2280:
2382:
2272:
111:
2300:, so the number of points in the grid is typically a power of 2 (2, 4, 8, …), corresponding to the number of bits per symbol. The simplest and most commonly used QAM constellations consist of points arranged in a square, i.e. 16-QAM, 64-QAM and 256-QAM (even powers of two). Non-square constellations, such as Cross-QAM, can offer greater efficiency but are rarely used because of the cost of increased modem complexity.
4485:
1805:
521:
4495:
4474:
4505:
626:
47:
461:. The transmitted signal is created by adding the two carrier waves together. At the receiver, the two waves can be coherently separated (demodulated) because of their orthogonality. Another key property is that the modulations are low-frequency/low-bandwidth waveforms compared to the carrier frequency, which is known as the
1724:
1089:
872:
1816:
The addition of two sinusoids is a linear operation that creates no new frequency components. So the bandwidth of the composite signal is comparable to the bandwidth of the DSB (double-sideband) components. Effectively, the spectral redundancy of DSB enables a doubling of the information capacity
2175:
1390:
2330:
are required, it is more usual to move to QAM since it achieves a greater distance between adjacent points in the I-Q plane by distributing the points more evenly. The complicating factor is that the points are no longer all the same amplitude and so the
1405:
2460:
typically increases. There is a spreading of the spots in the constellation, decreasing the separation between adjacent states, making it difficult for the receiver to decode the signal appropriately. In other words, there is reduced
886:
672:
1817:
using this technique. This comes at the expense of demodulation complexity. In particular, a DSB signal has zero-crossings at a regular frequency, which makes it easy to recover the phase of the carrier sinusoid. It is said to be
2291:
is useful for QAM. In QAM, the constellation points are usually arranged in a square grid with equal vertical and horizontal spacing, although other configurations are possible (e.g. a hexagonal or triangular grid). In digital
502:
size, limited only by the noise level and linearity of the communications channel. QAM is being used in optical fiber systems as bit rates increase; QAM16 and QAM64 can be optically emulated with a three-path
1915:
2420:
technology for copper twisted pairs, whose constellation size goes up to 32768-QAM (in ADSL terminology this is referred to as bit-loading, or bit per tone, 32768-QAM being equivalent to 15 bits per tone).
1156:
2319:
and so higher-order QAM can deliver more data less reliably than lower-order QAM, for constant mean constellation energy. Using higher-order QAM without increasing the bit error rate requires a higher
1867:
systems, where the I- and Q-signals carry the components of chroma (colour) information. The QAM carrier phase is recovered from a special colorburst transmitted at the beginning of each scan line.
1410:
2770:
2311:. However, if the mean energy of the constellation is to remain the same (by way of making a fair comparison), the points must be closer together and are thus more susceptible to
2465:
immunity. There are several test parameter measurements which help determine an optimal QAM mode for a specific operating environment. The following three are most significant:
2202:
65:
475:(digital PSK) can be regarded as a special case of QAM, where the amplitude of the transmitted signal is a constant, but its phase varies. This can also be extended to
542:
1719:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}r(t)&={\tfrac {1}{2}}I(t)\left-{\tfrac {1}{2}}Q(t)\sin(4\pi f_{c}t)\\&={\tfrac {1}{2}}I(t)+{\tfrac {1}{2}}\left.\end{aligned}}}
1821:. But the sender and receiver of a quadrature-modulated signal must share a clock or otherwise send a clock signal. If the clock phases drift apart, the demodulated
1084:{\displaystyle s_{c}(t)\triangleq \cos(2\pi f_{c}t)I(t)\ +\ \underbrace {\cos \left(2\pi f_{c}t+{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}\right)} _{-\sin \left(2\pi f_{c}t\right)}\;Q(t),}
393:
867:{\displaystyle s_{s}(t)\triangleq \sin(2\pi f_{c}t)I(t)\ +\ \underbrace {\sin \left(2\pi f_{c}t+{\tfrac {\pi }{2}}\right)} _{\cos \left(2\pi f_{c}t\right)}\;Q(t),}
2363:
4457:
4429:
4424:
3449:
2763:
2611:
357:
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3197:
2733:
2638:
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4451:
2500:
593:
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4436:
4416:
4218:
3227:
2728:
565:
2170:{\displaystyle s_{c}(t)_{+}={\tfrac {1}{2}}e^{i2\pi f_{c}t}\quad {\stackrel {\mathcal {F}}{\Longrightarrow }}\quad {\tfrac {1}{2}}\left,}
4441:
4287:
386:
302:
1833:. In this context, the clock signal is called a "phase reference". Clock synchronization is typically achieved by transmitting a burst
1385:{\displaystyle r(t)\triangleq s_{c}(t)\cos(2\pi f_{c}t)=I(t)\cos(2\pi f_{c}t)\cos(2\pi f_{c}t)-Q(t)\sin(2\pi f_{c}t)\cos(2\pi f_{c}t).}
572:
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281:
83:
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showing that the in-phase component can be received independently of the quadrature component. Similarly, we can multiply
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276:
190:
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379:
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2612:
http://www.homeplug.org/media/filer_public/a1/46/a1464318-f5df-46c5-89dc-7243d8ccfcee/homeplug_av2_whitepaper_150907.pdf
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636:
In a QAM signal, one carrier lags the other by 90°, and its amplitude modulation is customarily referred to as the
332:
152:
550:
535:
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3514:
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2639:
http://www.trangosys.com/products/point-to-point-wireless-backhaul/licensed-wireless/trangolink-apex-orion.shtml
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35:
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3286:
3187:
3147:
2692:
Jonqyin (Russell) Sun "Linear diversity analysis for QAM in Rician fading channels", IEEE WOCC 2014
2390:
2252:
This result represents the sum of two DSB-SC signals with the same center frequency. The factor of
495:
220:
4292:
4249:
4180:
4050:
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2354:
applications. In the United States, 64-QAM and 256-QAM are the mandated modulation schemes for
17:
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3000:
1864:
1117:
468:
458:
327:
322:
147:
137:
31:
2393:
usually employ very dense QAM constellations. For example, current
Homeplug AV2 500-Mbit/s
110:
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3820:
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3365:
3257:
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1729:
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3563:
2748:
2626:
section 8.6.3 Constellation mapper - maximum number of bits per constellation BIMAX ≤ 15
4163:
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504:
449:(AM) analog modulation scheme. The two carrier waves are of the same frequency and are
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2557:
2440:
In moving to a higher order QAM constellation (higher data rate and mode) in hostile
2375:
2355:
2347:
2336:
2308:
454:
2723:
2602:, dwdm mux demux, 90 degree optical hybrid, d(q) psk demodulatorssingle polarization
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450:
438:
367:
307:
286:
2424:
Ultra-high capacity microwave backhaul systems also use 1024-QAM. With 1024-QAM,
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3380:
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520:
425:
to transmit information. It conveys two analog message signals, or two digital
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102:
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2743:
Simulation of dual-polarization QPSK (DP-QPSK) for 100G optical transmission
2527:
2445:
2359:
2340:
2263:
represents the 90° phase shift that enables their individual demodulations.
1874:
1830:
434:
312:
2303:
By moving to a higher-order constellation, it is possible to transmit more
4375:
4365:
4282:
4107:
3930:
3167:
3035:
2885:
99:
483:(FSK), for these can be regarded as a special case of phase modulation.
4370:
4355:
2940:
2432:, vendors can obtain gigabit capacity in a single 56 MHz channel.
625:
4400:
4360:
3682:
3474:
3427:
2915:
2283:
Constellation points for 4-QAM, 16-QAM, 32-QAM, and 64-QAM overlapped
1870:
1809:
1121:
491:
2397:
devices use 1024-QAM and 4096-QAM, as well as future devices using
4385:
4322:
3630:
3081:
2945:
2935:
2930:
2653:"Hitless Space Diversity STL Enables IP+Audio in Narrow STL Bands"
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2752:
30:"QAM" redirects here. For the digital television standard, see
3573:
2925:
2389:
Communication systems designed to achieve very high levels of
2304:
1860:
514:
40:
2718:
Interactive webdemo of QAM constellation with additive noise
2592:
2323:(SNR) by increasing signal energy, reducing noise, or both.
2189:
2036:
2660:
2005 National
Association of Broadcasters Annual Convention
2572:"Ciena tests 200G via 16-QAM with Japan-U.S. Cable Network"
486:
QAM is used extensively as a modulation scheme for digital
1812:(dotted blue) functions are sinusoids of different phases.
2416:); 4096-QAM provides 12 bits/symbol. Another example is
2385:
Bit-loading (bits per QAM constellation) on an ADSL line
666:
So the composite waveform is mathematically modeled as:
2724:
QAM bit error rate for AWGN channel – online experiment
2720:
61:
2046:
1949:
1599:
1572:
1507:
1433:
1120:
multiplies the received signal separately with both a
1002:
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1918:
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3126:
3100:
3069:
2954:
2903:
2789:
2404:
standard for networking over existing home wiring (
1791:by a sine wave and then low-pass filter to extract
1116:is the carrier frequency. At the receiver, a
56:
may be too technical for most readers to understand
2196:
2169:
1718:
1384:
1083:
866:
1877:radio to carry the stereo difference information.
2315:and other corruption; this results in a higher
498:can be achieved with QAM by setting a suitable
3443:
2764:
2624:http://www.itu.int/rec/T-REC-G.992.3-200904-I
1742:removes the high frequency terms (containing
453:with each other by 90°, a condition known as
387:
8:
1766:term. This filtered signal is unaffected by
1128:signal to produce the received estimates of
4458:Global telecommunications regulation bodies
2519:for other examples of modulation techniques
2287:As in many digital modulation schemes, the
549:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
4494:
3450:
3436:
3428:
2771:
2757:
2749:
2729:How imperfections affect QAM constellation
2378:) whilst 256-QAM is used for Freeview-HD.
1065:
848:
394:
380:
95:
2448:QAM application environments, such as in
2188:
2187:
2185:
2150:
2126:
2125:
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2108:
2092:
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2062:
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1964:
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1049:
1024:
1001:
989:
965:
931:
894:
888:
832:
810:
787:
775:
751:
717:
680:
674:
613:Learn how and when to remove this message
84:Learn how and when to remove this message
68:, without removing the technical details.
3198:Output power of an analog TV transmitter
2326:If data rates beyond those offered by 8-
1829:signals bleed into each other, yielding
2545:
1808:The graphs of the sine (solid red) and
294:
261:
238:
160:
117:
98:
2634:
2632:
2556:. Barnard Microsystems. Archived from
2501:Carrierless amplitude phase modulation
1845:, for example, is included within its
629:Analog QAM: PAL color bar signal on a
3228:Direct-broadcast satellite television
2346:64-QAM and 256-QAM are often used in
651:The other modulating function is the
66:make it understandable to non-experts
7:
4504:
1896:, the positive-frequency portion of
880:
547:adding citations to reliable sources
27:Family of digital modulation methods
3118:Vestigial sideband modulation (VSB)
2700:Digital Communications, 3rd Edition
2651:Howard Friedenberg and Sunil Naik.
2275:Digital 16-QAM with example symbols
2204:denotes the Fourier transform, and
445:(ASK) digital modulation scheme or
2512:In-phase and quadrature components
2507:Circle packing § Applications
494:Wi-Fi standards. Arbitrarily high
25:
2554:"Digital Modulation Efficiencies"
562:"Quadrature amplitude modulation"
4503:
4493:
4484:
4483:
4472:
4093:Free-space optical communication
2491:Amplitude and phase-shift keying
2370:. In the UK, 64-QAM is used for
519:
417:methods and a related family of
109:
45:
3113:Quadrature amplitude modulation
2335:must now correctly detect both
2044:
2025:
407:Quadrature amplitude modulation
18:Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
3277:Television channel frequencies
2426:adaptive coding and modulation
2372:digital terrestrial television
2197:{\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}}
2156:
2137:
2098:
2079:
2030:
2022:
2019:
2013:
2001:
1995:
1989:
1936:
1929:
1892:
1873:("Compatible QAM") is used in
1701:
1679:
1670:
1664:
1655:
1633:
1624:
1618:
1592:
1586:
1558:
1536:
1527:
1521:
1495:
1473:
1453:
1447:
1422:
1416:
1376:
1354:
1345:
1323:
1314:
1308:
1299:
1277:
1268:
1246:
1237:
1231:
1222:
1200:
1191:
1185:
1169:
1163:
1075:
1069:
952:
946:
940:
918:
906:
900:
858:
852:
738:
732:
726:
704:
692:
686:
421:methods widely used in modern
1:
3248:Digital television transition
3077:Multichannel television sound
2495:asymmetric phase-shift keying
413:) is the name of a family of
4479:Telecommunication portal
4260:Telecommunications equipment
3320:Field strength in free space
3021:Horizontal blanking interval
3996:Alexander Stepanovich Popov
3218:Superheterodyne transmitter
2574:. lightwave. April 17, 2014
4551:
3700:Telecommunications history
3056:Vertical blanking interval
2343:, rather than just phase.
1841:. The phase reference for
303:Capacity-approaching codes
29:
4467:
4308:Public Switched Telephone
4120:telecommunication circuit
4081:Fiber-optic communication
3826:Francis Blake (telephone)
3621:Optical telecommunication
3031:Nominal analogue blanking
2362:) as standardised by the
4219:Orbital angular-momentum
3656:Satellite communications
3495:Communications satellite
2738:Herley General Microwave
2734:Microwave Phase Shifters
2480:Threshold-to-noise ratio
1399:, we can write this as:
1397:trigonometric identities
4098:Molecular communication
3921:Gardiner Greene Hubbard
3750:Undersea telegraph line
3485:Cable protection system
3350:Television interference
3223:Television receive-only
2614:Homeplug_AV2 whitepaper
1907:analytic representation
1852:Analog QAM is used in:
240:Hierarchical modulation
4530:Radio modulation modes
4240:Communication protocol
4026:Charles Sumner Tainter
3841:Walter Houser Brattain
3786:Edwin Howard Armstrong
3594:Information revolution
3272:Microwave transmission
3238:Terrestrial television
3233:Television transmitter
3193:Intermediate frequency
2986:Chrominance subcarrier
2598:July 13, 2011, at the
2476:Carrier-to-noise ratio
2458:multipath interference
2436:Interference and noise
2386:
2284:
2276:
2230:are the transforms of
2198:
2171:
1813:
1720:
1386:
1085:
868:
633:
488:communications systems
481:frequency-shift keying
443:amplitude-shift keying
34:. For other uses, see
4214:Polarization-division
3946:Narinder Singh Kapany
3911:Erna Schneider Hoover
3831:Jagadish Chandra Bose
3811:Alexander Graham Bell
3542:online video platform
3144:Broadcast transmitter
2384:
2321:signal-to-noise ratio
2289:constellation diagram
2282:
2274:
2199:
2172:
1807:
1721:
1387:
1086:
869:
628:
496:spectral efficiencies
463:narrowband assumption
4056:Vladimir K. Zworykin
4016:Almon Brown Strowger
3986:Charles Grafton Page
3641:Prepaid mobile phone
3569:Electrical telegraph
3386:Zero reference pulse
3371:Field strength meter
3108:Frequency modulation
3016:Horizontal scan rate
2296:the data is usually
2184:
1916:
1890:to the sinusoids in
1755:), leaving only the
1406:
1157:
1118:coherent demodulator
887:
673:
653:quadrature component
543:improve this section
477:frequency modulation
447:amplitude modulation
36:QAM (disambiguation)
4006:Johann Philipp Reis
3765:Wireless revolution
3727:The Telephone Cases
3584:Hydraulic telegraph
3325:Noise (electronics)
3188:Intercarrier method
3148:Transmitter station
2783:broadcasting topics
2472:/interference ratio
2391:spectral efficiency
4204:Frequency-division
4181:Telephone exchange
4051:Charles Wheatstone
3981:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
3956:Innocenzo Manzetti
3891:Reginald Fessenden
3626:Optical telegraphy
3459:Telecommunications
3213:Split sound system
3163:Differential phase
2523:Phase-shift keying
2454:telecommunications
2395:powerline Ethernet
2387:
2294:telecommunications
2285:
2277:
2194:
2167:
2055:
1958:
1814:
1730:Low-pass filtering
1716:
1714:
1608:
1581:
1516:
1442:
1382:
1081:
1064:
1022:
1011:
864:
847:
808:
797:
638:in-phase component
634:
473:phase-shift keying
423:telecommunications
415:digital modulation
162:Digital modulation
4535:Data transmission
4517:
4516:
4255:Store and forward
4250:Data transmission
4164:Network switching
4115:Transmission line
3961:Guglielmo Marconi
3926:Internet pioneers
3791:Mohamed M. Atalla
3760:Whistled language
3425:
3424:
3340:Radiation pattern
3158:Differential gain
2780:Analog television
2669:on March 23, 2006
2534:Random modulation
2368:ANSI/SCTE 07 2013
2134:
2076:
2071:
2054:
2041:
1957:
1607:
1580:
1515:
1441:
1105:
1104:
1010:
966:
964:
963:
957:
796:
752:
750:
749:
743:
623:
622:
615:
597:
419:analog modulation
404:
403:
119:Analog modulation
94:
93:
86:
16:(Redirected from
4542:
4507:
4506:
4497:
4496:
4487:
4486:
4477:
4476:
4475:
4348:Notable networks
4338:Wireless network
4278:Cellular network
4270:Types of network
4245:Computer network
4132:Network topology
4046:Thomas A. Watson
3901:Oliver Heaviside
3886:Philo Farnsworth
3861:Daniel Davis Jr.
3836:Charles Bourseul
3796:John Logie Baird
3505:Data compression
3500:Computer network
3452:
3445:
3438:
3429:
3267:Frequency offset
3208:Residual carrier
3153:Cavity amplifier
3051:Television lines
2773:
2766:
2759:
2750:
2713:QAM Demodulation
2679:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2668:
2662:. Archived from
2657:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2627:
2621:
2615:
2609:
2603:
2590:
2584:
2583:
2581:
2579:
2568:
2562:
2561:
2550:
2366:in the standard
2262:
2251:
2240:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2226:
2223:
2216:
2215:
2214:
2213:
2210:
2203:
2201:
2200:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2176:
2174:
2173:
2168:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2154:
2136:
2135:
2127:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2097:
2096:
2078:
2077:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2056:
2047:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2039:
2033:
2028:
1988:
1987:
1983:
1982:
1959:
1950:
1944:
1943:
1928:
1927:
1904:
1882:Fourier analysis
1865:color television
1801:
1790:
1776:
1765:
1754:
1741:
1725:
1723:
1722:
1717:
1715:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1696:
1651:
1650:
1609:
1600:
1582:
1573:
1564:
1554:
1553:
1517:
1508:
1502:
1498:
1491:
1490:
1443:
1434:
1391:
1389:
1388:
1383:
1372:
1371:
1341:
1340:
1295:
1294:
1264:
1263:
1218:
1217:
1184:
1183:
1149:
1138:
1115:
1099:
1090:
1088:
1087:
1082:
1063:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1053:
1023:
1018:
1017:
1013:
1012:
1003:
994:
993:
961:
955:
936:
935:
899:
898:
881:
873:
871:
870:
865:
846:
845:
841:
837:
836:
809:
804:
803:
799:
798:
789:
780:
779:
747:
741:
722:
721:
685:
684:
665:
650:
618:
611:
607:
604:
598:
596:
555:
523:
515:
471:(analog PM) and
469:Phase modulation
396:
389:
382:
113:
96:
89:
82:
78:
75:
69:
49:
48:
41:
32:QAM (television)
21:
4550:
4549:
4545:
4544:
4543:
4541:
4540:
4539:
4520:
4519:
4518:
4513:
4473:
4471:
4463:
4405:
4342:
4264:
4228:
4185:
4134:
4126:
4067:
4060:
3966:Robert Metcalfe
3821:Tim Berners-Lee
3769:
3589:Information Age
3461:
3456:
3426:
3421:
3390:
3366:Distortionmeter
3354:
3291:
3252:
3183:Frequency mixer
3139:Antenna (radio)
3122:
3096:
3065:
3006:Composite video
2950:
2899:
2785:
2777:
2747:
2709:
2696:John G. Proakis
2688:
2686:Further reading
2683:
2682:
2672:
2670:
2666:
2655:
2650:
2649:
2645:
2637:
2630:
2622:
2618:
2610:
2606:
2600:Wayback Machine
2591:
2587:
2577:
2575:
2570:
2569:
2565:
2552:
2551:
2547:
2542:
2487:
2438:
2350:television and
2269:
2253:
2242:
2231:
2224:
2221:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2211:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2205:
2182:
2181:
2146:
2104:
2088:
2065:
2061:
2057:
1974:
1960:
1935:
1919:
1914:
1913:
1903:
1897:
1888:Euler's formula
1884:
1792:
1784:
1778:
1767:
1756:
1750:
1743:
1732:
1713:
1712:
1688:
1642:
1614:
1610:
1562:
1561:
1545:
1482:
1460:
1456:
1425:
1404:
1403:
1395:Using standard
1363:
1332:
1286:
1255:
1209:
1175:
1155:
1154:
1150:. For example:
1140:
1129:
1114:
1108:
1097:
1045:
1038:
1034:
985:
978:
974:
967:
927:
890:
885:
884:
828:
821:
817:
771:
764:
760:
753:
713:
676:
671:
670:
656:
641:
619:
608:
602:
599:
556:
554:
540:
524:
513:
429:, by changing (
400:
263:Spread spectrum
90:
79:
73:
70:
62:help improve it
59:
50:
46:
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4548:
4546:
4538:
4537:
4532:
4522:
4521:
4515:
4514:
4512:
4511:
4501:
4491:
4481:
4468:
4465:
4464:
4462:
4461:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4439:
4434:
4433:
4432:
4427:
4419:
4413:
4411:
4407:
4406:
4404:
4403:
4398:
4393:
4388:
4383:
4378:
4373:
4368:
4363:
4358:
4352:
4350:
4344:
4343:
4341:
4340:
4335:
4330:
4325:
4320:
4315:
4310:
4305:
4300:
4295:
4290:
4285:
4280:
4274:
4272:
4266:
4265:
4263:
4262:
4257:
4252:
4247:
4242:
4236:
4234:
4230:
4229:
4227:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4199:Space-division
4195:
4193:
4187:
4186:
4184:
4183:
4178:
4177:
4176:
4171:
4161:
4160:
4159:
4149:
4144:
4138:
4136:
4128:
4127:
4125:
4124:
4123:
4122:
4112:
4111:
4110:
4100:
4095:
4090:
4089:
4088:
4078:
4072:
4070:
4062:
4061:
4059:
4058:
4053:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4036:Camille Tissot
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4011:Claude Shannon
4008:
4003:
4001:Tivadar Puskás
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3971:Antonio Meucci
3968:
3963:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3941:Charles K. Kao
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3916:Harold Hopkins
3913:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3893:
3888:
3883:
3878:
3873:
3868:
3863:
3858:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3838:
3833:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3816:Emile Berliner
3813:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3777:
3775:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3755:Videotelephony
3752:
3747:
3746:
3745:
3740:
3730:
3723:
3718:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3685:
3680:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3658:
3653:
3651:Radiotelephone
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3617:
3616:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3555:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3539:
3537:Internet video
3529:
3528:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3471:
3469:
3463:
3462:
3457:
3455:
3454:
3447:
3440:
3432:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3419:
3414:
3409:
3404:
3398:
3396:
3392:
3391:
3389:
3388:
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3362:
3360:
3356:
3355:
3353:
3352:
3347:
3342:
3337:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3301:
3299:
3293:
3292:
3290:
3289:
3284:
3279:
3274:
3269:
3263:
3261:
3254:
3253:
3251:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3173:Dipole antenna
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3141:
3136:
3130:
3128:
3124:
3123:
3121:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3104:
3102:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3089:
3087:Sound-in-Syncs
3084:
3079:
3073:
3071:
3067:
3066:
3064:
3063:
3058:
3053:
3048:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2978:
2976:Blanking level
2973:
2968:
2958:
2956:
2952:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2923:
2918:
2913:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2883:
2841:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2795:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2778:
2776:
2775:
2768:
2761:
2753:
2746:
2745:
2740:
2731:
2726:
2721:
2715:
2708:
2707:External links
2705:
2704:
2703:
2693:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2681:
2680:
2643:
2628:
2616:
2604:
2593:Kylia products
2585:
2563:
2560:on 2011-04-30.
2544:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2537:
2536:
2531:
2525:
2520:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2498:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2478:
2473:
2437:
2434:
2317:bit error rate
2268:
2265:
2191:
2178:
2177:
2166:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2142:
2139:
2133:
2130:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2100:
2095:
2091:
2087:
2084:
2081:
2075:
2068:
2060:
2053:
2050:
2038:
2032:
2024:
2021:
2018:
2015:
2012:
2009:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1997:
1994:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1970:
1967:
1963:
1956:
1953:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1931:
1926:
1922:
1901:
1883:
1880:
1879:
1878:
1868:
1782:
1748:
1727:
1726:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1684:
1681:
1678:
1675:
1672:
1669:
1666:
1663:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1638:
1635:
1632:
1629:
1626:
1623:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1606:
1603:
1597:
1594:
1591:
1588:
1585:
1579:
1576:
1570:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1557:
1552:
1548:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1523:
1520:
1514:
1511:
1505:
1501:
1497:
1494:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1440:
1437:
1431:
1428:
1426:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1393:
1392:
1381:
1378:
1375:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1359:
1356:
1353:
1350:
1347:
1344:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1322:
1319:
1316:
1313:
1310:
1307:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1251:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1227:
1224:
1221:
1216:
1212:
1208:
1205:
1202:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1112:
1103:
1102:
1093:
1091:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1061:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1030:
1027:
1021:
1016:
1009:
1006:
1000:
997:
992:
988:
984:
981:
977:
973:
970:
960:
954:
951:
948:
945:
942:
939:
934:
930:
926:
923:
920:
917:
914:
911:
908:
905:
902:
897:
893:
879:
878:
874:
863:
860:
857:
854:
851:
844:
840:
835:
831:
827:
824:
820:
816:
813:
807:
802:
795:
792:
786:
783:
778:
774:
770:
767:
763:
759:
756:
746:
740:
737:
734:
731:
728:
725:
720:
716:
712:
709:
706:
703:
700:
697:
694:
691:
688:
683:
679:
621:
620:
527:
525:
518:
512:
509:
505:interferometer
402:
401:
399:
398:
391:
384:
376:
373:
372:
371:
370:
365:
360:
355:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
315:
310:
305:
297:
296:
292:
291:
290:
289:
284:
279:
274:
266:
265:
259:
258:
257:
256:
251:
243:
242:
236:
235:
234:
233:
228:
223:
218:
213:
208:
203:
198:
193:
188:
183:
178:
173:
165:
164:
158:
157:
156:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
122:
121:
115:
114:
106:
105:
92:
91:
53:
51:
44:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4547:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4527:
4525:
4510:
4502:
4500:
4492:
4490:
4482:
4480:
4470:
4469:
4466:
4459:
4455:
4453:
4450:
4448:
4445:
4443:
4440:
4438:
4435:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4422:
4420:
4418:
4415:
4414:
4412:
4408:
4402:
4399:
4397:
4394:
4392:
4389:
4387:
4384:
4382:
4379:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4369:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4349:
4345:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4331:
4329:
4326:
4324:
4321:
4319:
4316:
4314:
4311:
4309:
4306:
4304:
4301:
4299:
4296:
4294:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4275:
4273:
4271:
4267:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4251:
4248:
4246:
4243:
4241:
4238:
4237:
4235:
4231:
4225:
4224:Code-division
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4209:Time-division
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4196:
4194:
4192:
4188:
4182:
4179:
4175:
4172:
4170:
4167:
4166:
4165:
4162:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4139:
4137:
4135:and switching
4133:
4129:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4116:
4113:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4101:
4099:
4096:
4094:
4091:
4087:
4086:optical fiber
4084:
4083:
4082:
4079:
4077:
4076:Coaxial cable
4074:
4073:
4071:
4069:
4063:
4057:
4054:
4052:
4049:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3991:Radia Perlman
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3881:Lee de Forest
3879:
3877:
3876:Thomas Edison
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3866:Donald Davies
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3851:Claude Chappe
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3778:
3776:
3772:
3766:
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3735:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3728:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3695:Smoke signals
3693:
3689:
3686:
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3673:Semiconductor
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3532:Digital media
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3068:
3062:
3061:White clipper
3059:
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3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
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3024:
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3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3011:Frame (video)
3009:
3007:
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2999:
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2989:
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2906:
2904:Color systems
2902:
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2447:
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2435:
2433:
2431:
2427:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2406:coaxial cable
2403:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2383:
2379:
2377:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2361:
2357:
2356:digital cable
2353:
2349:
2348:digital cable
2344:
2342:
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2334:
2329:
2324:
2322:
2318:
2314:
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2128:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2093:
2089:
2085:
2082:
2073:
2066:
2058:
2051:
2048:
2016:
2010:
2007:
2004:
1998:
1992:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1951:
1945:
1940:
1932:
1924:
1920:
1912:
1911:
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1855:
1854:
1853:
1850:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1819:self-clocking
1811:
1806:
1802:
1799:
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1788:
1781:
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1763:
1759:
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1234:
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1132:
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1123:
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1004:
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990:
986:
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979:
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968:
958:
949:
943:
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932:
928:
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921:
915:
912:
909:
903:
895:
891:
883:
882:
877:
861:
855:
849:
842:
838:
833:
829:
825:
822:
818:
814:
811:
805:
800:
793:
790:
784:
781:
776:
772:
768:
765:
761:
757:
754:
744:
735:
729:
723:
718:
714:
710:
707:
701:
698:
695:
689:
681:
677:
669:
668:
667:
663:
659:
654:
648:
644:
640:, denoted by
639:
632:
627:
617:
614:
606:
603:December 2018
595:
592:
588:
585:
581:
578:
574:
571:
567:
564: –
563:
559:
558:Find sources:
552:
548:
544:
538:
537:
533:
528:This section
526:
522:
517:
516:
510:
508:
506:
501:
500:constellation
497:
493:
490:, such as in
489:
484:
482:
478:
474:
470:
466:
464:
460:
456:
455:orthogonality
452:
448:
444:
440:
439:carrier waves
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
408:
397:
392:
390:
385:
383:
378:
377:
375:
374:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
304:
301:
300:
299:
298:
293:
288:
285:
283:
280:
278:
275:
273:
270:
269:
268:
267:
264:
260:
255:
252:
250:
247:
246:
245:
244:
241:
237:
232:
229:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
212:
209:
207:
204:
202:
199:
197:
194:
192:
189:
187:
184:
182:
179:
177:
174:
172:
169:
168:
167:
166:
163:
159:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
125:
124:
123:
120:
116:
112:
108:
107:
104:
101:
97:
88:
85:
77:
67:
63:
57:
54:This article
52:
43:
42:
37:
33:
19:
4191:Multiplexing
4066:Transmission
4031:Nikola Tesla
4021:Henry Sutton
3976:Samuel Morse
3906:Robert Hooke
3871:Amos Dolbear
3806:John Bardeen
3725:
3705:Telautograph
3609:Mobile phone
3564:Edholm's law
3547:social media
3480:Broadcasting
3412:Hanover bars
3203:Pre-emphasis
3127:Transmission
3112:
3092:Zweikanalton
2996:Color killer
2921:Clear-Vision
2736:Overview by
2699:
2695:
2671:. Retrieved
2664:the original
2659:
2646:
2641:A Apex Orion
2619:
2607:
2588:
2576:. Retrieved
2566:
2558:the original
2548:
2450:broadcasting
2439:
2423:
2388:
2345:
2325:
2302:
2286:
2258:
2254:
2247:
2243:
2236:
2232:
2179:
1898:
1891:
1885:
1851:
1839:pilot signal
1826:
1822:
1815:
1797:
1793:
1786:
1779:
1772:
1768:
1761:
1757:
1751:
1745:
1737:
1733:
1728:
1394:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1130:
1109:
1106:
1095:
875:
661:
657:
646:
642:
635:
609:
600:
590:
583:
576:
569:
557:
541:Please help
529:
511:Demodulation
485:
467:
451:out of phase
441:, using the
430:
410:
406:
405:
368:Multiplexing
308:Demodulation
248:
215:
142:
80:
71:
55:
4391:NPL network
4103:Radio waves
4041:Alfred Vail
3951:Hedy Lamarr
3936:Dawon Kahng
3896:Elisha Gray
3856:Yogen Dalal
3781:Nasir Ahmed
3715:Teleprinter
3579:Heliographs
3381:VIT signals
3376:Vectorscope
3315:Earth bulge
3297:Propagation
3260:& bands
3258:Frequencies
3041:Raster scan
2981:Chrominance
2971:Black level
2966:front porch
2414:power lines
2410:phone lines
2352:cable modem
2333:demodulator
2267:Digital QAM
631:Vectorscope
427:bit streams
313:Line coding
4524:Categories
4437:Antarctica
4396:Toasternet
4318:Television
3801:Paul Baran
3733:Television
3717:(teletype)
3710:Telegraphy
3688:transistor
3666:Phryctoria
3636:Photophone
3614:Smartphone
3604:Mass media
3310:Distortion
3243:Transposer
3178:Dummy load
3134:Amplifiers
3101:Modulation
2991:Colorburst
2962:Back porch
2578:7 November
2540:References
2517:Modulation
2428:(ACM) and
1847:colorburst
1835:subcarrier
573:newspapers
459:quadrature
435:amplitudes
431:modulating
103:modulation
4421:Americas
4410:Locations
4381:Internet2
4142:Bandwidth
3846:Vint Cerf
3743:streaming
3721:Telephone
3661:Semaphore
3552:streaming
3417:Sparklies
3402:Dot crawl
3395:Artifacts
3335:Path loss
3330:Null fill
3305:Beam tilt
3046:Safe area
2673:April 17,
2528:QAM tuner
2446:microwave
2360:QAM tuner
2341:amplitude
2144:−
2132:^
2113:π
2086:−
2074:^
2031:⟹
1972:π
1886:Applying
1875:AM stereo
1831:crosstalk
1686:π
1677:
1659:−
1640:π
1631:
1543:π
1534:
1504:−
1480:π
1471:
1361:π
1352:
1330:π
1321:
1303:−
1284:π
1275:
1253:π
1244:
1207:π
1198:
1173:≜
1043:π
1032:
1026:−
1020:⏟
1005:π
983:π
972:
925:π
916:
910:≜
826:π
815:
806:⏟
791:π
769:π
758:
711:π
702:
696:≜
530:does not
479:(FM) and
74:June 2020
4489:Category
4376:Internet
4366:CYCLADES
4283:Ethernet
4233:Concepts
4157:terminal
4108:wireless
3931:Bob Kahn
3774:Pioneers
3599:Internet
3490:Cable TV
3407:Ghosting
3168:Diplexer
3036:Overscan
3001:Color TV
2894:System F
2890:System E
2886:819-line
2880:System N
2876:System L
2872:System K
2868:System I
2864:System H
2860:System G
2856:System D
2852:System C
2848:System B
2844:625-line
2838:System M
2834:525-line
2829:455-line
2824:441-line
2818:System A
2814:405-line
2809:375-line
2804:343-line
2799:180-line
2596:Archived
2530:for HDTV
2485:See also
2376:Freeview
1849:signal.
295:See also
100:Passband
4509:Commons
4499:Outline
4452:Oceania
4371:FidoNet
4356:ARPANET
4169:circuit
3738:digital
3467:History
3359:Testing
2941:PALplus
2791:Systems
2470:Carrier
1863:analog
587:scholar
551:removed
536:sources
437:of two
60:Please
4447:Europe
4417:Africa
4401:Usenet
4361:BITNET
4298:Mobile
4174:packet
3683:MOSFET
3678:device
3475:Beacon
2916:NTSC-J
2497:(APSK)
2309:symbol
2298:binary
2180:where
2070:
1909:) is:
1871:C-QUAM
1810:cosine
1122:cosine
1107:where
962:
956:
748:
742:
589:
582:
575:
568:
560:
492:802.11
433:) the
221:SC-FDE
4430:South
4425:North
4386:JANET
4323:Telex
4313:Radio
4152:Nodes
4147:Links
4068:media
3646:Radio
3631:Pager
3559:Drums
3525:video
3520:image
3510:audio
3082:NICAM
3070:Sound
2955:Video
2946:SECAM
2936:PAL-S
2931:PAL-M
2667:(PDF)
2656:(PDF)
2503:(CAP)
2463:noise
2399:ITU-T
2358:(see
2337:phase
2313:noise
1837:or a
594:JSTOR
580:books
318:Modem
4442:Asia
4328:UUCP
4288:ISDN
3345:Skew
3026:Luma
2964:and
2911:NTSC
2675:2005
2580:2016
2430:XPIC
2418:ADSL
2412:and
2402:G.hn
2364:SCTE
2339:and
2307:per
2305:bits
2241:and
2217:and
1905:(or
1893:Eq.1
1859:and
1857:NTSC
1843:NTSC
1825:and
1139:and
1126:sine
1124:and
1098:Eq.1
566:news
534:any
532:cite
358:OFDM
287:THSS
282:FHSS
277:DSSS
191:MFSK
176:APSK
4333:WAN
4303:NGN
4293:LAN
3574:Fax
3515:DCT
3287:VHF
3282:UHF
2926:PAL
2698:, "
2493:or
2452:or
2328:PSK
2257:(=
1861:PAL
1674:sin
1628:cos
1531:sin
1468:cos
1349:cos
1318:sin
1272:cos
1241:cos
1195:cos
1029:sin
969:cos
913:cos
876:or:
812:cos
755:sin
699:sin
545:by
457:or
411:QAM
363:FDM
353:ΔΣM
348:PWM
343:PDM
338:PCM
333:PAM
328:PoM
323:AnM
272:CSS
254:WDM
249:QAM
231:WDM
226:TCM
216:QAM
211:PSK
206:PPM
201:OOK
196:MSK
186:FSK
181:CPM
171:ASK
153:SSB
143:QAM
64:to
4526::
2892:,
2878:,
2874:,
2870:,
2866:,
2862:,
2858:,
2854:,
2850:,
2658:.
2631:^
2456:,
2442:RF
2408:,
2250:).
1800:).
1775:),
1744:4π
664:).
655:,
649:).
507:.
465:.
148:SM
138:PM
133:FM
128:AM
4460:)
4456:(
3451:e
3444:t
3437:v
3146:/
2896:)
2888:(
2882:)
2846:(
2840:)
2836:(
2820:)
2816:(
2772:e
2765:t
2758:v
2702:"
2677:.
2582:.
2444:/
2374:(
2261:)
2259:e
2255:i
2248:t
2246:(
2244:Q
2239:)
2237:t
2235:(
2233:I
2225:Q
2222:︿
2212:I
2209:︿
2190:F
2165:,
2161:]
2157:)
2152:c
2148:f
2141:f
2138:(
2129:Q
2121:2
2117:/
2110:i
2106:e
2102:+
2099:)
2094:c
2090:f
2083:f
2080:(
2067:I
2059:[
2052:2
2049:1
2037:F
2023:]
2020:)
2017:t
2014:(
2011:Q
2008:i
2005:+
2002:)
1999:t
1996:(
1993:I
1990:[
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