441:(1924). Trotsky does not wholly dismiss the Formalist approach, but insists that "the methods of formal analysis are necessary, but insufficient" because they neglect the social world with which the human beings who write and read literature are bound up: "The form of art is, to a certain and very large degree, independent, but the artist who creates this form, and the spectator who is enjoying it, are not empty machines, one for creating form and the other for appreciating it. They are living people, with a crystallized psychology representing a certain unity, even if not entirely harmonious. This psychology is the result of social conditions" (180, 171).
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encourage readers to stop and look closer at scenes and happenings they otherwise might have skimmed through uncaring. The reader is not meant to be able to skim through literature. When addressed in a language of estrangement, speech cannot be skimmed through. "In the routines of everyday speech, our perceptions of and responses to reality become stale, blunted, and as the
Formalists would say 'automatized'. By forcing us into a dramatic awareness of language, literature refreshes these habitual responses and renders objects more perceptible" (Eagleton 3).
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great critic
Belinsky as an integral part of social and political history. On the other hand, literature was considered to be the personal expression of an author's world vision, expressed by means of images and symbols. In both cases, literature is not considered as such, but evaluated on a broad socio-political or a vague psychologico-impressionistic background. The aim of Shklovsky is therefore to isolate and define something specific to literature or "poetic language": these, as we saw, are the "devices" which make up the "artfulness" of literature.
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that it opened up new areas of inquiry, vastly enriched our knowledge of literary technology, raised the standards of our literary research and of our theorizing about literature effected, in a sense, a
Europeanization of our literary scholarship…. Poetics, once a sphere of unbridled impressionism, became an object of scientific analysis, a concrete problem of literary scholarship ("Formalism V Russkom Literaturovedenii", quoted in Erlich, "Russian Formalism: In Perspective" 225).
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response to these extra-literary factors the self-regulating literary system is compelled to rejuvenate itself constantly. Even though the systemic
Formalists incorporated the social dimension into literary theory and acknowledged the analogy between language and literature the figures of author and reader were pushed to the margins of this paradigm.
36:
309:. The adherents of this model placed poetic language at the center of their inquiry. As Warner remarks, "Jakobson makes it clear that he rejects completely any notion of emotion as the touchstone of literature. For Jakobson, the emotional qualities of a literary work are secondary to and dependent on purely verbal, linguistic facts" (71).
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approaches. As Erlich points out, "It was intent upon delimiting literary scholarship from contiguous disciplines such as psychology, sociology, intellectual history, and the list theoreticians focused on the 'distinguishing features' of literature, on the artistic devices peculiar to imaginative writing" (
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The diverging and converging forces of
Russian formalism gave rise to the Prague school of structuralism in the mid-1920s and provided a model for the literary wing of French structuralism in the 1960s and 1970s. "And, insofar as the literary-theoretical paradigms which Russian Formalism inaugurated
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Jakobson opposes the view that "an average reader" uninitiated into the science of language is presumably insensitive to verbal distinctions: "Speakers employ a complex system of grammatical relations inherent to their language even though they are not capable of fully abstracting and defining them"
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Disappointed by the constraints of the mechanistic method some
Russian Formalists adopted the organic model. "They utilized the similarity between organic bodies and literary phenomena in two different ways: as it applied to individual works and to literary genres" (Steiner, "Russian Formalism" 19).
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In "A Postscript to the
Discussion on Grammar of Poetry," Jakobson redefines poetics as "the linguistic scrutiny of the poetic function within the context of verbal messages in general, and within poetry in particular" (23). He fervently defends linguists' right to contribute to the study of poetry
209:
The OPOJAZ, the
Society for the Study of Poetic Language group, headed by Viktor Shklovsky was primarily concerned with the Formal method and focused on technique and device. "Literary works, according to this model, resemble machines: they are the result of an intentional human activity in which a
312:
As Ashima
Shrawan explains, "The theoreticians of OPOJAZ distinguished between practical and poetic language . . . . Practical language is used in day-to-day communication to convey information. . . . In poetic language, according to Lev Jakubinsky, 'the practical goal retreats into background and
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and
Russian Formalism, each having developed at around the same time (RF: 1910-20s and NC: 1940s-50s) but independently of the other. Despite this, there are several similarities: for example, both movements showed an interest in considering literature on its own terms, instead of focusing on its
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The contribution of our literary scholarship lies in the fact that it has focused sharply on the basic problems of literary criticism and literary study, first of all on the specificity of its object, that it modified our conception of the literary work and broke it down into its component parts,
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Roman Jakobson described literature as "organized violence committed on ordinary speech." Literature constitutes a deviation from average speech that intensifies, invigorates, and estranges the mundane speech patterns. In other words, for the Formalists, literature is set apart because it is just
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Since literature constitutes part of the overall cultural system, the literary dialectic participates in cultural evolution. As such, it interacts with other human activities, for instance, linguistic communication. The communicative domain enriches literature with new constructive principles. In
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The diachronic dimension was incorporated into the work of the systemic Formalists. The main proponent of the "systemo-functional" model was Yury Tynyanov. "In light of his concept of literary evolution as a struggle among competing elements, the method of parody, 'the dialectic play of devices,'
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Shklovsky's main objective in "Art as Device" is to dispute the conception of literature and literary criticism common in Russia at that time. Broadly speaking, literature was considered, on the one hand, to be a social or political product, whereby it was then interpreted in the tradition of the
195:
The formalists agreed on the autonomous nature of poetic language and its specificity as an object of study for literary criticism. Their main endeavor consisted in defining a set of properties specific to poetic language, be it poetry or prose, recognizable by their "artfulness" and consequently
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Having shifted the focus of study from an isolated technique to a hierarchically structured whole, the organic Formalists overcame the main shortcoming of the mechanists. Still, both groups failed to account for the literary changes which affect not only devices and their functions but genres as
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The analogy between biology and literary theory provided the frame of reference for genre studies and genre criticism. "Just as each individual organism shares certain features with other organisms of its type, and species that resemble each other belong to the same genus, the individual work is
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This estrangement serves literature by forcing the reader to think about what might have been an ordinary piece of writing about a common life experience in a more thoughtful way. A piece of writing in a novel versus a piece of writing in a fishing magazine. At the very least, literature should
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The mechanistic methodology reduced literature to a variation and combination of techniques and devices devoid of a temporal, psychological, or philosophical element. Shklovsky very soon realized that this model had to be expanded to embrace, for example, contemporaneous and diachronic literary
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coinage. It might have been convenient as a simplified battle cry but it fails, as an objective term, to delimit the activities of the 'Society for the Study of Poetic Language'." Russian Formalism is the name now given to a mode of criticism which emerged from two different groups, The Moscow
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Russian formalism was not a uniform movement; it comprised diverse theoreticians whose views were shaped through methodological debate that proceeded from the distinction between poetic and practical language to the overarching problem of the historical-literary study. It is mainly with this
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An artefact, like a biological organism, is not an unstructured whole; its parts are hierarchically integrated. Hence the definition of the device has been extended to its function in text. "Since the binary opposition – material vs. device – cannot account for the organic unity of the work,
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Russian formalism is distinctive for its emphasis on the functional role of literary devices and its original conception of literary history. Russian Formalists advocated a "scientific" method for studying poetic language, to the exclusion of traditional psychological and cultural-historical
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Two general principles underlie the Formalist study of literature: first, literature itself, or rather, those of its features that distinguish it from other human activities, must constitute the object of inquiry of literary theory; second, "literary facts" have to be prioritized over the
246:
The Formalist movement attempted to discriminate systematically between art and non-art. Therefore, its notions are organized in terms of polar oppositions. One of the most famous dichotomies introduced by the mechanistic Formalists is a distinction between story and plot, or fabula and
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Formalists do not agree with one another on exactly what a device or "priyom" is, nor how these devices are used or how they are to be analyzed in a given text. The central idea is that more general: poetic language possesses specific properties, which can be analyzed as such.
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that: set apart. The use of devices such as imagery, rhythm, and meter is what separates "Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, exhibit number one is what the seraphs, the misinformed, simple, noble-winged seraphs, envied. Look at this tangle of thorns (Nabokov
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specific skill transforms raw material into a complex mechanism suitable for a particular purpose" (Steiner, "Russian Formalism" 18). This approach strips the literary artifact from its connection with the author, reader, and historical background.
374:. As Mandelker indicates, "his methodological restraint and his conception of an artistic 'unity' wherein no element is superfluous or disengaged, … serves well as an ultimate model for the Formalist approach to versification study" (335).
251:". Story, fabula, is a chronological sequence of events, whereas plot, sjuzhet, can unfold in non-chronological order. The events can be artistically arranged by means of such devices as repetition, parallelism, gradation, and retardation.
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because of their similar emphasis on close reading, the Russian Formalists regarded themselves as developers of a science of criticism and are more interested in a discovery of systematic method for the analysis of poetic text.
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Russian formalism was a diverse movement, producing no unified doctrine, and no consensus amongst its proponents on a central aim to their endeavours. In fact, "Russian Formalism" describes two distinct movements: the
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as a whole. The movement's members had a relevant influence on modern literary criticism, as it developed in the structuralist and post-structuralist periods. Under Stalin it became a pejorative term for elitist art.
452:, the authorities further developed the term's pejorative associations to cover any art which used complex techniques and forms accessible only to the elite, rather than being simplified for "the people" (as in
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Eichenbaum criticised Shklovsky and Jakubinsky for not disengaging poetry from the outside world completely, since they used the emotional connotations of sound as a criterion for word choice. This recourse to
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and the grammatical problems of poetry is therefore justifiable; moreover, the linguistic conception of poetics reveals the ties between form and content indiscernible to the literary critic (Jakobson 34).
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who revolutionised literary criticism between 1914 and the 1930s by establishing the specificity and autonomy of poetic language and literature. Russian formalism exerted a major influence on thinkers like
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The term "formalism" was first used by the adversaries of the movement, and as such it conveys a meaning explicitly rejected by the Formalists themselves. In the words of one of the foremost Formalists,
778:
Knight, Chris. "Russian Formalist Roots', chapter 10 in Chris Knight, "Decoding Chomsky: Science and revolutionary politics", (paperback edition) London & New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018.
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metaphysical commitments of literary criticism, whether philosophical, aesthetic or psychological (Steiner, "Russian Formalism" 16). To achieve these objectives several models were developed.
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or strophics, alliterations or rhymes, or to questions of poets' vocabulary" is hence undeniable (23). Linguistic devices that transform a verbal act into poetry range "from the network of
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similar to other works of its form and homologous literary forms belong to the same genre" (Steiner, "Russian Formalism" 19). The most widely known work carried out in this tradition is
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Some OPOJAZ members argued that poetic language was the major artistic device. Shklovsky insisted that not all artistic texts defamiliarize language, and that some of them achieve
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relationship to political, cultural or historical externalities, a focus on the literary devices and the craft of the author, and a critical focus on poetry.
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are still with us, it stands not as a historical curiosity but a vital presence in the theoretical discourse of our day" (Steiner, "Russian Formalism" 29).
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The leaders of the movement began to be politically persecuted in the 1920s, when Stalin came to power, which largely put an end to their inquiries. In the
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157:. Therefore, it is more precise to refer to the "Russian Formalists", rather than to use the more encompassing and abstract term of "Formalism".
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Surdulescu, Radu. "Form, Structure and Structurality in Critical Theory." University of Bucharest Press, 2000 (online resource available:
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linguistic combinations acquire a value in themselves. When this happens, language becomes de-familiarized and utterances become poetic
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augmented it in 1919 with a third term, the teleological concept of style as the unity of devices" (Steiner, "Russian Formalism" 19).
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Boris Eichenbaum, "Vokrug voprosa o formalistah" (Russian: "Вокруг Вопроса о Фоpмалистах", Around the question on the Formalists),
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in Russia from the 1910s to the 1930s. It includes the work of a number of highly influential Russian and Soviet scholars such as
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according to their contribution to the "sound background" (zvukovoj fon) attaching the greatest importance to stressed
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Goldblatt, David; Brown Lee B (eds.). "Aesthetics a Reader in Philosophy of the Arts" 2nd ed. Pearson Education Inc
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740:. Ed. Alex Preminger and Terry V. F. Brogan. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1993. 1101-02.
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to the most insightful investigation of a poetic message. The legitimacy of "studies devoted to questions of
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The figures of author and reader were likewise downplayed by the linguistic Formalists Lev Jakubinsky and
799:. Ed. Paul Schellinger et al. Vol. 1. Chicago; London: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers, 1998. 422-24. 2 vols.
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explores various types of sound repetitions, e.g. the ring (kol'co), the juncture (styk), the fastening (
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224:, 1916): art is a sum of literary and artistic devices that the artist manipulates to craft his work.
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Linguistic Circle (1915) and the Opojaz group (1916). Although Russian Formalism is often linked to
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theoretical focus that the Formalist School is credited even by its adversaries such as Yefimov:
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The Language of Literature and Its Meaning: A Comparative Study of Indian and Western Aesthetics
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Any, Carol. "Boris Eikhenbaum in OPOIAZ: Testing the Limits of the Work-Centered Poetics."
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362:), and the tail-piece (koncovka) ("Zvukovye povtory" (Sound Repetitions); 1917). He ranks
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A definitive example of focus on poetic language is the study of Russian versification by
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819:. Ed. Raman Selden. Vol. 8. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 11-29. 8 vols.
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Warner, Nicholas O. "In Search of Literary Science the Russian Formalist Tradition."
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Mandelker, Amy. "Russian Formalism and the Objective Analysis of Sound in Poetry."
699:---. "Roman Osipovich Jakobson 1896-1982: The Unity of his Thought on Verbal Art."
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threatened the ultimate goal of formalism to investigate literature in isolation.
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Trotsky, Leon (1924). Literature and Revolution. New York: Russell & Russell.
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The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of
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785:. Ed. Vincent B. Leitch. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2001. 1058-87.
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A clear illustration of this may be provided by the main argument of one of
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become an important vehicle of change" (Steiner, "Russian Formalism" 21).
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165:: "It is difficult to recall who coined this name, but it was not a very
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Jakobson, Roman. "A Postscript to the Discussion on Grammar of Poetry."
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Garson, Judith. "Literary History: Russian Formalist Views, 1916-1928."
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762:---. "Supplement to a Bibliography of Russian Formalism in English."
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9)", from "the assignment for next week is on page eighty four."
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Gorman, David. "Bibliography of Russian Formalism in English."
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One of the sharpest critiques of the Formalist project was
399:(30). A systematic inquiry into the poetic problems of
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Rydel, Christine A. "Formalism (Russian Formalists)."
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to the arrangement of the entire text" (Jakobson 23).
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The Norton Anthology of Literary Theory and Criticism
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Erlich, Victor. "Russian Formalism: In Perspective."
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The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics
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484:There is no direct historical relationship between
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27:Influential school of literary criticism in Russia
690:Brown, Edward J. "The Formalist Contribution."
149:, Society for the Study of Poetic Language) in
336:. Apart from the most obvious devices such as
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243:) by manipulating composition and narrative.
8:
564:Erlich, Victor (1973). "Russian Formalism".
383:and demonstrates the aptitude of the modern
817:The Cambridge History of Literary Criticism
724:The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism
147:Obshchestvo Izucheniia Poeticheskogo Yazyka
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828:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1984.
319:The Language of Literature and Its Meaning
676:(4th ed.). Oxford University Press.
76:Learn how and when to remove this message
280:'s "Morphology of the Folktale" (1928).
669:The Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms
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719:. University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
815:Steiner, Peter. "Russian Formalism."
7:
869:"Introduction to Russian Formalism."
790:The Slavic and East European Journal
1297:Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling
25:
862:"Russian Formalism." 2 Feb. 2002.
217:'s early texts, "Art as Device" (
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825:Russian Formalism: A Metapoetics
716:Literary Theory: An Introduction
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747:Journal of the History of Ideas
731:Journal of the History of Ideas
566:Journal of the History of Ideas
529:Philosophy in the Soviet Union
408:Literature definition attempts
186:The New Princeton Encyclopedia
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1367:Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve
1337:Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
1292:Anne Louise Germaine de Staël
807:. Cambridge Scholars, 2019.
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1332:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
736:---. "Russian Formalism."
729:---. "Russian Formalism."
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1804:Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
1197:Nicolas Boileau-Despréaux
1038:
1007:Reader-response criticism
797:Encyclopedia of the Novel
438:Literature and Revolution
255:traditions (Garson 403).
1247:Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
1002:Psychoanalytic criticism
602:, no. 5 (1924), pp. 2-3.
534:Prague Linguistic Circle
196:analyzing them as such.
155:Moscow Linguistic Circle
1302:Samuel Taylor Coleridge
848:Pacific Coast Philology
461:Anti-formalism campaign
1022:Sociological criticism
992:Postcolonial criticism
927:Biographical criticism
509:Formalism (literature)
172:American New Criticism
1467:Ferdinand de Saussure
1050:Theorists and critics
759:26:4 (1992): 554-76.
749:31:3 (1970): 399-412.
726:13:2 (1954): 215-25.
696:33:3 (1974): 243-58.
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1372:James Russell Lowell
1347:Francesco De Sanctis
1327:Percy Bysshe Shelley
1307:Wilhelm von Humboldt
1152:Lodovico Castelvetro
937:Cultural materialism
922:Archetypal criticism
792:27:3 (1983): 327-38.
781:"Boris Eichenbaum."
766:29:4 (1995): 562-64.
733:34:4 (1973): 627-38.
654:49:3 (1990): 409-26.
600:Pechat' i revolucija
393:distinctive features
1472:Claude Lévi-Strauss
1407:Friedrich Nietzsche
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1322:Thomas Love Peacock
1317:Arthur Schopenhauer
1267:Mary Wollstonecraft
952:Descriptive poetics
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803:* Shrawan, Ashima.
775:10:1 (1980): 21-35.
663:"Russian Formalism"
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1606:Philip Wheelwright
1596:Simone de Beauvoir
1392:Charles Baudelaire
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1282:Friedrich Schlegel
1277:Friedrich Schiller
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906:Literary criticism
702:The Russian Review
693:The Russian Review
623:2009-12-05 at the
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1402:Søren Kierkegaard
1222:Giambattista Vico
1012:Russian formalism
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850:17 (1982): 69-81.
705:42 (1983): 91-99.
499:Defamiliarization
454:socialist realism
427:Political offense
370:and the least to
237:defamiliarization
179:Distinctive ideas
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16:(Redirected from
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1636:Martin Heidegger
1626:Gaston Bachelard
1591:Jean-Paul Sartre
1576:Monroe Beardsley
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1512:Boris Eikhenbaum
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1789:M. H. Abrams
1784:Peter Szondi
1779:Paul Ricoeur
1769:Hayden White
1706:Stanley Fish
1696:Harold Bloom
1646:Noam Chomsky
1601:Ronald Crane
1507:Leon Trotsky
1412:Walter Pater
1242:Edward Young
1227:Edmund Burke
1117:Rajashekhara
1112:Bharata Muni
1032:Thing theory
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972:Geocriticism
957:Ecocriticism
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1477:T. E. Hulme
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1437:Leo Tolstoy
1427:Oscar Wilde
1207:John Dennis
1192:John Dryden
871:21 Dec 2005
864:21 Dec 2005
385:linguistics
205:Mechanistic
130:Juri Lotman
1417:Émile Zola
1312:John Keats
1232:David Hume
1202:John Locke
773:Diacritics
540:References
459:See also:
327:psychology
301:Linguistic
270:Zhirmunsky
241:ostranenie
167:felicitous
66:March 2012
58:footnoting
1502:Carl Jung
1397:Karl Marx
1102:Boccaccio
1062:Aristotle
967:Formalism
350:assonance
334:Osip Brik
132:, and on
1854:Category
1819:Mina Loy
1087:Boethius
1077:Plotinus
1072:Longinus
661:(2015).
621:Archived
493:See also
288:Systemic
153:and the
54:citation
1834:Hu Shih
1142:Liu Xie
1122:Valmiki
1092:Aquinas
614:(1917)
586:2708893
401:grammar
389:metrics
321:, 68).
259:Organic
249:sjuzhet
188:1101).
1132:Cao Pi
1067:Horace
680:
584:
519:OPOJAZ
466:Legacy
446:Soviet
416:Lolita
368:vowels
364:phones
348:, and
284:well.
221:priyóm
143:OPOJAZ
1137:Lu Ji
1097:Dante
1057:Plato
822:---.
809:p. 68
764:Style
757:Style
582:JSTOR
359:skrep
338:rhyme
200:Types
1737:and
1723:and
1574:and
678:ISBN
354:Brik
128:and
56:and
574:doi
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435:'s
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