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characteristics of the water bodies, and nearshore assemblages can also be distinguished from oceanic assemblages. The distribution of dinocysts in sediments has been relatively well documented and has contributed to understanding the average sea-surface conditions that determine the distribution pattern and abundances of the taxa (). Several studies, including and have compiled box and gravity cores in the North
Pacific analyzing them for palynological content to determine the distribution of dinocysts and their relationships with sea surface temperature, salinity, productivity and upwelling. Similarly, and use a box core at 576.5 m of water depth from 1992 in the central Santa Barbara Basin to determine oceanographic and climatic changes during the past 40 kyr in the area.
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431:" (a mathematical formula to solve matrix equations) to produce a non-unique series of surface temperature values. The solution is "non-unique" because there are multiple possible surface temperature reconstructions that can produce the same borehole temperature profile. In addition, due to physical limitations, the reconstructions are inevitably "smeared", and become more smeared further back in time. When reconstructing temperatures around 1500 AD, boreholes have a temporal resolution of a few centuries. At the start of the 20th century, their resolution is a few decades; hence they do not provide a useful check on the
27:
363:. Tree rings are wider when conditions favor growth, narrower when times are difficult. Two primary factors are temperature and humidity / water availability. Other properties of the annual rings, such as maximum latewood density (MXD) have been shown to be better proxies than simple ring width. Using tree rings, scientists have estimated many local climates for hundreds to thousands of years previous. By combining multiple tree-ring studies (sometimes with other climate proxy records), scientists have estimated past regional and global climates (see
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conditions or when there is surface snow. In practice the effect on borehole temperature is believed to be generally small. A second source of error is contamination of the well by groundwater may affect the temperatures, since the water "carries" more modern temperatures with it. This effect is believed to be generally small, and more applicable at very humid sites. It does not apply in ice cores where the site remains frozen all year.
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818:; and a similar formula for δD. δ values for precipitation are always negative. The major influence on δ is the difference between ocean temperatures where the moisture evaporated and the place where the final precipitation occurred; since ocean temperatures are relatively stable the δ value mostly reflects the temperature where precipitation occurs. Taking into account that the precipitation forms above the
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82:. In each case, the proxy indicator has been influenced by a particular seasonal climate parameter (e.g., summer temperature or monsoon intensity) at the time in which they were laid down or grew. Interpretation of climate proxies requires a range of ancillary studies, including calibration of the sensitivity of the proxy to climate and cross-verification among proxy indicators.
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435:. However, they are broadly comparable. These confirmations have given paleoclimatologists the confidence that they can measure the temperature of 500 years ago. This is concluded by a depth scale of about 492 feet (150 meters) to measure the temperatures from 100 years ago and 1,640 feet (500 meters) to measure the temperatures from 1,000 years ago.
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A small number of boreholes have been drilled in the ice sheets; the purity of the ice there permits longer reconstructions. Central
Greenland borehole temperatures show "a warming over the last 150 years of approximately 1°C ± 0.2°C preceded by a few centuries of cool conditions. Preceding this was
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de Vernal, A.; Eynaud, F.; Henry, M.; Hillaire-Marcel, C.; Londeix, L.; Mangin, S.; Matthiessen, J.; Marret, F.; Radi, T.; Rochon, A.; Solignac, S.; Turon, J. -L. (1 April 2005). "Reconstruction of sea-surface conditions at middle to high latitudes of the
Northern Hemisphere during the Last Glacial
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occurs during changes between condensed and vapour phases: the vapour pressure of heavier isotopes is lower, so vapour contains relatively more of the lighter isotopes and when the vapour condenses the precipitation preferentially contains heavier isotopes. The difference from VSMOW is expressed as
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in large quantities and it is extremely resistant to decay. It is possible to identify a plant species from its pollen grain. The identified plant community of the area at the relative time from that sediment layer, will provide information about the climatic condition. The abundance of pollen of a
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Boreholes have a great advantage over many other proxies in that no calibration is required: they are actual temperatures. However, they record surface temperature not the near-surface temperature (1.5 meter) used for most "surface" weather observations. These can differ substantially under extreme
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Most proxy records have to be calibrated against independent temperature measurements, or against a more directly calibrated proxy, during their period of overlap to estimate the relationship between temperature and the proxy. The longer history of the proxy is then used to reconstruct temperature
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are examples of biotic proxies for lake and ocean conditions that are commonly used to reconstruct past climates. The distribution of the species of these and other aquatic creatures preserved in the sediments are useful proxies. The optimal conditions for species preserved in the sediment act as
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In science, it is sometimes necessary to study a variable which cannot be measured directly. This can be done by "proxy methods," in which a variable which correlates with the variable of interest is measured, and then used to infer the value of the variable of interest. Proxy methods are of
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for a dormancy period when environmental conditions are not appropriate for growth. Their living depth is relatively shallow (dependent upon light penetration), and closely coupled to diatoms on which they feed. Their distribution patterns in surface waters are closely related to physical
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Quintana, Favia et al., 2018 ″Multiproxy response to climate- and human-driven changes in a remote lake of southern
Patagonia (Laguna Las Vizcachas, Argentina) during the last 1.6 kyr″, Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana, Mexico, VOL. 70 NO. 1 P. 173 ‒ 186
285:) – that are also used for temperature proxies. Normally, ice cores from Greenland are analyzed for δO and those from Antarctica for δ-deuterium. Those cores that analyze for both show a lack of agreement. (In the figure, δO is for the trapped air, not the ice.
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Pospelova, Vera; de Vernal, Anne; Pedersen, Thomas F. (1 July 2008). "Distribution of dinoflagellate cysts in surface sediments from the northeastern
Pacific Ocean (43–25°N) in relation to sea-surface temperature, salinity, productivity and coastal upwelling".
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processes cause smaller leaves to be overrepresented in the fossil record, which can bias reconstructions. However, recent research suggests that the leaf fossil record may not be significantly biased toward small leaves. New approaches retrieve data such as
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have coincided by also peaking every twelve and a half years. However, since recording this temperature has only been practiced for the last fifty years, correlation between recorded water temperature and coral structure can only be drawn so far back.
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Paleoclimatologists often use leaf teeth to reconstruct mean annual temperature in past climates, and they use leaf size as a proxy for mean annual precipitation. In the case of mean annual precipitation reconstructions, some researchers believe
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temperatures are used as temperature proxies. Since heat transfer through the ground is slow, temperature measurements at a series of different depths down the borehole, adjusted for the effect of rising heat from inside the Earth, can be
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a warm period centered around A.D. 1000, which was warmer than the late 20th century by approximately 1°C." A borehole in the
Antarctica icecap shows that the "temperature at A.D. 1 approximately 1°C warmer than the late 20th century".
886:. The study authors note, "These branched membrane lipids are produced by an as yet unknown group of anaerobic soil bacteria." As of 2018, there is a decade of research demonstrating that in mineral soils the degree of
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Borehole temperatures in
Greenland were responsible for an important revision to the isotopic temperature reconstruction, revealing that the former assumption that "spatial slope equals temporal slope" was incorrect.
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over a longer fraction of the Earth's history. Reliable global records of climate only began in the 1880s, and proxies provide the only means for scientists to determine climatic patterns before record-keeping began.
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Pospelova, Vera; Pedersen, Thomas F.; de Vernal, Anne (1 June 2006). "Dinoflagellate cysts as indicators of climatic and oceanographic changes during the past 40 kyr in the Santa
Barbara Basin, southern California".
816:
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Bringué, Manuel; Pospelova, Vera; Field, David B. (1 December 2014). "High resolution sedimentary record of dinoflagellate cysts reflects decadal variability and 20th century warming in the Santa
Barbara Basin".
894:, at the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary, and researchers found that annual air temperatures, over land and at mid-latitude, averaged about 23–29 °C (± 4.7 °C), which is 5–10 °C higher than most previous findings.
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Radi, Taoufik; de Vernal, Anne (1 January 2004). "Dinocyst distribution in surface sediments from the northeastern
Pacific margin (40–60°N) in relation to hydrographic conditions, productivity and upwelling".
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A study published in 2017 called the previous methodology to reconstruct paleo ocean temperatures 100 million years ago into question, suggesting it has been relatively stable during that time, much colder.
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Johan W.H. Weijers; Stefan Schouten; Jurgen C. van den Donker; Ellen C. Hopmans; Jaap S. Sinninghe Damsté (2007). "Environmental controls on bacterial tetraether membrane lipid distribution in soils".
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clues. Researchers use these clues to reveal what the climate and environment was like when the creatures died. The oxygen isotope ratios in their shells can also be used as proxies for temperature.
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period or year depends partly on the weather conditions of the previous months, hence pollen density provides information on short-term climatic conditions. The study of prehistoric pollen is
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Council, National Research; Studies, Division on Earth Life; Climate, Board on Atmospheric Sciences and; Committee On Surface Temperature Reconstructions For The Last 2, 000 Years (2006).
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Council, National Research; Studies, Division on Earth Life; Climate, Board on Atmospheric Sciences and; Committee On Surface Temperature Reconstructions For The Last 2, 000 Years (2006).
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rings, or bands, also share paleoclimatological information, similarly to tree rings. In 2002, a report was published on the findings of Drs. Lisa Greer and Peter Swart, associates of
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and climate history. The geographic distribution of proxy records, just like the instrumental record, is not at all uniform, with more records in the northern hemisphere.
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was taken in 1994 and dated back to 1935. Greer recalls her conclusions, "When we look at the averaged annual data from 1935 to about 1994, we see it has the shape of a
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at coordinates 72° 35' N, 37° 38' W. The ices in that core were 3840 years old at a depth of 770 m, 40,000 years old at 2521 m, and 200,000 years old or more at 3029 m
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has shown that for glacial-interglacial variations, a = 0.33 ‰/°C, implying that glacial-interglacial temperature changes were twice as large as previously believed.
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B. D. A. Naafs; M. Rohrssen; G. N. Inglis; O. Lähteenoja; S. J. Feakins; M. E. Collinson; E. M. Kennedy; P. K. Singh; M. P. Singh; D. J. Lunt; R. D. Pancost (2018).
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is sampled at locations corresponding to the known proxy network, and the temperature record produced is compared to the (known) overall temperature of the model.
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Shemesh, A.; Charles, C. D.; Fairbanks, R. G. (1992-06-05). "Oxygen Isotopes in Biogenic Silica: Global Changes in Ocean Temperature and Isotopic Composition".
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More than 600 boreholes, on all continents, have been used as proxies for reconstructing surface temperatures. The highest concentration of boreholes exist in
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Surface Temperature Reconstructions for the Last 2,000 Years (2006), pp 81,82 Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate (BASC), National Academy of Science,
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1182:; Ryan A. Moye; Kirk R. Johnson (9 January 2019). "No large bias within species between the reconstructed areas of complete and fragmented fossil leaves".
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The skill of algorithms used to combine proxy records into an overall hemispheric temperature reconstruction may be tested using a technique known as "
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A large number of climate proxies have been studied from a variety of geologic contexts. Examples of proxies include stable isotope measurements from
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are preserved physical characteristics of the past that stand in for direct meteorological measurements and enable scientists to reconstruct the
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Huang, Shaopeng, et al. "Temperature trends over the past five centuries reconstructed from borehole temperatures." Nature. 2009. 6 Oct. 2009.
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of coral. Cooler temperatures tend to cause coral to use heavier isotopes in its structure, while warmer temperatures result in more normal
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979:"What Are "Proxy" Data? | National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) formerly known as National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)"
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Dinoflagellates occur in most aquatic environments and during their life cycle, some species produce highly resistant organic-walled
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University of Bristol (30 July 2018). "Ever-increasing CO2 levels could take us back to the tropical climate of Paleogene period".
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2125:"Coral Layers Good Proxy for Atlantic Climate Cycles." Earth Observatory. Webmaster: Paul Przyborski. 7 Dec. 2002. 2 Nov. 2009.
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882:(GDGT) is helping to study paleo environmental factors, which control relative distribution of differently branched GDGT
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Environmental News Network staff. "Borehole temperatures confirm global warming." CNN.com. 17 Feb. 2000. 7 Oct. 2009.
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particular use in the study of the past climate, beyond times when direct measurements of temperatures are available.
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2169:"Paleoclimatology: the Oxygen Balance." Earth Observatory. Webmaster: Paul Przyborski. 24 Nov. 2009. 24 Nov. 2009.
2160:"Objectives – Kola Superdeep Borehole (KSDB) – IGCP 408: 'Rocks and Minerals at Great Depths and on the Surface.'"
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Bruckner, Monica. "Paleoclimatology: How Can We Infer Past Climates?" Microbial Life. 29 Sept. 2008. 23 Nov. 2009.
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Dendroclimatology is the science of determining past climates from trees, primarily from properties of the annual
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1893:"Burial-induced oxygen-isotope re-equilibration of fossil foraminifera explains ocean paleotemperature paradoxes"
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of bacteria (brGDGTs), helps to calculate mean annual air temperatures. This proxy method was used to study the
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In addition to oxygen isotopes, water contains hydrogen isotopes – H and H, usually referred to as H and D (for
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589:(deposited fine and coarse silt or clay) laminating lake sediments. Lake varves are primarily influenced by:
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1120:"Correlations of climate and plant ecology to leaf size and shape: potential proxies for the fossil record"
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Reconstructions of global temperature of the past 2000 years, using composite of different proxy methods
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2135:"Dendrochronology." Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Online. 2009. 2 Oct. 2009.
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Deuterium and oxygen 18 in precipitation: Modeling of the isotopic effects during snow formation,
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2150:"Growth ring." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009. 23 Oct. 2009.
2120:"Climate Change 2001: 2.3.2.1 Palaeoclimate proxy indicators." IPCC. 2003. Sept. 23, 2009.
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2110:"Borehole Temperatures Confirm Global Warming Pattern." UniSci. 27 Feb. 2001. 7 Oct. 2009.
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Mann, M. E.; Rutherford, S. (31 May 2002), "Climate reconstruction using 'Pseudoproxies'",
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Winter snowfall, which determines the level of disturbance to sediments when melting occurs
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1375:"Temperature trends over the past five centuries reconstructed from borehole temperatures"
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450:. Their depths of drilling typically range from 200 to greater than 1,000 meters into the
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2188:"Varve." Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster Online. 2009. 2 Nov. 2009.
1933:
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From 1989 to 1992, the European Greenland Ice Core Drilling Project drilled in central
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one needs to go to find elevated levels of the O isotopologue, the warmer the period.
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Preserved physical characteristics allowing reconstruction of past climatic conditions
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Bradley, R. S. and Jones, P. D. (eds) 1992: Climate since AD 1500. London: Routledge.
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Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, Volume 89, Issue D7, Pages 11589–11829
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This is empirically calibrated from measurements of temperature and δ as a = 0.67
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Summer temperature, which shows the energy available to melt seasonal snow and ice
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Environmental News Network staff. "Borehole temperatures confirm global warming."
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2001:"High temperatures in the terrestrial mid-latitudes during the early Palaeogene"
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2130:"Core Location Maps." National Ice Core Laboratory. 9 Apr. 2009. 23 Nov. 2009.
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Proxies can be combined to produce temperature reconstructions longer than the
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654:(VSMOW) the ratio of D to H is 155.76x10 and O-18 to O-16 is 2005.2x10.
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also tends to contain the heavier isotope. Greer's coral sample from the
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in Antarctica can reveal the climate records for the past 650,000 years.
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Bernard, S.; Daval, D.; Ackerer, P.; Pont, S.; Meibom, A. (2017-10-26).
811:{\textstyle \times \left({\frac {(/)}{(/)_{\mathrm {VSMOW} }}}-1\right)}
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variations in temperature and it was assumed that this corresponded to
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of 15 to 20 feet (6.1 m) long were not uncommon. Every subsequent
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1235:"New constraints on atmospheric CO2 concentration for the Phanerozoic"
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regions. First attempts of extraction occurred in 1956 as part of the
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Similar to their study on other proxies, paleoclimatologists examine
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composition that has a peak at about every twelve to fifteen years."
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amounts of the past 400 million years, the findings hint at a higher
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used an 80-foot (24 m)-long modified electrodrill in 1968 at
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in 40–50 minutes. From 1300 to 3,000 feet (910 m) in depth,
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1007:"Climate Change 2001: 2.3.2.1 Palaeoclimate proxy indicators."
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Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement
1707:"Climate Change 2001: 2.3.2.1 Palaeoclimate proxy indicators"
932:, the study of climate over human history (as opposed to the
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This article is about climatic patterns. For other uses, see
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Surface Temperature Reconstructions for the Last 2,000 Years
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Surface Temperature Reconstructions for the Last 2,000 Years
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U.S. Army's Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory
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History of the Australian Vegetation: Cretaceous to Recent
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Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change
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Maximum (LGM) based on dinoflagellate cyst assemblages".
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Tree rings seen in a cross section of a trunk of a tree.
307:, are also helpful in determining past climate changes.
2176:
Tree Rings: Basics and Application of Dendrochronology.
1028:"Borehole Temperatures Confirm Global Warming Pattern."
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Coral bleached due to changes in ocean water properties
1481:"Coral Layers Good Proxy for Atlantic Climate Cycles."
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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
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International Continental Scientific Drilling Program
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842:. The calibration was initially done on the basis of
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1727:"Paleoclimatology: How Can We Infer Past Climates?"
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503:being built into the coral structure. Denser water
333:drilling sites can be found on the website for the
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515:. It is periodic and has a significant pattern of
1876:Large Arctic temperature change at the Wisconsin–
532:Pollen can be found in sediments. Plants produce
396:concentrations. A 2014 study was able to use the
222:team improves their method with each new effort.
3702:Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
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1366:
1161:"Palaeobotanical evidence for Tertiary climates"
2145:"The GRIP Coring Effort." NCDC. 26 Sept. 2009.
1373:Pollack, H. N.; Huang, S.; Shen, P. Y. (2000).
392:and isotope composition, measuring cellular CO
2447:History of climate change policy and politics
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627:Water isotopes and temperature reconstruction
388:content of past atmospheres from fossil leaf
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214:and 10 to 20 feet (6.1 m) long. Deeper
70:in ocean sediments, temperature profiles of
2564:Atlantic meridional overturning circulation
1847:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1355:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
822:layer, we are left with a linear relation:
129:Ice Core sample taken from drill. Photo by
3783:
3771:
3530:
3519:
3238:
3224:
2973:
2960:
2533:
2520:
2432:
2326:
2313:
2265:
2249:
2235:
2227:
650:, i.e. hydrogen with an extra neutron. In
3329:Adaptation strategies on the German coast
2472:United Nations Climate Change conferences
2093:
2036:1983/82e93473-2a5d-4a6d-9ca1-da5ebf433d8b
1932:
1814:
1409:
1322:
1269:
1135:
775:
774:
758:
756:
747:
735:
733:
709:
707:
698:
686:
684:
674:
664:
365:Temperature record of the past 1000 years
3033:Co-benefits of climate change mitigation
2195:History of the atmosphere from ice cores
630:
74:, and stable isotopes and mineralogy of
25:
3389:National Adaptation Programme of Action
3178:Land use, land-use change, and forestry
1093:"Paleoclimatology: the Oxygen Balance."
970:
585:. Likewise, they measure the layers of
168:. As original means of extraction, the
3038:Economics of climate change mitigation
3001:Gold Standard (carbon offset standard)
2352:Scientific consensus on climate change
1840:
1348:
3697:Coupled Model Intercomparison Project
1547:Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
7:
3719:Representative Concentration Pathway
2670:Tipping points in the climate system
2346:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
2178:Dordrecht: 1988. 2, 47–8, 54, 256–7.
920:Carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere
880:glycerol dialkyl glycerol tetraether
866:A novel climate proxy obtained from
3490:Nationally determined contributions
3200:Individual action on climate change
2415:World energy supply and consumption
1081:Ice Cores and the Age of the Earth.
3629:Fixed anvil temperature hypothesis
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
642:O, with small amounts of HDO and H
295:in the ice, which contain trapped
270:decrease and falls more easily as
14:
3556:Satellite temperature measurement
3161:forestry for carbon sequestration
2452:History of climate change science
906:". In this method, output from a
3782:
3770:
3759:
3758:
3746:
3407:Climate Change Performance Index
652:Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water
242:for Vostok, Antarctica ice core.
34:In the study of past climates ("
3546:Instrumental temperature record
3497:Sustainable Development Goal 13
1958:Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta
1683:10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.09.022
1531:10.1016/j.quascirev.2004.06.014
892:climate of the early Palaeogene
433:instrumental temperature record
87:instrumental temperature record
3614:Climate variability and change
2655:Retreat of glaciers since 1850
1603:10.1016/j.marmicro.2008.01.008
851:
771:
767:
752:
744:
729:
726:
721:
718:
703:
695:
680:
677:
266:(O) condenses more readily as
246:The ratio between the O and O
166:International Geophysical Year
89:and can inform discussions of
1:
3724:Shared Socioeconomic Pathways
3259:Climate emergency declaration
2164:. 18 July 2006. 6 Oct. 2009.
1766:10.1126/science.256.5062.1434
1567:10.1016/S0034-6667(03)00118-0
3707:IPCC Sixth Assessment Report
2933:Middle East and North Africa
2185:New York: Praxis, 2007. 255.
2074:Geophysical Research Letters
1878:Holocene glacial transition,
1242:Geophysical Research Letters
335:National Ice Core Laboratory
329:and a complete list of U.S.
248:water molecule isotopologues
2174:Schweingruber, Fritz Hans.
1861:Jouzel and Merlivat, 1984)
1159:David R. Greenwood (1994),
874:, ancient peat) and soils,
850:variations. More recently,
454:of the Earth or ice sheet.
3832:
3541:Global surface temperature
3432:Popular culture depictions
3344:Ecosystem-based adaptation
3074:Carbon capture and storage
2996:Carbon offsets and credits
2212:Royal Society of Chemistry
1917:10.1038/s41467-017-01225-9
1663:Quaternary Science Reviews
1511:Quaternary Science Reviews
1124:American Journal of Botany
521:Surface water temperatures
491:at the time, in regard to
352:
135:Byrd Polar Research Center
100:
18:
3753:Climate change portal
3740:
3646:Extreme event attribution
3529:
3518:
3269:School Strike for Climate
3237:
3223:
3148:Climate-smart agriculture
2972:
2959:
2532:
2519:
2442:
2431:
2325:
2312:
2295:Climate change adaptation
2290:Climate change mitigation
2285:Effects of climate change
2275:
2264:
2028:10.1038/s41561-018-0199-0
1978:10.1016/j.gca.2006.10.003
1104:"The GRIP Coring Effort."
581:in the contents of ocean
557:Cyst of a dinoflagellate
3656:Global warming potential
3463:International agreements
3110:Preserving and enhancing
2554:Arctic methane emissions
2476:Years in climate change
2383:Greenhouse gas emissions
2280:Causes of climate change
2208:Chemical climate proxies
1731:Montana State University
1583:Marine Micropaleontology
1462:BOREHOLES IN GLACIAL ICE
573:Lake and ocean sediments
210:inches (110 mm) in
3687:Climate change scenario
3339:Disaster risk reduction
2991:Carbon emission trading
2801:U.S. insurance industry
2781:Civilizational collapse
2628:sea surface temperature
2197:; ERCA vol 4 pp 147–177
1079:Vardiman, Larry, Ph.D.
838:and 0.76 ‰/°C for East
638:Ocean water is mostly H
3680:Research and modelling
3364:Nature-based solutions
3184:Nature-based solutions
3126:Carbon dioxide removal
3043:Fossil fuel divestment
3028:Climate risk insurance
2938:Small island countries
2559:Arctic sea ice decline
930:Historical climatology
812:
635:
561:
493:stable oxygen isotopes
475:
350:
243:
138:
112:from earlier periods.
31:
3641:Earth's energy budget
3524:Background and theory
3412:Climate crisis (term)
3084:Fossil fuel phase-out
2978:Economics and finance
2943:by individual country
2885:By country and region
2860:Security and conflict
2855:Psychological impacts
2544:Abrupt climate change
2467:Charles David Keeling
2300:By country and region
1897:Nature Communications
1874:Cuffey et al., 1995,
1204:10.2110/palo.2018.091
1137:10.3732/ajb.92.7.1141
1062:"Core Location Maps."
813:
656:Isotope fractionation
634:
556:
473:
348:
233:
128:
29:
3470:Glasgow Climate Pact
3131:Carbon sequestration
2706:Mass mortality event
2193:Wolff, E. W. (2000)
2095:10.1029/2001GL014554
1880:Science 270: 455–458
1639:10.1029/2005PA001251
1262:10.1002/2014GL060457
852:borehole thermometry
663:
549:Dinoflagellate cysts
66:in lake sediment or
3609:Climate sensitivity
3384:The Adaptation Fund
2840:Infectious diseases
2747:Social and economic
2086:2002GeoRL..29.1501M
2080:(10): 139–1–139–4,
2020:2018NatGe..11..766N
1970:2007GeCoA..71..703W
1909:2017NatCo...8.1134B
1758:1992Sci...256.1434S
1752:(5062): 1434–1436.
1675:2014QSRv..105...86B
1631:2006PalOc..21.2010P
1595:2008MarMP..68...21P
1559:2004RPaPa.128..169R
1523:2005QSRv...24..897D
1394:2000Natur.403..756H
1254:2014GeoRL..41.4685F
1196:2019Palai..34...43H
646:O, where D denotes
489:University of Miami
409:climate sensitivity
146:cylindrical samples
60:species composition
44:climatic conditions
3180:(LULUCF and AFOLU)
3152:Forest management
3136:Direct air capture
3101:Sustainable energy
3058:Net zero emissions
3053:Low-carbon economy
3048:Green Climate Fund
2835:Indigenous peoples
2738:Plant biodiversity
2526:Effects and issues
2214:, January 23, 2013
1725:Bruckner, Monica.
1712:2009-12-04 at the
1486:2010-03-16 at the
1449:2009-10-29 at the
1067:2009-11-10 at the
1012:2009-12-04 at the
808:
636:
562:
476:
403:to estimate the CO
351:
260:snow accumulations
244:
139:
103:Proxy (statistics)
54:, growth rates in
32:
3798:
3797:
3736:
3735:
3732:
3731:
3671:Radiative forcing
3514:
3513:
3510:
3509:
3334:Adaptive capacity
3219:
3218:
3215:
3214:
3079:Energy transition
2955:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2675:Tropical cyclones
2601:Urban heat island
2515:
2514:
2427:
2426:
2423:
2422:
2388:Carbon accounting
2342:Greenhouse effect
2308:
2307:
2008:Nature Geoscience
1834:978-0-309-10225-4
1470:978-0-309-10225-4
1388:(6771): 756–758.
1342:978-0-309-10225-4
1289:on 12 August 2014
1248:(13): 4685–4694.
1231:David J. Beerling
1225:Peter J. Franks;
983:www.ncdc.noaa.gov
945:Paleotempestology
795:
559:Peridinium ovatum
497:calcium carbonate
355:Dendroclimatology
289:is for the ice.)
256:past temperatures
64:sub-fossil pollen
3823:
3816:Paleoceanography
3811:Paleoclimatology
3786:
3785:
3774:
3773:
3762:
3761:
3751:
3750:
3749:
3714:Paleoclimatology
3531:
3520:
3281:Ecological grief
3264:Climate movement
3239:
3225:
3205:Plant-based diet
3096:Renewable energy
2974:
2961:
2796:Economic impacts
2728:Invasive species
2584:Coastal flooding
2534:
2521:
2457:Svante Arrhenius
2433:
2403:from agriculture
2393:Carbon footprint
2378:Greenhouse gases
2327:
2314:
2266:
2251:
2244:
2237:
2228:
2099:
2098:
2097:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2054:
2048:
2047:
2005:
1996:
1990:
1989:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1936:
1888:
1882:
1872:
1866:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1846:
1838:
1818:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1741:
1735:
1734:
1722:
1716:
1704:
1698:
1693:
1687:
1686:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1619:Paleoceanography
1613:
1607:
1606:
1577:
1571:
1570:
1553:(1–2): 169–193.
1541:
1535:
1534:
1517:(7–9): 897–924.
1505:
1499:
1496:
1490:
1478:
1472:
1459:
1453:
1441:
1432:
1431:
1413:
1402:10.1038/35001556
1379:
1370:
1361:
1360:
1354:
1346:
1326:
1308:
1299:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1288:
1282:. Archived from
1273:
1239:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1156:
1150:
1149:
1139:
1130:(7): 1141–1151.
1112:
1106:
1101:
1095:
1090:
1084:
1077:
1071:
1059:
1050:
1043:
1030:
1025:
1016:
1004:
998:
997:
995:
994:
985:. Archived from
975:
950:Paleothermometer
925:Dendrochronology
817:
815:
814:
809:
807:
803:
796:
794:
793:
792:
791:
763:
762:
757:
751:
740:
739:
734:
724:
714:
713:
708:
702:
691:
690:
685:
675:
620:coccolithophores
415:concentrations.
297:greenhouse gases
254:helps determine
209:
208:
204:
201:
36:paleoclimatology
3831:
3830:
3826:
3825:
3824:
3822:
3821:
3820:
3801:
3800:
3799:
3794:
3747:
3745:
3728:
3675:
3666:Orbital forcing
3560:
3525:
3506:
3480:Paris Agreement
3458:
3454:Warming stripes
3393:
3359:Managed retreat
3354:Loss and damage
3315:
3249:Business action
3233:
3211:
3188:
3111:
3105:
3062:
3023:Climate finance
2968:
2947:
2879:
2742:
2718:Extinction risk
2694:Flora and fauna
2689:
2650:Permafrost thaw
2645:Ozone depletion
2574:Extreme weather
2528:
2511:
2438:
2419:
2356:
2321:
2304:
2271:
2260:
2255:
2224:
2204:
2181:Strom, Robert.
2107:
2105:Further reading
2102:
2071:
2070:
2066:
2056:
2055:
2051:
2014:(10): 766–771.
2003:
1998:
1997:
1993:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1890:
1889:
1885:
1873:
1869:
1860:
1856:
1839:
1835:
1816:10.1.1.178.5968
1802:
1801:
1797:
1743:
1742:
1738:
1724:
1723:
1719:
1714:Wayback Machine
1705:
1701:
1694:
1690:
1659:
1658:
1654:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1579:
1578:
1574:
1543:
1542:
1538:
1507:
1506:
1502:
1497:
1493:
1488:Wayback Machine
1479:
1475:
1460:
1456:
1451:Wayback Machine
1442:
1435:
1377:
1372:
1371:
1364:
1347:
1343:
1324:10.1.1.178.5968
1310:
1309:
1302:
1292:
1290:
1286:
1237:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1178:Eric R. Hagen;
1177:
1176:
1172:
1158:
1157:
1153:
1114:
1113:
1109:
1102:
1098:
1091:
1087:
1078:
1074:
1069:Wayback Machine
1060:
1053:
1045:Strom, Robert.
1044:
1033:
1026:
1019:
1014:Wayback Machine
1005:
1001:
992:
990:
977:
976:
972:
968:
916:
900:
876:membrane lipids
864:
862:Membrane lipids
770:
755:
732:
725:
706:
683:
676:
673:
669:
661:
660:
645:
641:
629:
579:oxygen isotopes
575:
551:
530:
501:oxygen isotopes
468:
421:
414:
406:
395:
386:
373:
357:
343:
241:
237:
228:
206:
202:
199:
197:
131:Lonnie Thompson
123:
118:
105:
99:
40:climate proxies
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3829:
3827:
3819:
3818:
3813:
3803:
3802:
3796:
3795:
3793:
3792:
3780:
3768:
3756:
3741:
3738:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3730:
3729:
3727:
3726:
3721:
3716:
3711:
3710:
3709:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3683:
3681:
3677:
3676:
3674:
3673:
3668:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3621:
3619:Cloud feedback
3616:
3611:
3606:
3601:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3574:
3568:
3566:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3537:
3535:
3527:
3526:
3523:
3516:
3515:
3512:
3511:
3508:
3507:
3505:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3493:
3492:
3487:
3477:
3475:Kyoto Protocol
3472:
3466:
3464:
3460:
3459:
3457:
3456:
3451:
3450:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3429:
3427:Media coverage
3424:
3419:
3417:Climate spiral
3414:
3409:
3403:
3401:
3395:
3394:
3392:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3325:
3323:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3306:Public opinion
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3272:
3271:
3261:
3256:
3254:Climate action
3251:
3245:
3243:
3235:
3234:
3228:
3221:
3220:
3217:
3216:
3213:
3212:
3210:
3209:
3208:
3207:
3196:
3194:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3186:
3181:
3175:
3174:
3173:
3168:
3166:REDD and REDD+
3163:
3158:
3150:
3145:
3143:Carbon farming
3140:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3123:
3117:
3115:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3087:
3086:
3076:
3070:
3068:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3004:
3003:
2993:
2988:
2982:
2980:
2970:
2969:
2964:
2957:
2956:
2953:
2952:
2949:
2948:
2946:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2895:
2889:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2878:
2877:
2875:Water security
2872:
2870:Water scarcity
2867:
2865:Urban flooding
2862:
2857:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2826:
2825:
2815:
2810:
2805:
2804:
2803:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2767:
2766:
2761:
2750:
2748:
2744:
2743:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2723:Forest dieback
2720:
2715:
2710:
2709:
2708:
2697:
2695:
2691:
2690:
2688:
2687:
2682:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2660:Sea level rise
2657:
2652:
2647:
2642:
2641:
2640:
2635:
2633:stratification
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2598:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2538:
2530:
2529:
2524:
2517:
2516:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2487:
2482:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2443:
2440:
2439:
2436:
2429:
2428:
2425:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2417:
2412:
2411:
2410:
2405:
2400:
2398:Carbon leakage
2395:
2390:
2380:
2375:
2370:
2364:
2362:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2354:
2349:
2339:
2337:Climate system
2333:
2331:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2310:
2309:
2306:
2305:
2303:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2282:
2276:
2273:
2272:
2269:
2262:
2261:
2258:Climate change
2256:
2254:
2253:
2246:
2239:
2231:
2222:
2221:
2215:
2203:
2202:External links
2200:
2199:
2198:
2191:
2186:
2179:
2172:
2167:
2158:
2153:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2133:
2128:
2123:
2118:
2113:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2100:
2064:
2049:
1991:
1964:(3): 703–713.
1948:
1883:
1867:
1854:
1833:
1825:10.17226/11676
1795:
1736:
1717:
1699:
1688:
1652:
1608:
1589:(1–2): 21–48.
1572:
1536:
1500:
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1473:
1454:
1433:
1362:
1341:
1333:10.17226/11676
1300:
1271:10211.3/200431
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947:
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927:
922:
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912:
899:
896:
863:
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628:
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517:oxygen isotope
509:Atlantic Ocean
467:
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420:
417:
412:
404:
401:isotope ratios
393:
384:
372:
369:
353:Main article:
342:
339:
301:carbon dioxide
262:. The heavier
239:
235:
227:
224:
162:North American
122:
119:
117:
114:
101:Main article:
98:
95:
91:global warming
78:and carbonate
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
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3:
2:
3828:
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3692:Climate model
3690:
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3624:Cloud forcing
3622:
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3404:
3402:
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3399:Communication
3396:
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3382:
3380:
3379:Vulnerability
3377:
3375:
3372:
3370:
3367:
3365:
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3357:
3355:
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3349:Flood control
3347:
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3327:
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3318:
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3171:reforestation
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3159:
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3156:afforestation
3154:
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3122:
3119:
3118:
3116:
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3099:
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3091:Nuclear power
3089:
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2989:
2987:
2986:Carbon budget
2984:
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2823:Mental health
2821:
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2764:United States
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2639:
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2618:deoxygenation
2616:
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2613:acidification
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2409:
2408:from wetlands
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2384:
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2368:Deforestation
2366:
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2240:
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2017:
2013:
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1625:(2): PA2010.
1624:
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1411:2027.42/62610
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1117:
1116:Dana L. Royer
1111:
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1022:
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1008:
1003:
1000:
989:on 2020-03-08
988:
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918:
917:
913:
911:
909:
908:climate model
905:
904:pseudoproxies
898:Pseudoproxies
897:
895:
893:
889:
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881:
877:
873:
869:
861:
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855:
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544:
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535:
528:Pollen grains
527:
525:
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514:
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502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
483:
480:
472:
465:
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449:
445:
444:North America
440:
436:
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430:
425:
418:
416:
410:
402:
399:
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387:
379:
371:Fossil leaves
370:
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323:
321:
317:
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298:
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279:
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272:precipitation
269:
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232:
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136:
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109:
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96:
94:
92:
88:
83:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
48:
45:
41:
37:
28:
22:
3787:
3775:
3763:
3744:
3577:Carbon cycle
3550:
3534:Measurements
3229:Society and
3113:carbon sinks
3018:Climate debt
3008:Carbon price
2830:Human rights
2665:Season creep
2623:heat content
2549:Anoxic event
2462:James Hansen
2223:
2194:
2182:
2175:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2059:ScienceDaily
2058:
2052:
2011:
2007:
1994:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1900:
1896:
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1875:
1870:
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1857:
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1798:
1749:
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1720:
1702:
1691:
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1622:
1618:
1611:
1586:
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1575:
1550:
1546:
1539:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1494:
1476:
1457:
1385:
1381:
1313:
1291:. Retrieved
1284:the original
1245:
1241:
1220:
1190:(1): 43–48.
1187:
1183:
1173:
1164:
1154:
1127:
1123:
1110:
1099:
1088:
1080:
1075:
1046:
1002:
991:. Retrieved
987:the original
982:
973:
901:
865:
856:
847:
843:
829:
826:δ O = aT + b
825:
824:
637:
612:radiolarians
608:foraminifera
602:
576:
563:
558:
531:
477:
460:
456:
441:
437:
422:
374:
358:
324:
309:
291:
280:
268:temperatures
245:
194:core samples
182:Byrd Station
174:Camp Century
148:from within
140:
110:
106:
84:
68:foraminifera
49:
39:
33:
3604:Carbon sink
3582:atmospheric
3447:video games
3121:Blue carbon
2754:Agriculture
2733:Marine life
2680:Water cycle
2638:temperature
2373:Fossil fuel
1903:(1): 1134.
888:methylation
659:δO = 1000‰
293:Air bubbles
80:speleothems
3805:Categories
3636:Cryosphere
3597:permafrost
3369:Resilience
3321:Adaptation
3296:Litigation
3286:Governance
3231:adaptation
3013:Carbon tax
2966:Mitigation
2903:Antarctica
2791:Disability
2183:Hot House.
1669:: 86–101.
1227:Dana Royer
1180:Dana Royer
1047:Hot House.
993:2017-10-12
966:References
960:Speleothem
955:Palynology
840:Antarctica
543:palynology
539:vegetation
378:taphonomic
361:tree rings
341:Tree rings
186:Antarctica
150:ice sheets
56:tree rings
3651:Feedbacks
3422:Education
2923:Caribbean
2918:Australia
2845:Migration
2808:Fisheries
2759:Livestock
2685:Wildfires
2591:Heat wave
2044:135045515
1925:2041-1723
1843:cite book
1811:CiteSeerX
1774:0036-8075
1647:1944-9186
1351:cite book
1319:CiteSeerX
1212:133599753
878:known as
836:Greenland
820:inversion
798:−
667:×
648:deuterium
616:ostracods
583:sediments
513:sine wave
419:Boreholes
398:carbon-13
325:Location
320:Ice cores
312:Greenland
283:deuterium
178:Greenland
158:Antarctic
154:Greenland
142:Ice cores
116:Ice cores
72:boreholes
52:ice cores
3777:Glossary
3765:Category
3587:biologic
3301:Politics
3193:Personal
2898:Americas
2771:Children
2537:Physical
2330:Overview
2270:Overview
1986:84677185
1943:29070888
1790:38840484
1782:17791613
1710:Archived
1696:"Varve."
1484:Archived
1447:Archived
1420:10693801
1280:55701037
1146:21646136
1065:Archived
1010:Archived
940:Ice core
914:See also
872:lignites
848:temporal
834:/°C for
599:Rainfall
505:salinity
485:skeletal
429:inverted
424:Borehole
331:ice core
299:such as
252:ice core
220:drilling
212:diameter
121:Drilling
3592:oceanic
3442:fiction
3291:Justice
3242:Society
2850:Poverty
2569:Drought
2437:History
2361:Sources
2082:Bibcode
2016:Bibcode
1966:Bibcode
1934:5656689
1905:Bibcode
1754:Bibcode
1746:Science
1671:Bibcode
1627:Bibcode
1591:Bibcode
1555:Bibcode
1519:Bibcode
1428:4425128
1390:Bibcode
1293:31 July
1250:Bibcode
1192:Bibcode
1184:PALAIOS
1167:: 44–59
1083:p. 9-13
884:isomers
844:spatial
604:Diatoms
495:in the
390:stomata
316:bedrock
305:methane
264:isotope
216:samples
205:⁄
152:in the
97:Proxies
3572:Albedo
3565:Theory
3276:Denial
3067:Energy
2928:Europe
2908:Arctic
2893:Africa
2818:Health
2813:Gender
2776:Cities
2701:Biomes
2608:Oceans
2596:Marine
2319:Causes
2042:
1984:
1941:
1931:
1923:
1831:
1813:
1788:
1780:
1772:
1645:
1468:
1426:
1418:
1382:Nature
1339:
1321:
1278:
1210:
1144:
1049:p. 255
618:, and
537:given
534:pollen
466:Corals
448:Europe
250:in an
238:and δD
180:, and
160:, and
76:corals
3789:Index
3551:Proxy
3311:Women
2786:Crime
2713:Birds
2579:Flood
2040:S2CID
2004:(PDF)
1982:S2CID
1786:S2CID
1424:S2CID
1378:(PDF)
1287:(PDF)
1276:S2CID
1238:(PDF)
1208:S2CID
934:Earth
587:varve
566:cysts
482:coral
479:Ocean
452:crust
411:to CO
276:north
226:Proxy
196:were
21:Proxy
3374:Risk
2913:Asia
2505:2024
2500:2023
2495:2022
2490:2021
2485:2020
2480:2019
1939:PMID
1921:ISSN
1849:link
1829:ISBN
1778:PMID
1770:ISSN
1643:ISSN
1466:ISBN
1416:PMID
1357:link
1337:ISBN
1295:2014
1142:PMID
868:peat
446:and
327:maps
303:and
258:and
234:δ18O
144:are
38:"),
3437:art
2210:at
2090:doi
2032:hdl
2024:doi
1974:doi
1929:PMC
1913:doi
1821:doi
1762:doi
1750:256
1679:doi
1667:105
1635:doi
1599:doi
1563:doi
1551:128
1527:doi
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