electrolysis
240:
226:
223:
222:
201:<20,000 h
142:Cell voltage
1867:Gas cracker
1602:at a given
1035:electricity
626:As per the
209:<14 μV/h
153:to 4.4 W/cm
145:1.75-2.20 V
2561:Categories
2134:2023-04-30
2053:2014-12-03
1909:References
1474:fuel cells
312:localized
270:Advantages
129:<30 bar
2328:Wiley-VCH
2232:0378-7753
2210:: 56–65.
2111:141506732
2103:2589-2991
2012:104308293
1748:Ohm's law
1724:⋅
1711:∝
1666:⋅
1636:Ohm's law
1415:×
1382:⋅
1364:Δ
1228:×
1195:⋅
1177:Δ
1029:⏞
989:⏟
854:⟶
848:Δ
783:Δ
736:Δ
699:⏟
692:Δ
669:⏟
662:Δ
649:Δ
557:⟶
552:−
470:−
403:⟶
337:Reactions
2545:17 April
2517:17 April
2488:17 April
2479:Archived
2427:22 April
2399:Archived
2282:14851298
1810:See also
1588:hydrogen
958:→
632:enthalpy
330:enthalpy
279:output.
100:Titanium
92:Platinum
2262:Bibcode
2212:Bibcode
2173:Bibcode
2081:Bibcode
800:entropy
751:is the
307:Science
253:History
229:is the
217:10-20 y
193:30 Nm/h
121:50-80°C
84:Iridium
2334:
2280:
2230:
2109:
2101:
2010:
1592:oxygen
1427:
1405:kJ/mol
1400:
1280:where
1240:
1218:kJ/mol
1213:
1012:
972:
728:Where
185:57-69%
2536:(PDF)
2507:(PDF)
2482:(PDF)
2471:(PDF)
2447:(PDF)
2417:(PDF)
2278:S2CID
2250:(PDF)
2107:S2CID
2047:(PDF)
2040:(PDF)
2008:S2CID
1545:trans
1432:C/mol
1397:285.9
1245:C/mol
1009:237.2
676:elec.
293:mol-%
161:0-10%
2547:2018
2519:2018
2490:2018
2429:2018
2332:ISBN
2228:ISSN
2099:ISSN
1590:and
1509:cell
1443:1.48
1256:1.23
995:heat
969:48.6
706:heat
630:the
328:the
299:in O
287:in O
2451:RWE
2372:doi
2305:doi
2270:doi
2258:149
2220:doi
2208:309
2181:doi
2169:126
2129:IEA
2089:doi
1998:doi
1967:doi
1756:PEM
1560:ohm
1530:act
1424:485
1320:is
1237:485
1210:237
1160:rev
1116:rev
1024:mol
984:mol
238:.
2563::
2538:.
2509:.
2477:.
2473:.
2449:.
2419:.
2397:.
2393:.
2368:38
2366:.
2346:^
2330:.
2301:27
2299:.
2276:.
2268:.
2256:.
2252:.
2226:.
2218:.
2206:.
2202:.
2179:.
2167:.
2127:.
2105:.
2097:.
2087:.
2075:.
2071:.
2006:.
1994:44
1992:.
1988:.
1963:38
1961:.
1917:^
1614:.
1484:,
1418:96
1347:th
1328:.
1231:96
1016:kJ
976:kJ
533:aq
451:aq
303:.
2549:.
2521:.
2492:.
2431:.
2378:.
2374::
2340:.
2311:.
2307::
2284:.
2272::
2264::
2234:.
2222::
2214::
2187:.
2183::
2175::
2152:.
2137:.
2113:.
2091::
2083::
2077:2
2056:.
2014:.
2000::
1973:.
1969::
1727:R
1719:2
1715:I
1708:Q
1669:R
1663:I
1660:=
1657:V
1555:V
1551:+
1540:V
1536:+
1525:V
1521:+
1518:E
1515:=
1504:V
1448:V
1440:=
1421:,
1412:2
1391:=
1385:F
1379:n
1372:0
1368:H
1358:=
1353:0
1342:V
1308:F
1288:n
1261:V
1253:=
1234:,
1225:2
1204:=
1198:F
1192:n
1185:0
1181:G
1171:=
1166:0
1155:V
1122:0
1111:V
1076:2
1072:O
1066:2
1063:1
1058:+
1049:2
1045:H
1020:/
1002:+
980:/
962:+
952:)
949:l
946:(
942:O
934:2
930:H
888:2
884:O
878:2
875:1
870:+
862:2
858:H
851:H
845:+
841:)
838:l
835:(
831:O
823:2
819:H
786:S
763:T
739:G
695:S
689:T
682:+
665:G
655:=
652:H
584:)
581:g
578:(
569:2
565:H
560:2
548:e
543:4
540:+
536:)
530:(
524:+
520:H
515:4
466:e
461:4
458:+
454:)
448:(
442:+
438:H
433:4
430:+
426:)
423:g
420:(
411:2
407:O
399:)
396:l
393:(
389:O
381:2
377:H
372:2
301:2
297:2
295:H
289:2
285:2
283:H
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
