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the freedom to work off their estates; some even went to work in factories. These younger peasants had access to newspapers and books, which introduced them to more radical ways of thinking. The ability to work outside of the household gave the younger peasants independence as well as a wage to do with what they wanted. Agricultural and domestic jobs were a group effort, so the wage went to the family. The children who worked industrial jobs gave their earnings to their family as well, but some used it as a way to gain a say in their own marriages. In this case some families allowed their sons to marry whom they chose as long as the family was in similar economic standing as their own. No matter what, parental approval was required in order to make a marriage legal.
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their detachment from the land, as well as to transfer peasants into household serfs, taking away their plots. The right of landlords to exile peasants to
Siberia at their discretion was restricted (1828). A decree on obliged peasants was issued (1842), according to which landlords could let their peasants go free, but peasants' plots were transferred not into ownership, but into the use of peasants, for which they had to perform duties in favour of the landlord. The landlords were given the right to let the peasants go free by mutual agreement with them (1844). The peasants of the landlord's estates sold at auction for the owner's debts were allowed to buy out at will (1847; in 1848–52 964 male peasants used the right).
880:
767:. Cautiously, he freed peasants from Estonia and Latvia and extended the right to own land to most classes of subjects, including state-owned peasants, in 1801 and created a new social category of "free agriculturalist", for peasants voluntarily emancipated by their masters, in 1803. The great majority of serfs were not affected (under this decree by 1858 152,000 male souls, or 1.5 per cent of serfs, had been bought out to freedom). Alexander I forbade to advertise the sale of serfs without land (1801), to sell peasants at fairs (1808), cancelled the right of landlords to exile peasants to
715:
and paid to the treasury by the landlord himself or his clerk). It was forbidden to put peasants on torture for their master's debts. In order to suppress fraudulent practices of landlords, who during audits recorded persons who did not belong to serfs, allegedly with their consent, decrees of 1775, 1781 and 1783 prohibited voluntary registration of serfs. The legislation stipulated conditions that allowed peasants to leave the serf state. Edicts of 1737, 1743, 1744, 1745, 1770, and 1773 declared free those who returned from captivity, as well as foreigners who accepted
584:
504:, "Code of Law") of 1649 gave serfs to estates, and in 1658, flight was made a criminal offense. Russian landowners eventually gained almost unlimited ownership over Russian serfs. The landowner could transfer the serf without land to another landowner while keeping the serf's personal property and family; however, the landowner had no right to kill the serf. About four-fifths of Russian peasants were serfs according to the censuses of 1678 and 1719; free peasants remained only in the north and north-east of the country.
31:
1106:. Marriage was important for families economically and socially. Parents were in charge of finding suitable spouses for their children in order to help the family. The bride's parents were concerned with the social and material benefits they would gain in the alliance between the two families. Some also took into consideration their daughter's future quality of life and how much work would be required of her. The groom's parents would be concerned about economical factors such as the size of the
1198:
795:). All these projects were united by the principle of gradual emancipation of peasants without infringement of economic interests of landlords. However, in 1822–23, due to changes in the domestic political course, Alexander I again forbade serfs to complain to the authorities about the cruelty of their masters, to bring lawsuits for emancipation, and also restored the right of landlords to exile peasants to Siberia at their discretion.
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fence, barns, and wagons. While primary purchasing power belonged to the husband, the wife was expected to buy certain items. She was also expected to buy household items such as bowls, plates, pots, barrels and various utensils. Wives were also required to purchase cloth and make clothes for the family by spinning and using a
686:. Unlike serfs, state peasants and peasants under tsar's patronage were considered personally free, nobody had the right to sell them, to interfere in their family life, by law they were considered as 'free agricultural inhabitants' (Russ 'свободные сельские обыватели') One particular source of indignation in Europe was
1144:. Husbands owned most of the livestock, such as pigs and horses. Cows were the property of the husband, but were usually in the wife's possession. Chickens were considered to be the wife's property, while sheep was common property for the family. The exception was when the wife owned sheep through a dowry (
1114:
Serfs looked highly upon early marriage because of increased parental control. At a younger age there is less chance of the individual falling in love with someone other than whom his or her parents chose. There is also increased assurance of chastity, which was more important for women than men. The
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Bourgeois were allowed to own serfs 1721–62 and 1798–1816; this was to encourage industrialisation. In 1804, 48% of
Russian factory workers were serfs, 52% in 1825. Landless serfs rose from 4.14% in 1835 to 6.79% in 1858. They received no land in the emancipation. Landlords deliberately increased the
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criticized serfdom and compared it to medieval labor practices which were almost non-existent in the rest of the continent. Most
Russian nobles were not interested in change toward western labor practices that Catherine the Great proposed. Instead they preferred to mortgage serfs for profit. Napoleon
668:
By the eighteenth century, the practice of selling serfs without land had become commonplace. Owners had absolute control over their serfs' lives, and could buy, sell and trade them at will, giving them as much power over serfs as
Americans had over chattel slaves, though owners did not always choose
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Formal conversion to serf status and the later ban on the sale of serfs without land did not stop the trade in household slaves; this trade merely changed its name. The private owners of the serfs regarded the law as a mere formality. Instead of "sale of a peasant" the papers would advertise "servant
542:
introduced an open-ended search for those on the run, meaning that all of the peasants who had fled from their masters after the census of 1626 or 1646–1647 had to be returned. The government would still introduce new time frames and grounds for search of the runaways after 1649, which applied to the
1127:
According to a study completed in the late 1890s by the ethnographer Olga
Petrovna Semyonova-Tian-Shanskaia, husband and wife had different duties in the household. In regards to ownership, the husband assumed the property plus any funds required to make additions to the property. Additions included
1118:
During serfdom, when the head of the house was being disobeyed by their children they could have the master or landowner step in. After the emancipation of serfs in 1861, the household patriarch lost some of his power, and could no longer receive the landowner's help. The younger generations now had
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Edicts of 1718, 1734, 1750, 1761, and 1767 obliged landlords to feed their peasants in times of crop failure and famine and to prevent their impoverishment. Since 1722 landlords were responsible for the correct payment of the per capita tax by their peasants (the tax was collected from the peasants
575:
well. The serfs took little part in uprisings against the empire as a whole; it was the
Cossacks and nomads who rebelled initially and recruited serfs into rebel armies. But many landowners died during serf uprisings against them. The revolutions of 1905 and 1917 happened after serfdom's abolition.
727:
created two measures in 1762 that influenced the abolition of serfdom. He ended mandatory military service for nobles with the abolition of compulsory noble state service. This provided a rationale to end serfdom. Second, was the secularization of the church estates, which transferred its peasants
615:
uprisings benefited from disturbances among the peasants, and they in turn received an impetus from
Cossack rebellion, none of the Cossack movements were directed against the institution of serfdom itself. Instead, peasants in Cossack-dominated areas became Cossacks during uprisings, thus escaping
1087:
Imperial laws were very particular with the age in which serfs could marry. The minimum age to marry was 13 years old for women, and 15 for men. After 1830 the female and male ages were raised to 16 and 18 respectively. To marry over the age of 60, the serf had to receive permission, but marriage
860:
was the fact that thousands of peasants escaped from Russia to Poland to seek a better fate). Jerzy
Czajewski and Piotr Kimla wrote that until the partitions solved this problem, Russian armies raided territories of the Commonwealth, officially to recover the escapees, but in fact kidnapping many
819:
successively created 9 secret committees, issued about 100 decrees aimed at mitigating serfdom, but did not affect its foundations. From 1833 it was not allowed to sell serfs at public auction "with the splitting of families", "to satisfy public and private debts", paying for them with serfs with
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to prosecute estate owners for the cruel treatment of serfs. These measures were strengthened in 1817 and the late 1820s. There were even laws that required estate owners to help serfs in time of famine, which included grain to be kept in reserve. These policies failed to aid famines in the early
1095:. Prior to 1812 serfs were not allowed to marry serfs from other estates. After 1812 the rules relaxed slightly, but in order for a family to give their daughter to a husband in another estate they had to apply and present information to their landowner ahead of time. If a serf wanted to marry a
941:
Serfdom was abolished, but not always on favorable terms to the peasants. Even after emancipation, feudal agriculture practices continued. Most former serfs had to pay a land redemption fee (redemption payments were not abolished until 1907), and could only purchase less fertile, less profitable
574:
Serfdom was hardly efficient; serfs and nobles had little incentive to improve the land. However, it was politically effective. Nobles rarely challenged the tsar for fear of provoking a peasant uprising. Serfs were often given lifelong tenancy on their plots, so they tended to be conservative as
1349:
Russian serfdom depended entirely on the traditional and extensive technology of the peasantry. Yields remained low and stationary throughout most of the 19th century. Any increase in income drawn from agriculture was largely through increasing land area and extensive grain raising by means of
910:
The nobility was too weak to oppose the emancipation of the serfs. In 1820, a fifth of the serfs were mortgaged, half by 1842. By 1859, a third of noble's estates and two thirds of their serfs were mortgaged to noble banks or the state. The nobility was also weakened by the scattering of their
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The influence of serfdom was also notable in
Russian music and art. Folk songs and dances, often performed by serfs, contributed significantly to Russia's unique cultural tradition. At the same time, works of art often depicted serfs and their lives, either romanticizing their existence or
1590:. Characters drawn from the serf population were portrayed with profound emotional depth, their stories shedding light on the harsh realities of serfdom. These narratives served to amplify calls for social reform and underscored the deep inequalities of the Russian societal structure.
1084:, marriage was strictly prohibited on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and Saturdays. Because of these firm rules most marriages occurred in the months of January, February, October, and November. After the emancipation the most popular marrying months were July, October, and November.
1812:
Snippet: "Thus a
Russian–English dictionary will give the Russian word muzhik as 'peasant'. Yet the English word 'peasant' brings to mind a being far different from the Russian muzhik who, unlike his Western counterpart, is presented to us in literature
807:; this did not change the disparity between Russia and Western Europe, who were experiencing agricultural and industrial revolutions. Compared to Western Europe it was clear that Russia was at an economic disadvantage. European philosophers during the
1059:
95:, historically could be sold only together with the land to which they were "attached". However, this stopped being a requirement by the 19th century, and serfs were practically indistinguishable from slaves. Contemporary legal documents, such as
700:
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and the highest state officials feared that the peasants' emancipation would be accompanied by popular unrest, given the reluctance of the landlords to lose their serf property, but took some actions to alleviate the situation of the peasantry.
798:
The Russian state also continued to support serfdom due to military conscription. The conscripted serfs dramatically increased the size of the Russian military during the war with Napoleon. With a larger military Russia achieved victory in the
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and other German states. Scholars have proposed multiple overlapping reasons to account for the abolition, including fear of a large-scale revolt by the serfs, the government's financial needs, changing cultural sensibilities, and the
1212:
By the mid-19th century, peasants composed a plurality of the population, and according to the census of 1857, the number of private serfs was 23.1 million out of 62.5 million citizens of the Russian empire, 37.7% of the population.
535:) to the authorities, asking for the extension of the "fixed years". In 1642, the Russian government established a 10-year limit for search of the runaways and 15-year limit for search for peasants taken away by their new owners.
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as well as the bride's decency, modesty, obedience, ability to do work, and family background. Upon marriage, the bride came to live with her new husband and his family, so she needed to be ready to assimilate and work hard.
922:
played a powerful role backstage in the years 1855 to 1861. Using her close relationship with her nephew Alexander II, she supported and guided his desire for emancipation, and helped mobilize the support of key advisors.
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had many rules regarding marriage that were strictly observed by the population. For example, marriage was not allowed to take place during times of fasting, the eve or day of a holiday, during the entire week of
1647:
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performed for the landowner on his portion of the land (the other part of the land, usually of a poorer quality, the peasants could use for themselves). Sometimes the terms are loosely translated by the term
1188:
A 19th-century report noted: "Every Russian peasant, male and female, wears cotton clothes. The men wear printed shirts and trousers, and the women are dressed from head to foot in printed cotton also."
930:, stimulated in part by his view that "it is better to liberate the peasants from above" than to wait until they won their freedom by rising "from below". Between 1864 and 1871 serfdom was abolished in
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The peasants, or, more precisely, the serfs, wear a costume which very much resembles that worn by the Poles or, perhaps more accurately, that worn by Asians. It consists of a long and rather shapeless
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plots of land that weren't necessarily contiguous. Peasants often had to pay more than the market price for land, with the percentage varying by location. 90% of the serfs who got larger plots were in
421:
and tens of thousands of noblemen protected the southern borderland (a heavy burden for the state), which slowed its social and economic development and expanded the taxation of peasantry.
771:; 1807) and to settle them in Siberia (1809). In 1818 Alexander I gave secret instructions to 12 dignitaries to develop projects to abolish serfdom (among the authors of the projects were
2297:
2099:// Commersant 2017] - "20 мая 1842 года в России был опубликован указ «О предании суду и наказании Российских подданных, которые будут изобличены в каком-либо участии в торге неграми»."
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number of domestic serfs when they anticipated serfdom's demise. In 1798, Ukrainian landlords were banned from selling serfs apart from land. In 1841, landless nobles were banned also.
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471:, which took away the peasants' right to free movement around Yuri's Day, binding the vast majority of the Russian peasantry in full serfdom. These also defined the so-called
143:
Serfdom became the dominant form of relation between Russian peasants and nobility in the 17th century. Serfdom most commonly existed in the central and southern areas of the
140:; nevertheless, in times past, the state allowed peasants to sue for release from serfdom under certain conditions, and also took measures against abuses of landlord power.
2097:«Наиболее сильный запрос был на красивых девушек» Как в России торговали соотечественниками (The greatest demand was for pretty girls: How they traded compatriots in Russia)
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found "substantial increases in agricultural productivity, industrial output, and peasants' nutrition in Imperial Russia as a result of the abolition of serfdom in 1861".
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published in London, England (1857–65) and Geneva (1865–67). It collected many cases of horrendous physical, emotional and sexual abuse of the serfs by the landowners.
418:
519:
due to the fact that many runaways would usually flee to the southern parts of Russia. During the first half of the 17th century the dvoryane sent their collective
759:
at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, a conviction developed that the system of serfdom was flawed and hindered economic development and urban growth. Tsar
620:
and the beginning of the 19th century, there were hundreds of outbreaks across Russia, and there was never a time when the peasantry was completely quiescent.
2258:
Shane O'Rourke, "The Mother Benefactress and the Sacred Battalion: Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna, the Editing Commission, and the Emancipation of the Serfs",
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did not touch serfdom in Russia. In 1820, 20% of all serfs were mortgaged to state credit institutions by their owners. This was increased to 66% in 1859.
2832:
1573:). Owing to the high fertility, 70% of Russian cereal production in the 1850s was here. In the seven central provinces, 1860, 67.7% of the serfs were on
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and his advisors quietly discussed the options at length. Obstacles included the failure of abolition in Austria and the political reaction against the
1099:, then emancipation and death certificates were to be handed over and investigated for authenticity by their owner before a marriage could take place.
267:) means "Russian peasant" when it is used in English. This word was borrowed from Russian into Western languages through translations of 19th-century
2789:
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respectively. However all the land stayed in noble hands and labor rent lasted until 1868. It was replaced with landless laborers and sharecropping (
178:), it spread to Ukraine; noblemen began to send their serfs into Cossack lands in an attempt to harvest their extensive untapped natural resources.
848:
were improving) in significant enough numbers to become a major concern for the Russian Government and sufficient to play a role in its decision to
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879:
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365:, but serfdom as we know it was still not a widespread phenomenon. In the mid-15th century the right of certain categories of peasants in some
229:
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from the peasantry rather than directly organizing peasants against the institution. Rich Cossacks owned serfs themselves. Between the end of
2707:
Hoch, Steven. "Did Russia's Emancipated Serfs Really Pay Too Much for Too Little Land? Statistical Anomalies and Long-Tailed Distributions".
1972:
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and felt boots for the family. As for crops, it was expected for men to sow and women to harvest. A common crop harvested by serfs in the
919:
2277:
841:
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1785:
1692:
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Nafziger, Steven. 'Serfdom, emancipation, and economic development in Tsarist Russia" (Working paper, Williams College, MA, 2012).
212:(1817) only. New laws allowed all classes (except the serfs) to own land, a privilege previously confined to the nobility. Emperor
1582:
In literature, Russian serfdom provided both a backdrop and a source of dramatic tension for the works of prominent authors like
491:
for hiding and keeping runaways: the fine had to be paid to the state and pozhiloye – to the previous owner of the peasant.
101:(12th century onwards), distinguished several degrees of feudal dependency of peasants. While another form of slavery in Russia,
2132:
2721:
Hoch, Steven and Wilson R. Augustine. "The Tax Censuses and the Decline of the Serf Population in Imperial Russia, 1833–1858".
874:
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officially confirmed this time limit as universal for everybody and also established the amount of the "break-away" fee called
1945:
720:
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Rudolph, Richard L. "Agricultural structure and proto-industrialization in Russia: economic development with unfree labor".
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McCaffray, Susan P. "Confronting Serfdom in the Age of Revolution: Projects for Serf Reform in the Time of Alexander I",
2083:
1653:
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Lust, Kersti. "The Impact of the Baltic Emancipation Reforms on Peasant-Landlord Relations: A Historiographical Survey",
1749:
Susan P. McCaffray, "Confronting Serfdom in the Age of Revolution: Projects for Serf Reform in the Time of Alexander I",
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According to certain Polish sources, increasingly in the 18th century Russian peasants were escaping from Russia to the
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220:
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567:(1698) etc. The dvoryane constantly demanded that the search for the runaways be sponsored by the government. The
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was used to mean the most common rural dweller – a peasant – but this was only a narrow contextual meaning.
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over the age of 80 was forbidden. The Church also did not approve marriages with large age differences.
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Stanziani, Alessandro. "Revisiting Russian Serfdom: Bonded Peasants and Market Dynamics, 1600s–1800s".
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of the second half of the 17th century paid much attention to the means of punishment of the runaways.
30:
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David Moon. "The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia". Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2001. Pages 22-23
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Landowners were interested in keeping all of their serfs and not losing workers to marriages on other
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2164:"Przywary niewolników pańszczyźnianych w XVIII-wiecznej Rzeczypospolitej w relacji Huberta Vautrina"
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857:
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Gorshkov, Boris B. "Serfs on the Move: Peasant Seasonal Migration in Pre-Reform Russia, 1800–61".
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David Moon. "The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia". Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2001. Page 33
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David Moon. "The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia". Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2001. Page 40
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David Moon. "The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia". Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2001. Page 39
2014:
David Moon. "The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia". Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2001. Page 37
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954:. Many peasants remained indebted and bound to landowners. Nobility didn't lose their privileges.
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As a whole, serfdom both came and remained in Russia much later than in other European countries.
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of the country, however, together with the dvoryane of the south, were interested in a short-term
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peasants who had fled to the outlying districts of the country, such as regions along the border
390:
268:
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1266:. State peasants were considered personally free, but their freedom of movement was restricted.
1197:
463:) and later an open-ended prohibition for peasants to leave their masters was introduced by the
361:
From the 13th century to the 15th century, feudal dependency applied to a significant number of
1775:
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slaves because Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679.
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1941:
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exploitation of the peasant labor, that is, by burdening the peasant household still further.
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845:
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650:
629:
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410:
182:
144:
88:
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511:(nobles) were content with the long time frame for search of the runaway peasants. The major
487:), or the 5-year time frame for search of the runaway peasants. In 1607, a new ukase defined
3304:
2336:
1930:
1902:
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Evsey D. Domar and Mark J. Machina, "On the Profitability of Russian Serfdom", (1984) p 919.
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depicting Russian serfs listening to the proclamation of the Emancipation Manifesto in 1861
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2001:
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Viaene, Vincent, Wayne Thorpe, and H. G. Koenigsberger. "Reassessing Russian Serfdom".
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2694:. John Merriman and Jay Winter, eds. in chief. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 2006
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Marie, Jean-Jacques (1997). "– 1 – le règne réformateur d'Alexandre II (1855-1881)".
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148:
2325:"The Economic Effects of the Abolition of Serfdom: Evidence from the Russian Empire"
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There were numerous rebellions against this bondage, most often in conjunction with
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The official estimate is that 23 million Russians were privately owned, 23 million
600:
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abolished slavery and converted the slaves into serfs. This was relevant more to
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could not be enserfed. Freedom was granted to retired soldiers who were serfs.
17:
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A Life Under Russian Serfdom: Memoirs of Savva Dmitrievich Purlevskii, 1800–68
1619:
1103:
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Lust, Kersti. "Kiselev's Reforms of State Peasants: The Baltic Perspective",
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Wagner, W.J. (1992). "May 3, 1791, and the Polish constitutional tradition".
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Miller, David B. (1 January 1984). "Review of Slavery in Russia, 1450-1725".
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Gregory Freeze. "Russia: A History". New York: Oxford University Press, 2002
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In 1861, Alexander II freed all serfs (except in Georgia and Kalmykia) in a
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Domar, Evsey, and Mark Machina. "On the Profitability of Russian Serfdom".
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to leave their master was limited to a period of one week before and after
317:
2298:"Ending Feudalism: The 150th Anniversary of the Emancipation of the Serfs"
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Rural Russia under the old régime: a history of the landlord-peasant world
296:
may be traced to the 12th century, when the exploitation of the so-called
2764:
Mironov, Boris. “When and Why was the Russian Peasantry Emancipated?” in
2341:
2324:
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Before and after the abolition of serfdom, Russian peasant families were
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of three days a week as normal and sufficient for the landowner's needs.
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Sketches of Russian Life Before and During the Emancipation of the Serfs
2430:"Peasant Morality and Pre-Marital Relations in Late 19th Century Russia"
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200:) wanted to reform the system but moved cautiously, liberating serfs in
2807:
2758:
2670:
2638:
2496:. Translated by North, Jonathan. Casemate Publishers (published 2013).
1914:
1754:
1216:
The exact numbers, according to official data, were: entire population
1129:
1006:
768:
646:
612:
592:
560:
450:
362:
350:
289:
164:
156:
152:
85:
81:
828:
in 1842, though there were almost no Russians who participated in it.
2716:
Serfdom and Social Control in Russia: Petrovskoe, a Village in Tambov
1641:
1178:
1073:
544:
342:
293:
103:
2897:
1906:
1722:"КРЕПОСТНОЕ ПРАВО • Great Russian Encyclopedia – Electronic version"
719:. The children of foster homes and those who had graduated from the
335:) was the closest to what is now known as serfdom. According to the
2621:
Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century
2493:
With Napoleon's Guard in Russia: The Memoirs of Major Vionnet, 1812
2438:, Vol. 23, No. 4 (Summer, 1990), (Oxford University Press), 695–98.
1648:
Lord and Peasant in Russia from the Ninth to the Nineteenth Century
271:, describing Russian rural life of those times, and where the word
1664:
1196:
1107:
1096:
1058:
1023:
878:
735:
639:
582:
464:
413:. Annually the Russian population of the borderland suffered from
320:
160:
92:
2490:
Vionnet, Louis Joseph (19 January 2013) . North, Jonathan (ed.).
449:, or transportation fee), in case a peasant refused to bring the
1141:
397:(1497), strengthened the dependency of peasants, statewide, and
49:
2901:
728:
and land to state jurisdiction. In 1775 measures were taken by
676:
and onother 3500,000 peasants were under the Tsar's patronage (
433:
increased the amount of pozhiloye and introduced an additional
2678:
The Russian Landed Gentry and the Peasant Emancipation of 1861
907:). Landless workers had to ask permission to leave an estate.
587:
Vengeance of Serfs. Engraving by Charles Michel Geoffroy, 1845
434:
2480:. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. Pages 124-127.
2394:(English Edition, 2002–), Vol. 59, No. 6 (Nov.–Dec., 2004), (
2135:[Russian population exodus into the Rzeczpospolita].
1039:
In the black earth region, 70% to 77% of the serfs performed
147:
and, from 1721, of the subsequent Russian Empire. Serfdom in
2860:
Up from Serfdom: My Childhood and Youth in Russia, 1804–1824
2780:
The Russian Peasantry 1600–1930: The World the Peasants Made
2168:
Annales Universitatis Mariae Curie-Skłodowska. Sectio G. Ius
915:, and the high turnover and mobility from estate to estate.
2474:
Olga Semyonova-Tian-Shanskaia, Edited by: David L. Ransel.
2407:
Avdeev, Blum, Troitskaia, Juby, "Peasant Marriage", 731–33.
2108:
Geroid Robinson, Rural Russia under the old regime, page 59
1115:
average age of marriage for women was around 19 years old.
1016:. While no official government regulation to the extent of
669:
to exercise their powers over serfs to the fullest extent.
2362:
2360:
2589:
David Moon, The Russian Peasant 1600–1930, pages 204–205.
405:
persistently battled against the successor states of the
2768:
Ed. M.L. Bush. (London: Longman, 1996) pp. 323–347.
2447:
Avdeev, Blum, Troitskaia, Juby, "Peasant Marriage", 733.
2416:
Avdeev, Blum, Troitskaia, Juby, "Peasant Marriage", 726.
1967:. Les Fondamentaux. Hachette Education. pp. 13–29.
1808:
The Durham University journal – Volumes 45–46 – Page 237
2366:
Richard Pipes, Russia under the old regime, pages 147–8
1123:
Distribution of property and duties between the spouses
2598:
Theda Skocpol, States and Social Revolutions, page 87.
2133:"Zbiegostwo ludności Rosji w granice Rzeczypospolitej"
1132:. Footwear was the husband's responsibility - he made
2685:
Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History
2607:
Richard Pipes, Russia under the old regime, page 178.
167:
generally occurred rarely until, during the reign of
123:
80:'bonded peasant'), in the sense of an unfree
68:
2633:
Crisp, Olga. "The state peasants under Nicholas I."
2465:
Engel, "Peasant Pre-Marital Relations", 701–05, 708.
3229:
3191:
2933:
2223:. Harlow: Pearson Education Limited, 2001. Page xiv
733:nineteenth century due to estate owner negligence.
2730:Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom
2323:Markevich, Andrei; Zhuravskaya, Ekaterina (2018).
1932:Unfree Labor: American Slavery and Russian Serfdom
1929:
1256:; peasants of the appanages and other departments
891:In 1816, 1817, and 1819, serfdom was abolished in
2690:Gorshkov, Boris B. "Serfs, Emancipation of" in
2456:Engel, "Peasant Pre-Marital Relations", 698–99.
2388:"Peasant Marriage in Nineteenth-Century Russia"
2883:The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis
2646:The institutional framework of Russian serfdom
2072:. Archived from the original on April 8, 2016.
1869:Население России за 400 лет (XVI-начало XX вв)
2913:
2815:International Labor and Working-Class History
2766:Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage
1882:Historical survey > Ways of ending slavery
1594:highlighting the cruelty of the serf system.
1574:
1568:
1562:
1145:
1046:
1040:
1031:
1017:
1000:
994:
988:
982:
677:
649:remained a legally recognized institution in
554:
548:
530:
524:
499:
482:
476:
454:
444:
438:
384:
378:
330:
324:
311:
305:
253:
247:
241:
8:
1632:Government reforms of Alexander II of Russia
947:
453:from the fields to his master. A temporary (
2878:Saltychikha (1730–1801): Russian serf-owner
1687:. University Of Chicago Press. p. 85.
1424:% peasants enserfed in each province, 1860
1158:Typical Russian serf clothing included the
2920:
2906:
2898:
2291:
2289:
1847:"Language Centre – Language Centre – Home"
1745:
1743:
1354:Serfs owned by European Russian landlords
2873:Serfdom: The Life of East Europe's Masses
2773:Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: 1762–1907
2396:Institut National d'Études Démographiques
2340:
2270:
2268:
1005:), refer to the obligatory work that the
357:From the 13th century to the 15th century
2628:The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe
1352:
1319:
1268:
938:, serfdom was not abolished until 1892.
699:
633:
29:
2537:. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 218
1675:
1623:, a novel which focuses on late serfdom
1246:; peasants on the lands of proprietors
1204:, painting of a Ukrainian serf girl by
91:, meant an unfree person who, unlike a
2630:(1978) influential comparative history
2075:
1997:
1987:
1867:Водарский, Ярослав Евгеньевич (1973).
1321:% serf owners with <100 serfs
946:, where the Tsar wanted to weaken the
27:Unfree peasant class of Tsarist Russia
2894:, Friday 30 July 1858, p. 7
2296:Bubnova, Natalie (18 February 2011).
1936:. Harvard University Press. pp.
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
262:
7:
595:uprisings, such as the uprisings of
2718:(University of Chicago Press, 1986)
2648:(Cambridge University Press, 2011)
2579:Assigned, Church and Crown Peasants
2477:Village Life in Late Tsarist Russia
1964:Le règne réformateur d'Alexandre II
1780:. World Book .com. 1 January 2003.
696:Eighteenth and nineteenth centuries
2831:(1878) Chapter XXVIII The Serfs;
2680:(Cambridge University Press, 1968)
2386:, Irina Troitskaia, Heather Juby,
2221:The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia
1871:. Moscow: Просвещение. p. 32.
35:A Peasant Leaving His Landlord on
25:
2839:Russia's Age of Serfdom 1649–1861
2692:Encyclopedia of Europe, 1789–1914
2635:Slavonic and East European Review
2556:Donald Mackenzie Wallace (1905).
2275:NUPI – Centre for Russian Studies
2131:Czajewski, Jerzy (October 2004).
815:To discuss the peasant question,
563:(ukases of 1671, 1683 and 1700),
2855:. Budapest & New York, 2005
2837:Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling.
2262:(2011) 70#4 pp. 584–607, online
1193:The extent of serfdom in Russia
875:Abolition of serfdom in Livonia
674:were considered personally free
195:
173:
115:in 1723, the serfdom (Russian:
2665:(1984) 44#4 pp. 919–955.
1557:70–77% of the serfs performed
1063:Group of Russian peasant women
842:Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
755:and humanism spread among the
721:St. Petersburg Academy of Arts
1:
3310:Society of the Russian Empire
3295:Economy of the Russian Empire
2711:(2004) 63#2 pp. 247–274.
1654:Manifesto of three-day corvee
1208:, who was himself born a serf
846:once harsh serfdom conditions
559:) (ukases of 1653 and 1656),
313:roleyniye (pashenniye) zakupy
2702:Slavery in Russia, 1450–1725
1685:Slavery in Russia, 1450-1725
1082:abolition of serfdom in 1861
920:Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna
349:and personal rights and his
323:(Russian term for corvée is
2827:Wallace, Donald Mackenzie.
2824:(1996) 26 pp. 483–526.
2800:Journal of economic history
2663:Journal of Economic History
2558:"CHAPTER XXVIII. THE SERFS"
1614:Darya Nikolayevna Saltykova
1575:
1569:
1563:
1226:; peasantry of all classes
1146:
1047:
1041:
1032:
1018:
995:
983:
871:Emancipation reform of 1861
705:Selling serfs at an auction
678:
549:
531:
483:
467:of 1597 under the reign of
439:
379:
331:
312:
248:
242:
221:emancipation reform of 1861
138:emancipation reform of 1861
124:
69:
3336:
2822:European History Quarterly
2746:(2013) 44#1 pp. 1–18.
2117:Geroid Tanquary Robinson,
1826:"Rural Population Classes"
1555:Central Black Earth Region
868:
850:partition the Commonwealth
684:Great Emancipation of 1861
627:
425:Transition to full serfdom
307:ролейные (пашенные) закупы
151:(parts of today's central
2744:Journal of Baltic Studies
2737:Journal of Baltic Studies
2435:Journal of Social History
2234:Russia: People and Empire
2082:: CS1 maint: unfit URL (
1797:– via Google Books.
1777:The World Book Dictionary
1609:Anna Orlova-Tshesmenskaja
1174:
1076:, or for two weeks after
1001:
989:
824:also banned the trade of
555:
525:
500:
477:
455:
445:
399:restricted their mobility
385:
353:was given to the prince.
325:
306:
254:
223:, a few years later than
116:
58:
2851:Gorshkov, Boris B., ed.
2725:(1979) 38#3 pp: 403-425.
2329:American Economic Review
1683:Hellie, Richard (1982).
1055:Marriage and family life
1045:; the rest paid levies (
965:American Economic Review
2802:(1985) 45#1 pp: 47–69.
2782:(London: Longman, 1999)
1928:Kolchin, Peter (1987).
1567:), the rest paid rent (
1069:Russian Orthodox Church
769:katorga ('hard labour')
611:(1773–1775). While the
2976:Bosnia and Herzegovina
2858:Nikitenko, Aleksandr.
2817:(2010) 78#1 pp: 12-27.
2637:37.89 (1959): 387-412
1209:
1064:
977:Labour and obligations
948:
888:
748:
711:
665:for hire" or similar.
642:
588:
232:'s need for soldiers.
70:krepostnoy krest'yanin
44:
2739:(2008) 39#1 pp 57–71.
2302:carnegieendowment.org
2162:Kimla, Piotr (2011).
1200:
1062:
981:In Russia, the terms
928:major agrarian reform
882:
747:(Sale of a serf girl)
739:
703:
637:
586:
389:). The legal code of
59:крепостной крестьянин
33:
2753:(2005) 64#1 pp 1–21
2426:Barbara Alpern Engel
2342:10.1257/aer.20160144
1753:(2005) 64#1 pp 1-21
962:A 2018 study in the
852:(one of the reasons
809:Age of Enlightenment
618:Pugachev's Rebellion
3300:Feudalism in Russia
3192:States with limited
1355:
1322:
1271:
1270:% serfs on estates
883:A 1907 painting by
858:partition of Poland
540:Sobornoye Ulozhenie
496:Sobornoye Ulozhenie
373:(November 26). The
169:Catherine the Great
2792:2014-04-29 at the
2687:(Fall 2000) 627–56
2655:2014-04-29 at the
2375:Alexandre Avdeev,
2335:(4–5): 1074–1117.
2280:2006-02-16 at the
2247:A People's Tragedy
2232:Geoffrey Hosking,
2151:on 3 January 2005.
1637:History of serfdom
1353:
1320:
1269:
1210:
1138:Black Earth Region
1065:
889:
822:Emperor Nicholas I
805:Russo-Persian Wars
749:
712:
643:
638:Punishment with a
589:
391:Ivan III of Russia
345:smerd had limited
269:Russian literature
45:
3277:
3276:
2928:Serfdom in Europe
2676:Emmons, Terence.
2644:Dennison, Tracy.
2195:The Polish Review
1974:978-2-01-145120-0
1627:Fugitive peasants
1604:Slavery in Russia
1588:Fyodor Dostoevsky
1422:
1421:
1347:
1346:
1318:
1317:
1236:; state peasants
911:estates, lack of
765:French Revolution
717:Eastern Orthodoxy
679:udelnye krestiane
653:until 1723, when
630:Slavery in Russia
609:Yemelyan Pugachev
501:Соборное уложение
411:Khanate of Crimea
217:abolished serfdom
145:Tsardom of Russia
125:krepostnoye pravo
122:
79:
67:
16:(Redirected from
3327:
3315:Reform in Russia
3230:Dependencies and
2934:Sovereign states
2922:
2915:
2908:
2899:
2728:Kolchin, Peter.
2608:
2605:
2599:
2596:
2590:
2587:
2581:
2576:
2570:
2569:
2564:. Archived from
2553:
2547:
2546:
2544:
2542:
2525:
2519:
2518:
2512:
2510:
2487:
2481:
2472:
2466:
2463:
2457:
2454:
2448:
2445:
2439:
2423:
2417:
2414:
2408:
2405:
2399:
2385:
2373:
2367:
2364:
2355:
2354:
2344:
2320:
2314:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2293:
2284:
2272:
2263:
2256:
2250:
2243:
2237:
2230:
2224:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2190:
2184:
2183:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2147:. Archived from
2128:
2122:
2115:
2109:
2106:
2100:
2094:
2088:
2087:
2081:
2073:
2066:
2060:
2057:
2051:
2048:
2042:
2039:
2033:
2030:
2024:
2021:
2015:
2012:
2006:
2005:
1999:
1995:
1993:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1935:
1925:
1919:
1918:
1890:
1884:
1879:
1873:
1872:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1855:
1853:
1843:
1837:
1836:
1834:
1832:
1822:
1816:
1805:
1799:
1798:
1796:
1794:
1772:
1766:
1763:
1757:
1747:
1738:
1737:
1735:
1733:
1718:
1699:
1698:
1680:
1578:
1572:
1566:
1356:
1323:
1272:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1255:
1254:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1231:
1225:
1224:
1221:
1206:Taras Shevchenko
1176:
1168:
1154:Material culture
1149:
1050:
1044:
1035:
1028:Paul I of Russia
1022:existed, a 1797
1021:
1004:
1003:
998:
992:
991:
986:
953:
918:The Tsar's aunt
836:Poland–Lithuania
757:Russian nobility
751:As the ideas of
681:
624:Slaves and serfs
607:(1707–1709) and
605:Kondraty Bulavin
558:
557:
552:
550:zasechniye linii
534:
528:
527:
503:
502:
486:
480:
479:
458:
457:
448:
447:
442:
431:Sudebnik of 1550
388:
387:
382:
375:Sudebnik of 1497
334:
328:
327:
315:
309:
308:
266:
264:[mʊˈʐɨk]
261:
257:
256:
251:
245:
199:
198: 1801–1825
197:
177:
176: 1762–1796
175:
127:
121:romanized:
120:
118:
117:крепостное право
74:
72:
62:
60:
42:Sergei V. Ivanov
21:
3335:
3334:
3330:
3329:
3328:
3326:
3325:
3324:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3231:
3225:
3211:Northern Cyprus
3193:
3187:
3108:North Macedonia
2929:
2926:
2888:Russian serfdom
2869:
2848:
2846:Primary sources
2794:Wayback Machine
2698:Hellie, Richard
2657:Wayback Machine
2616:
2614:Further reading
2611:
2606:
2602:
2597:
2593:
2588:
2584:
2577:
2573:
2555:
2554:
2550:
2540:
2538:
2527:
2526:
2522:
2508:
2506:
2504:
2489:
2488:
2484:
2473:
2469:
2464:
2460:
2455:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2424:
2420:
2415:
2411:
2406:
2402:
2379:
2374:
2370:
2365:
2358:
2322:
2321:
2317:
2307:
2305:
2295:
2294:
2287:
2282:Wayback Machine
2273:
2266:
2257:
2253:
2245:Orlando Figes,
2244:
2240:
2231:
2227:
2218:
2214:
2192:
2191:
2187:
2161:
2160:
2156:
2130:
2129:
2125:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2095:
2091:
2074:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2058:
2054:
2049:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2031:
2027:
2022:
2018:
2013:
2009:
1996:
1986:
1979:
1977:
1975:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1948:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1907:10.2307/2846321
1892:
1891:
1887:
1880:
1876:
1866:
1865:
1861:
1851:
1849:
1845:
1844:
1840:
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1824:
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1806:
1802:
1792:
1790:
1788:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1764:
1760:
1748:
1741:
1731:
1729:
1720:
1719:
1702:
1695:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1600:
1559:labour services
1447:Nizhny Novgorod
1262:
1259:
1257:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1217:
1195:
1177:, a collarless
1162:
1156:
1125:
1057:
979:
974:
960:
944:Congress Poland
885:Boris Kustodiev
877:
869:Main articles:
867:
838:
801:Napoleonic Wars
789:N. S. Mordvinov
777:P. A. Vyazemsky
773:A. A. Arakcheev
698:
655:Peter the Great
632:
626:
597:Ivan Bolotnikov
581:
461:forbidden years
456:Заповедные лета
427:
415:Tatar invasions
359:
338:Russkaya Pravda
288:The origins of
286:
281:
259:
238:
194:
172:
98:Russkaya Pravda
28:
23:
22:
18:Russian serfdom
15:
12:
11:
5:
3333:
3331:
3323:
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3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
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3266:
3261:
3256:
3251:
3246:
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3235:
3233:
3232:other entities
3227:
3226:
3224:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3203:
3197:
3195:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3185:
3183:United Kingdom
3180:
3175:
3170:
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3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2996:Czech Republic
2993:
2988:
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2968:
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2953:
2948:
2943:
2937:
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2917:
2910:
2902:
2896:
2895:
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2868:
2867:External links
2865:
2864:
2863:
2856:
2847:
2844:
2843:
2842:
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2825:
2818:
2811:
2796:
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2769:
2762:
2751:Russian Review
2747:
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2726:
2719:
2714:Hoch, Steven.
2712:
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2674:
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2642:
2631:
2626:Blum, Jerome.
2624:
2619:Blum, Jerome.
2615:
2612:
2610:
2609:
2600:
2591:
2582:
2571:
2568:on 2009-07-05.
2548:
2520:
2502:
2482:
2467:
2458:
2449:
2440:
2418:
2409:
2400:
2368:
2356:
2315:
2285:
2264:
2260:Russian Review
2251:
2238:
2225:
2212:
2201:(4): 383–395.
2185:
2154:
2123:
2110:
2101:
2089:
2061:
2052:
2043:
2034:
2025:
2016:
2007:
1998:|website=
1973:
1953:
1946:
1920:
1901:(3): 653–655.
1885:
1874:
1859:
1838:
1817:
1815:
1814:
1800:
1786:
1767:
1758:
1751:Russian Review
1739:
1700:
1693:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1651:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1629:
1624:
1616:
1611:
1606:
1599:
1596:
1420:
1419:
1416:
1413:
1409:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1398:
1397:
1394:
1391:
1387:
1386:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1366:
1363:
1360:
1345:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1334:
1333:
1330:
1327:
1316:
1315:
1312:
1309:
1305:
1304:
1301:
1298:
1294:
1293:
1290:
1287:
1283:
1282:
1279:
1276:
1194:
1191:
1155:
1152:
1124:
1121:
1056:
1053:
978:
975:
973:
970:
959:
956:
866:
863:
837:
834:
826:African slaves
785:P. D. Kiselyov
745:Nikolai Nevrev
709:Klavdy Lebedev
697:
694:
625:
622:
580:
577:
556:засечные линии
484:urochniye leta
426:
423:
409:, chiefly the
358:
355:
285:
282:
280:
277:
252:(Russian:
237:
234:
159:lands, in the
40:, painting by
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3332:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3290:Russian serfs
3288:
3287:
3285:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3260:
3257:
3255:
3252:
3250:
3247:
3245:
3244:Faroe Islands
3242:
3240:
3237:
3236:
3234:
3228:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3216:South Ossetia
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3068:Liechtenstein
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3047:
3044:
3042:
3039:
3037:
3034:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2962:
2959:
2957:
2954:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2938:
2936:
2932:
2923:
2918:
2916:
2911:
2909:
2904:
2903:
2900:
2893:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2870:
2866:
2861:
2857:
2854:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2840:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2823:
2819:
2816:
2812:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2797:
2795:
2791:
2788:
2784:
2781:
2778:Moon, David.
2777:
2774:
2771:Moon, David.
2770:
2767:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2745:
2741:
2738:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2724:
2723:Slavic Review
2720:
2717:
2713:
2710:
2709:Slavic Review
2706:
2703:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2689:
2686:
2682:
2679:
2675:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2660:
2658:
2654:
2651:
2647:
2643:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2629:
2625:
2622:
2618:
2617:
2613:
2604:
2601:
2595:
2592:
2586:
2583:
2580:
2575:
2572:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2552:
2549:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2529:Morley, Henry
2524:
2521:
2517:
2505:
2503:9781783408986
2499:
2495:
2494:
2486:
2483:
2479:
2478:
2471:
2468:
2462:
2459:
2453:
2450:
2444:
2441:
2437:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2422:
2419:
2413:
2410:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2393:
2389:
2383:
2378:
2372:
2369:
2363:
2361:
2357:
2352:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2326:
2319:
2316:
2303:
2299:
2292:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2279:
2276:
2271:
2269:
2265:
2261:
2255:
2252:
2248:
2242:
2239:
2235:
2229:
2226:
2222:
2216:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2189:
2186:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2170:(in Polish).
2169:
2165:
2158:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2138:
2134:
2127:
2124:
2120:
2114:
2111:
2105:
2102:
2098:
2093:
2090:
2085:
2079:
2071:
2065:
2062:
2056:
2053:
2047:
2044:
2038:
2035:
2029:
2026:
2020:
2017:
2011:
2008:
2003:
1991:
1976:
1970:
1966:
1965:
1957:
1954:
1949:
1943:
1939:
1934:
1933:
1924:
1921:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1889:
1886:
1883:
1878:
1875:
1870:
1863:
1860:
1848:
1842:
1839:
1827:
1821:
1818:
1811:
1810:
1809:
1804:
1801:
1789:
1787:9780716602996
1783:
1779:
1778:
1771:
1768:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1752:
1746:
1744:
1740:
1727:
1726:old.bigenc.ru
1723:
1717:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1696:
1694:9780226326474
1690:
1686:
1679:
1676:
1670:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1649:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1638:
1635:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1617:
1615:
1612:
1610:
1607:
1605:
1602:
1601:
1597:
1595:
1591:
1589:
1585:
1580:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1550:
1547:
1544:
1541:
1538:
1535:
1532:
1529:
1528:Ekaterinoslav
1526:
1521:
1520:
1517:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1473:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1460:
1457:
1454:
1451:
1448:
1445:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1433:
1430:
1425:
1417:
1414:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1403:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1388:
1384:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1357:
1351:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1335:
1331:
1328:
1325:
1324:
1313:
1310:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1296:
1295:
1291:
1288:
1286:>500 serfs
1285:
1284:
1280:
1277:
1274:
1273:
1267:
1214:
1207:
1203:
1199:
1192:
1190:
1186:
1184:
1180:
1172:
1166:
1161:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1122:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1083:
1080:. Before the
1079:
1075:
1070:
1061:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1043:
1037:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1020:
1015:
1014:
1008:
997:
985:
976:
971:
969:
967:
966:
957:
955:
952:
951:
945:
939:
937:
933:
929:
924:
921:
916:
914:
913:primogeniture
908:
906:
902:
898:
894:
886:
881:
876:
872:
864:
862:
859:
856:gave for the
855:
851:
847:
843:
835:
833:
829:
827:
823:
818:
813:
810:
806:
802:
796:
794:
790:
786:
782:
781:V. N. Karazin
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
753:Enlightenment
746:
742:
738:
734:
731:
726:
722:
718:
710:
706:
702:
695:
693:
691:
690:
685:
682:) before the
680:
675:
670:
666:
662:
660:
656:
652:
648:
641:
636:
631:
623:
621:
619:
614:
610:
606:
603:(1667–1671),
602:
599:(1606–1607),
598:
594:
585:
578:
576:
572:
570:
566:
562:
551:
546:
541:
536:
533:
522:
518:
514:
510:
505:
497:
492:
490:
485:
474:
470:
469:Boris Godunov
466:
462:
452:
441:
436:
432:
424:
422:
420:
416:
412:
408:
404:
400:
396:
392:
381:
376:
372:
368:
364:
356:
354:
352:
348:
344:
340:
339:
333:
322:
319:
314:
303:
299:
295:
291:
283:
278:
276:
274:
270:
265:
250:
244:
235:
233:
231:
226:
222:
218:
215:
211:
207:
203:
192:
187:
184:
179:
170:
166:
162:
158:
155:), and other
154:
150:
149:Little Russia
146:
141:
139:
135:
131:
126:
114:
110:
106:
105:
100:
99:
94:
90:
87:
83:
77:
71:
65:
56:
52:
51:
43:
39:
38:
32:
19:
3221:Transnistria
3132:
2859:
2852:
2838:
2828:
2821:
2814:
2799:
2779:
2772:
2765:
2750:
2743:
2736:
2729:
2722:
2715:
2708:
2701:
2691:
2684:
2677:
2662:
2645:
2634:
2627:
2620:
2603:
2594:
2585:
2574:
2566:the original
2561:
2551:
2539:. Retrieved
2533:
2523:
2514:
2507:. Retrieved
2492:
2485:
2476:
2470:
2461:
2452:
2443:
2433:
2421:
2412:
2403:
2391:
2371:
2332:
2328:
2318:
2306:. Retrieved
2301:
2259:
2254:
2249:, p. 48
2246:
2241:
2233:
2228:
2220:
2219:David Moon.
2215:
2198:
2194:
2188:
2174:(1): 87–97.
2171:
2167:
2157:
2149:the original
2136:
2126:
2118:
2113:
2104:
2092:
2064:
2055:
2046:
2037:
2028:
2019:
2010:
1978:. Retrieved
1963:
1956:
1931:
1923:
1898:
1894:
1888:
1877:
1868:
1862:
1850:. Retrieved
1841:
1829:. Retrieved
1820:
1803:
1791:. Retrieved
1776:
1770:
1761:
1750:
1730:. Retrieved
1725:
1684:
1678:
1646:
1618:
1592:
1581:
1552:
1522:
1474:
1426:
1423:
1393:16 (>100)
1365:in 1859 (%)
1359:No. of serfs
1348:
1215:
1211:
1201:
1187:
1157:
1126:
1117:
1113:
1101:
1090:
1086:
1066:
1038:
1030:described a
1011:
996:boyarshchina
980:
972:Serf society
963:
961:
940:
925:
917:
909:
904:
890:
854:Catherine II
839:
830:
814:
797:
793:N. G. Repnin
750:
740:
730:Catherine II
713:
704:
687:
671:
667:
663:
644:
601:Stenka Razin
590:
573:
539:
537:
532:chelobitniye
507:Most of the
506:
493:
478:Урочные лета
428:
407:Golden Horde
360:
336:
302:arable lands
287:
272:
239:
214:Alexander II
208:(1816), and
188:
180:
142:
134:Alexander II
102:
96:
48:
46:
34:
3259:Isle of Man
3194:recognition
3168:Switzerland
3103:Netherlands
2380: [
1852:18 December
1831:18 December
1793:18 December
1584:Leo Tolstoy
1362:in 1777 (%)
1163: [
1104:patriarchal
761:Alexander I
741:The Bargain
569:legislation
517:persecution
473:fixed years
419:slave raids
236:Terminology
191:Alexander I
3284:Categories
3138:San Marino
3098:Montenegro
3078:Luxembourg
3058:Kazakhstan
2961:Azerbaijan
2398:), 742–43.
2392:Population
2377:Alain Blum
2236:, page 164
2137:Promemoria
1947:0674920988
1732:4 November
1671:References
1620:Dead Souls
1564:barshchina
1181:) and the
1134:bast shoes
1042:barshchina
1033:barshchina
1019:barshchina
984:barshchina
905:halbkörner
817:Nicholas I
628:See also:
579:Rebellions
526:челобитные
513:landowners
371:Yuri's Day
104:kholopstvo
37:Yuriev Day
3249:Gibraltar
3073:Lithuania
2892:The Argus
2541:14 August
2509:14 August
2351:0002-8282
2180:0458-4317
2145:1509-9091
2121:, page 37
2070:"Serfdom"
2000:ignored (
1990:cite book
1660:Obshchina
1477:Chernigov
1471:Yaroslavl
1427:>55%:
1275:Estate of
1078:Christmas
865:Abolition
861:locals.
725:Peter III
659:household
521:petitions
489:sanctions
380:pozhiloye
367:votchinas
332:barschina
240:The term
130:abolished
64:romanized
47:The term
3269:Svalbard
3254:Guernsey
3201:Abkhazia
3153:Slovenia
3148:Slovakia
3123:Portugal
2981:Bulgaria
2790:Archived
2653:Archived
2531:(1866).
2304:. Moscow
2278:Archived
2207:25778591
2139:(6/15).
2078:cite web
1895:Speculum
1755:in JSTOR
1598:See also
1549:Voronezh
1523:16–35%:
1510:Simbirsk
1492:Novgorod
1475:36–55%:
1468:Volhynia
1465:Vladimir
1456:Smolensk
1435:Kostroma
1380:501–1000
1370:>1000
1202:Kateryna
1002:боярщина
950:szlachta
936:Kalmykia
897:Courland
545:abatises
509:dvoryane
446:за повоз
440:za povoz
403:Russians
395:Sudebnik
363:peasants
347:property
343:princely
230:military
210:Courland
204:(1816),
189:Emperor
132:only by
3305:Serfdom
3178:Ukraine
3128:Romania
3088:Moldova
3046:Ireland
3041:Iceland
3036:Hungary
3026:Germany
3021:Georgia
3011:Finland
3006:Estonia
3001:Denmark
2986:Croatia
2971:Belgium
2966:Belarus
2956:Austria
2951:Armenia
2946:Andorra
2941:Albania
2841:(2008).
2808:2122007
2759:3664324
2732:(1987).
2671:2122113
2650:excerpt
2308:17 June
1915:2846321
1553:In the
1546:Vologda
1534:Kherson
1531:Kharkov
1507:Saratov
1501:Poltava
1462:Vitebsk
1450:Podolia
1444:Mogilev
1390:101–500
1297:100–500
1171:Russian
1147:sobinki
1093:estates
990:барщина
932:Georgia
901:Livonia
893:Estland
844:(where
689:Kolokol
647:Slavery
613:Cossack
593:Cossack
561:Siberia
547:called
451:harvest
437:called
386:пожилое
351:escheat
326:барщина
290:serfdom
284:Origins
279:History
225:Austria
219:in the
206:Livonia
202:Estonia
183:emperor
165:Siberia
163:and in
157:Cossack
153:Ukraine
113:Peter I
86:tsarist
82:peasant
78:
66::
55:Russian
3264:Jersey
3206:Kosovo
3173:Turkey
3163:Sweden
3143:Serbia
3133:Russia
3118:Poland
3113:Norway
3093:Monaco
3063:Latvia
3031:Greece
3016:France
2991:Cyprus
2862:(2001)
2833:online
2829:Russia
2806:
2787:online
2775:(2002)
2757:
2704:(1984)
2669:
2639:online
2623:(1961)
2562:Russia
2516:smock.
2500:
2349:
2205:
2178:
2143:
1980:May 1,
1971:
1944:
1913:
1784:
1728:. 2016
1691:
1656:(1797)
1642:Kholop
1543:Tiflis
1513:Tambov
1489:Moscow
1480:Grodno
1453:Ryazan
1438:Kutais
1429:Kaluga
1401:21–100
1179:kaftan
1130:dontse
1074:Easter
1013:corvée
958:Impact
899:, and
651:Russia
401:. The
321:smerds
318:corvée
316:) and
298:zakups
294:Russia
273:muzhik
255:мужи́к
249:moujik
243:muzhik
128:) was
107:, was
89:Russia
3320:Serfs
3239:Åland
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2804:JSTOR
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