RNA - Knowledge (XXG)

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vaccines are thought to be easier to produce than traditional vaccines derived from killed or altered pathogens, because it can take months or years to grow and study a pathogen and determine which molecular parts to extract, inactivate, and use in a vaccine. Small molecules with conventional therapeutic properties can target RNA and DNA structures, thereby treating novel diseases. However, research is scarce on small molecules targeting RNA and approved drugs for human illness. Ribavirin, branaplam, and ataluren are currently available medications that stabilize double-stranded RNA structures and control splicing in a variety of disorders.

68: 761:, although in single strand dinucleotide contexts, RNA can rarely also adopt the B-form most commonly observed in DNA. The A-form geometry results in a very deep and narrow major groove and a shallow and wide minor groove. A second consequence of the presence of the 2'-hydroxyl group is that in conformationally flexible regions of an RNA molecule (that is, not involved in formation of a double helix), it can chemically attack the adjacent phosphodiester bond to cleave the backbone. 549: 989: 235: 1456: 765: 682: 1204: 8002: 6912: 349: 1568: 40: 1979: 742: 841:. In order to create, i.e., design, RNA for any given secondary structure, two or three bases would not be enough, but four bases are enough. This is likely why nature has "chosen" a four base alphabet: fewer than four would not allow the creation of all structures, while more than four bases are not necessary to do so. Since RNA is charged, metal ions such as 656:, contain self-complementary sequences that allow parts of the RNA to fold and pair with itself to form double helices. Analysis of these RNAs has revealed that they are highly structured. Unlike DNA, their structures do not consist of long double helices, but rather collections of short helices packed together into structures akin to proteins. 1653: 1218:, and one is synthesized elsewhere. In the cytoplasm, ribosomal RNA and protein combine to form a nucleoprotein called a ribosome. The ribosome binds mRNA and carries out protein synthesis. Several ribosomes may be attached to a single mRNA at any time. Nearly all the RNA found in a typical eukaryotic cell is rRNA. 6253:

Balmayor, Elizabeth R.; Geiger, Johannes P.; Aneja, Manish K.; Berezhanskyy, Taras; Utzinger, Maximilian; Mykhaylyk, Olga; Rudolph, Carsten; Plank, Christian (May 2016). "Chemically modified RNA induces osteogenesis of stem cells and human tissue explants as well as accelerates bone healing in rats".

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At first, regulatory RNA was thought to be a eukaryotic phenomenon, a part of the explanation for why so much more transcription in higher organisms was seen than had been predicted. But as soon as researchers began to look for possible RNA regulators in bacteria, they turned up there as well, termed

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often present in rRNA are the most common. The specific roles of many of these modifications in RNA are not fully understood. However, it is notable that, in ribosomal RNA, many of the post-transcriptional modifications occur in highly functional regions, such as the peptidyl transferase center and

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Palacino, James; Swalley, Susanne E; Song, Cheng; Cheung, Atwood K; Shu, Lei; Zhang, Xiaolu; Van Hoosear, Mailin; Shin, Youngah; Chin, Donovan N; Keller, Caroline Gubser; Beibel, Martin; Renaud, Nicole A; Smith, Thomas M; Salcius, Michael; Shi, Xiaoying (2015-06-01). "SMN2 splice modulators enhance

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Protein-coding mRNAs have emerged as new therapeutic candidates, with RNA replacement being particularly beneficial for brief but torrential protein expression. In vitro transcribed mRNAs (IVT-mRNA) have been used to deliver proteins for bone regeneration, pluripotency, and heart function in animal

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theory. There are indications that the enterobacterial sRNAs are involved in various cellular processes and seem to have significant role in stress responses such as membrane stress, starvation stress, phosphosugar stress and DNA damage. Also, it has been suggested that sRNAs have been evolved to

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RNA, initially deemed unsuitable for therapeutics due to its short half-life, has been made useful through advances in stabilization. Therapeutic applications arise as RNA folds into complex conformations and binds proteins, nucleic acids, and small molecules to form catalytic centers. RNA-based

1511:. snoRNAs associate with enzymes and guide them to a spot on an RNA by basepairing to that RNA. These enzymes then perform the nucleotide modification. rRNAs and tRNAs are extensively modified, but snRNAs and mRNAs can also be the target of base modification. RNA can also be methylated. 1953:

models. SiRNAs, short RNA molecules, play a crucial role in innate defense against viruses and chromatin structure. They can be artificially introduced to silence specific genes, making them valuable for gene function studies, therapeutic target validation, and drug development.

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activity of the enzyme. The enzyme then progresses along the template strand in the 3’ to 5’ direction, synthesizing a complementary RNA molecule with elongation occurring in the 5’ to 3’ direction. The DNA sequence also dictates where termination of RNA synthesis will occur.

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Roy, Bijoyita; Friesen, Westley J.; Tomizawa, Yuki; Leszyk, John D.; Zhuo, Jin; Johnson, Briana; Dakka, Jumana; Trotta, Christopher R.; Xue, Xiaojiao; Mutyam, Venkateshwar; Keeling, Kim M.; Mobley, James A.; Rowe, Steven M.; Bedwell, David M.; Welch, Ellen M. (2016-10-04).

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Warren, Luigi; Manos, Philip D.; Ahfeldt, Tim; Loh, Yuin-Han; Li, Hu; Lau, Frank; Ebina, Wataru; Mandal, Pankaj K.; Smith, Zachary D.; Meissner, Alexander; Daley, George Q.; Brack, Andrew S.; Collins, James J.; Cowan, Chad; Schlaeger, Thorsten M. (November 2010).

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Mikkola S, Stenman E, Nurmi K, Yousefi-Salakdeh E, Strömberg R, Lönnberg H (1999). "The mechanism of the metal ion promoted cleavage of RNA phosphodiester bonds involves a general acid catalysis by the metal aquo ion on the departure of the leaving group".

1214:(rRNA) is the catalytic component of the ribosomes. The rRNA is the component of the ribosome that hosts translation. Eukaryotic ribosomes contain four different rRNA molecules: 18S, 5.8S, 28S and 5S rRNA. Three of the rRNA molecules are synthesized in the 1174:. In prokaryotic cells, which do not have nucleus and cytoplasm compartments, mRNA can bind to ribosomes while it is being transcribed from DNA. After a certain amount of time, the message degrades into its component nucleotides with the assistance of 1692:) was later shown to be responsible for RNA degradation, not RNA synthesis. In 1956 Alex Rich and David Davies hybridized two separate strands of RNA to form the first crystal of RNA whose structure could be determined by X-ray crystallography. 1372:

complex so that messenger RNA could not be transcribed from them. Additional lncRNAs, currently defined as RNAs of more than 200 base pairs that do not appear to have coding potential, have been found associated with regulation of

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regions near the genes to be regulated. Later studies have shown that RNAs also regulate genes. There are several kinds of RNA-dependent processes in eukaryotes regulating the expression of genes at various points, such as

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Preskey, David; Allison, Thomas F.; Jones, Mark; Mamchaoui, Kamel; Unger, Christian (May 2016). "Synthetically modified mRNA for efficient and fast human iPS cell generation and direct transdifferentiation to myoblasts".

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hypothesized that RNA might be catalytic and suggested that the earliest forms of life (self-replicating molecules) could have relied on RNA both to carry genetic information and to catalyze biochemical reactions—an

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between cytosine and guanine, between adenine and uracil and between guanine and uracil. However, other interactions are possible, such as a group of adenine bases binding to each other in a bulge, or the GNRA

1584:(dsRNA) is RNA with two complementary strands, similar to the DNA found in all cells, but with the replacement of thymine by uracil and the adding of one oxygen atom. dsRNA forms the genetic material of some 1638:

joins a upstream 3' acceptor to a downstream 5' donor splice site. So far the function of circRNAs is largely unknown, although for few examples a microRNA sponging activity has been demonstrated.

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composed of RNA that encodes a number of proteins. The viral genome is replicated by some of those proteins, while other proteins protect the genome as the virus particle moves to a new host cell.

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group is attached to the 3' position of one ribose and the 5' position of the next. The phosphate groups have a negative charge each, making RNA a charged molecule (polyanion). The bases form

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Elangovan, Satheesh; Khorsand, Behnoush; Do, Anh-Vu; Hong, Liu; Dewerth, Alexander; Kormann, Michael; Ross, Ryan D.; Rick Sumner, D.; Allamargot, Chantal; Salem, Aliasger K. (November 2015).

1406:, which are known regulatory sites in the DNA near genes they regulate. They up-regulate the transcription of the gene(s) under control of the enhancer from which they are transcribed. 1402:. It is not clear at present whether they are a unique category of RNAs of various lengths or constitute a distinct subset of lncRNAs. In any case, they are transcribed from 1959:

have emerged as an important new class of vaccines, using mRNA to manufacture proteins which provoke an immune response. Their first successful large-scale application came in the form of

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Qadir, Muhammad Imran; Bukhat, Sherien; Rasul, Sumaira; Manzoor, Hamid; Manzoor, Majid (2019-09-03). "RNA therapeutics: Identification of novel targets leading to drug discovery".

6750: 1676:. It was later discovered that prokaryotic cells, which do not have a nucleus, also contain nucleic acids. The role of RNA in protein synthesis was suspected already in 1939. 536:—and potentially performed catalytic functions in cells—a function performed today by protein enzymes, with the notable and important exception of the ribosome, which is a 1722:

were discovered, showing for the first time that enzymes could copy RNA into DNA (the opposite of the usual route for transmission of genetic information). For this work,

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Unlike double-stranded DNA, RNA is usually a single-stranded molecule (ssRNA) in many of its biological roles and consists of much shorter chains of nucleotides. However,

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RNA is transcribed with only four bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine and uracil), but these bases and attached sugars can be modified in numerous ways as the RNAs mature.

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In the late 1970s, it was shown that there is a single stranded covalently closed, i.e. circular form of RNA expressed throughout the animal and plant kingdom (see

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such as proteins, one can define topology of a folded RNA molecule. This is often done based on arrangement of intra-chain contacts within a folded RNA, termed as

1483:(snRNA), or the introns can be ribozymes that are spliced by themselves. RNA can also be altered by having its nucleotides modified to nucleotides other than 2422:

Salazar M, Fedoroff OY, Miller JM, Ribeiro NS, Reid BR (April 1993). "The DNA strand in DNA.RNA hybrid duplexes is neither B-form nor A-form in solution".

1816:, to silence genes. Adding to the Nobel prizes for research on RNA, in 2009 it was awarded for the elucidation of the atomic structure of the ribosome to 6775: 380: 1420:

have important role in stress responses because of their kinetic properties that allow for rapid response and stabilisation of the physiological state.

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Fiers W, et al. (April 1976). "Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene".

7597: 6897: 5769: 7335: 2606:"Identification of critical elements in the tRNA acceptor stem and T(Psi)C loop necessary for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 infectivity" 1531:

are another group of pathogens, but they consist only of RNA, do not encode any protein and are replicated by a host plant cell's polymerase.

7116: 5111:"Double-Stranded RNA Is Produced by Positive-Strand RNA Viruses and DNA Viruses but Not in Detectable Amounts by Negative-Strand RNA Viruses" 3518: 3312:"The evolution of controlled multitasked gene networks: the role of introns and other noncoding RNAs in the development of complex organisms" 3286: 2752: 2580: 2398: 2203: 2173: 2134: 1829: 1293: 5017:

Blevins T, Rajeswaran R, Shivaprasad PV, Beknazariants D, Si-Ammour A, Park HS, Vazquez F, Robertson D, Meins F, Hohn T, Pooggin MM (2006).

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Lee JC, Gutell RR (December 2004). "Diversity of base-pair conformations and their occurrence in rRNA structure and RNA structural motifs".

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that is produced. However, many RNAs do not code for protein (about 97% of the transcriptional output is non-protein-coding in eukaryotes).

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There are more than 100 other naturally occurring modified nucleosides. The greatest structural diversity of modifications can be found in

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Hsu MT, Coca-Prados M (July 1979). "Electron microscopic evidence for the circular form of RNA in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells".

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Nissen P, Hansen J, Ban N, Moore PB, Steitz TA (August 2000). "The structural basis of ribosome activity in peptide bond synthesis".

7683: 7088: 965:(such as poliovirus) use this type of enzyme to replicate their genetic material. Also, RNA-dependent RNA polymerase is part of the 931: 1415:

as small RNA (sRNA). Currently, the ubiquitous nature of systems of RNA regulation of genes has been discussed as support for the

5510:"Introduction of a Chimeric Chalcone Synthase Gene into Petunia Results in Reversible Co-Suppression of Homologous Genes in trans" 2876:"Ribosome structure and activity are altered in cells lacking snoRNPs that form pseudouridines in the peptidyl transferase center" 7970: 7441: 1913: 573:(dsRNA) can form and (moreover) a single RNA molecule can, by complementary base pairing, form intrastrand double helixes, as in 2917:"Incorporating chemical modification constraints into a dynamic programming algorithm for prediction of RNA secondary structure" 7975: 7369: 7242: 7186: 1556: 1262: 1119:(piRNA), tRNA-derived small RNA (tsRNA) and small rDNA-derived RNA (srRNA). There are certain exceptions as in the case of the 833:

elements that are hydrogen bonds within the molecule. This leads to several recognizable "domains" of secondary structure like

4509:"" "Biological significance of a family of regularly spaced repeats in the genomes of archaea, bacteria and mitochondria" 1035:(rRNA), both of which are involved in the process of translation. There are also non-coding RNAs involved in gene regulation, 7181: 5927: 556:

ribosomal subunit. Ribosomal RNA is in brown, proteins in blue. The active site is a small segment of rRNA, indicated in red.

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Whitehead KA, Dahlman JE, Langer RS, Anderson DG (2011). "Silencing or stimulation? siRNA delivery and the immune system".

7872: 7758: 7269: 7200: 6941: 3892:"Cryo-Electron Microscopy Visualization of a Large Insertion in the 5S ribosomal RNA of the Extremely Halophilic Archaeon 6411:"Highly Efficient Reprogramming to Pluripotency and Directed Differentiation of Human Cells with Synthetic Modified mRNA" 7005: 6856: 1689: 958: 4556:

Brouns S, Jore MM, Lundgren M, Westra E, Slijkhuis R, Snijders A, Dickman M, Makarova K, Koonin E, Der Oost JV (2008).

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Luehrsen KR, Nicholson DE, Eubanks DC, Fox GE (1981). "An archaebacterial 5S rRNA contains a long insertion sequence".

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Copley SD, Smith E, Markowitz HJ (December 2007). "The origin of the RNA world: co-evolution of genes and metabolism".

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Plews, Jordan R.; Li, JianLiang; Jones, Mark; Moore, Harry D.; Mason, Chris; Andrews, Peter W.; Na, Jie (2010-12-30).

4921:"Large retrotransposon derivatives: abundant, conserved but nonautonomous retroelements of barley and related genomes" 1589: 1158:

cells, once precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) has been transcribed from DNA, it is processed to mature mRNA. This removes its

1688:) after he discovered an enzyme that can synthesize RNA in the laboratory. However, the enzyme discovered by Ochoa ( 1428:

pairing with mRNA to down-regulate its translation, either by affecting stability or affecting cis-binding ability.

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EGH Wagner, P Romby. (2015). "Small RNAs in bacteria and archaea: who they are, what they do, and how they do it".

3851:"Very similar strains of Halococcus salifodinae are found in geographically separated permo-triassic salt deposits" 2694:

Cantara WA, Crain PF, Rozenski J, McCloskey JA, Harris KA, Zhang X, Vendeix FA, Fabris D, Agris PF (January 2011).

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Sedova A, Banavali NK (February 2016). "RNA approaches the B-form in stacked single strand dinucleotide contexts".

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with a region of its target mRNAs. Once the base pairing occurs, other proteins direct the mRNA to be destroyed by

1232:. It tags proteins encoded by mRNAs that lack stop codons for degradation and prevents the ribosome from stalling. 1192:

chain at the ribosomal site of protein synthesis during translation. It has sites for amino acid attachment and an

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in the same year. The discovery of gene regulatory RNAs has led to attempts to develop drugs made of RNA, such as

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The functional form of single-stranded RNA molecules, just like proteins, frequently requires a specific spatial

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position, whereas deoxyribose does not. The hydroxyl groups in the ribose backbone make RNA more chemically

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Jana S, Chakraborty C, Nandi S, Deb JK (November 2004). "RNA interference: potential therapeutic targets".

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Rich A, Davies D (1956). "A New Two-Stranded Helical Structure: Polyadenylic Acid and Polyuridylic Acid".

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Omer AD, Ziesche S, Decatur WA, Fournier MJ, Dennis PP (May 2003). "RNA-modifying machines in archaea".

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Szathmáry E (June 1999). "The origin of the genetic code: amino acids as cofactors in an RNA world".

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Fichou Y, Férec C (December 2006). "The potential of oligonucleotides for therapeutic applications".

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Some RNA molecules play an active role within cells by catalyzing biological reactions, controlling

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molecule that is essential for most biological functions, either by performing the function itself (

7912: 7895: 7753: 7636: 7451: 7400: 7078: 6871: 6861: 6821: 6721: 6701: 6594: 6589: 5979:"Molecular Precursors of the RNA-World in Space: New Nitriles in the G+0.693–0.027 Molecular Cloud" 5158:

Schultz U, Kaspers B, Staeheli P (May 2004). "The interferon system of non-mammalian vertebrates".

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Nudler E, Gottesman ME (August 2002). "Transcription termination and anti-termination in E. coli".

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recognition that binds to a specific sequence on the messenger RNA chain through hydrogen bonding.

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that catalyzes the assembly of proteins—revealed that its active site is composed entirely of RNA.

529: 308: 288: 253: 223: 180: 174: 165: 137: 3741:"Profiling and identification of small rDNA-derived RNAs and their potential biological functions" 3635: 782:(Ψ), in which the linkage between uracil and ribose is changed from a C–N bond to a C–C bond, and 7806: 7801: 7676: 7481: 7476: 7213: 7096: 6831: 6716: 6711: 6686: 6235: 6069: 5992: 5870: 5684: 5631: 5490: 5439: 5339: 5261: 5091: 4852: 4823:"Site-specific ribose methylation of preribosomal RNA: a novel function for small nucleolar RNAs" 4803: 4746: 4538: 4437:

Winklef WC (2005). "Riboswitches and the role of noncoding RNAs in bacterial metabolic control".

4184: 4135: 4017: 3831: 3721: 3663: 3616: 3254: 3162: 3021: 2987: 2482: 2287: 2113: 1817: 1758: 1708: 1704: 1669: 1447:, acts via regulatory RNAs in archaea and bacteria to provide protection against virus invaders. 1443:

Archaea also have systems of regulatory RNA. The CRISPR system, recently being used to edit DNA

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sequence in the DNA (usually found "upstream" of a gene). The DNA double helix is unwound by the

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that introduced genes can silence similar genes of the plant's own, now known to be a result of

6134:"Ataluren stimulates ribosomal selection of near-cognate tRNAs to promote nonsense suppression" 3098:"Turning mirror-image oligonucleotides into drugs: the evolution of Spiegelmer(®) therapeutics" 2572: 2566: 1738:

and his team determined the first complete nucleotide sequence of an RNA virus genome, that of

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that use RNA as their template for synthesis of a new strand of RNA. For instance, a number of

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sugar, with carbons numbered 1' through 5'. A base is attached to the 1' position, in general,

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were discovered in both mammalian viruses and in cellular genes, resulting in a 1993 Nobel to

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An important structural component of RNA that distinguishes it from DNA is the presence of a

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Kalendar R, Vicient CM, Peleg O, Anamthawat-Jonsson K, Bolshoy A, Schulman AH (March 2004).

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Synthesis of RNA typically occurs in the cell nucleus and is usually catalyzed by an enzyme—

896: 245: 6299:"Activation of Pluripotency Genes in Human Fibroblast Cells by a Novel mRNA Based Approach" 5314:

Caspersson T, Schultz J (1939). "Pentose nucleotides in the cytoplasm of growing tissues".

4149:"Potent and Specific Genetic Interference by double stranded RNA in Ceanorhabditis elegans" 462:, denoted by the letters G, U, A, and C) that directs synthesis of specific proteins. Many 7840: 7811: 7523: 7274: 7111: 6957: 6736: 4674:"Sno/scaRNAbase: a curated database for small nucleolar RNAs and cajal body-specific RNAs" 4285: 3442: 3328: 3311: 1933: 1754: 1727: 1723: 1685: 1544: 1241: 783: 474: 5890:"Scientists announce a breakthrough in determining life's origin on Earth—and maybe Mars" 3402:"Challenging the dogma: the hidden layer of non-protein-coding RNAs in complex organisms" 1440:

so that they gain or lose the ability to bind chromatin to regulate expression of genes.

6314: 6149: 6006: 5840: 5470: 5419: 5327: 5241: 4781: 4630: 4573: 4219: 4164: 3811: 3756: 3701: 3596: 3472: 3234: 3056: 3001: 2932: 2321: 1162:—non-coding sections of the pre-mRNA. The mRNA is then exported from the nucleus to the 7932: 7835: 7652: 7101: 7073: 6866: 6806: 6706: 6537: 6500: 6467: 6443: 6410: 6341: 6298: 6267: 6176: 6133: 5857: 5822: 5583: 5558: 5135: 5110: 5043: 5018: 4994: 4969: 4945: 4920: 4896: 4871: 4698: 4673: 4590: 4557: 4384: 4359: 4294: 4269: 4236: 4203: 4070: 4045: 3992:

Jacob F, Monod J (1961). "Genetic Regulatory Mechanisms in the Synthesis of Proteins".

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Stan-Lotter H, McGenity TJ, Legat A, Denner EB, Glaser K, Stetter KO, Wanner G (1999).

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Higgs PG (August 2000). "RNA secondary structure: physical and computational aspects".

1984: 1862: 1809: 1801: 1361: 1273: 1036: 1023:("ncRNA") can be encoded by their own genes (RNA genes), but can also derive from mRNA 1020: 908: 772: 764: 741: 681: 653: 405: 293: 218: 5799: 5534: 5509: 5019:"Four plant Dicers mediate viral small RNA biogenesis and DNA virus induced silencing" 4839: 4822: 4766:"Targeted ribose methylation of RNA in vivo directed by tailored antisense RNA guides" 4005: 3969: 3944: 3480: 3198: 3181: 2975: 2951: 2916: 2892: 2875: 2802: 2777: 2671: 2654: 2630: 2605: 2518: 2501: 2109: 8020: 7867: 7857: 7738: 7693: 7671: 7507: 7436: 7364: 7359: 7302: 6989: 6239: 5874: 5759:"Common sequence structure properties and stable regions in RNA secondary structures" 5126: 4734: 4649: 4614: 4525: 4508: 3945:"The tmRNA website: reductive evolution of tmRNA in plastids and other endosymbionts" 3150: 2621: 2043: 2023: 1956: 1837: 1770: 1425: 1381: 1365: 1323: 1211: 1139: 1092: 1032: 962: 838: 779: 730: 593: 504: 433: 421: 409: 6073: 5635: 5443: 5265: 5095: 4856: 4750: 4542: 4021: 3725: 3667: 3620: 3258: 3221:

Ahlquist P (May 2002). "RNA-dependent RNA polymerases, viruses, and RNA silencing".

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Gottesman S (2005). "Micros for microbes: non-coding regulatory RNAs in bacteria".

3835: 3560: 3543: 1750: 1735: 1731: 1677: 1673: 1665: 1631: 1625: 1612:. In eukaryotes, double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) plays a role in the activation of the 1567: 1399: 1393: 1377: 1277: 1203: 1181: 1175: 1147: 1100: 1048: 1028: 978: 935: 885: 834: 807: 791: 574: 486: 417: 283: 39: 6483: 5662: 5427: 3368: 1861:. In May 2022, scientists discovered that RNA can form spontaneously on prebiotic 481:, a universal function in which RNA molecules direct the synthesis of proteins on 6323: 4821:

Kiss-László Z, Henry Y, Bachellerie JP, Caizergues-Ferrer M, Kiss T (June 1996).

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Tucker BJ, Breaker RR (2005). "Riboswitches as versatile gene control elements".

4148: 3867: 3850: 3765: 3114: 3097: 2329: 2081: 1000:

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is the type of RNA that carries information from DNA to the

7862: 7279: 7208: 6796: 5292: 4936: 3064: 2655:"Inosine biosynthesis in transfer RNA by an enzymatic insertion of hypoxanthine" 2038: 2018: 1929: 1925: 1893: 1866: 1805: 1766: 1661: 1635: 1476: 1189: 951: 786:(T) are found in various places (the most notable ones being in the TΨC loop of 663:(like enzymes). For instance, determination of the structure of the ribosome—an 628: 582: 6426: 6378: 6048: 6031: 4619:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

4450: 4375: 3009: 2921:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2915:

Mathews DH, Disney MD, Childs JL, Schroeder SJ, Zuker M, Turner DH (May 2004).

2793: 2778:"Small nucleolar RNA-guided post-transcriptional modification of cellular RNAs" 1978: 1432:

have also been discovered. They are cis-acting regulatory RNA sequences acting

7922: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7528: 7502: 7237: 6801: 6670: 6650: 6625: 6015: 5978: 5171: 5079: 4485: 4109: 3459:

Mattick JS (October 2004). "The hidden genetic program of complex organisms".

2568:

Clinical gene analysis and manipulation: Tools, techniques and troubleshooting

2367: 2275: 1974: 1909: 1897: 1877: 1853: 1825: 1715: 1660:

Research on RNA has led to many important biological discoveries and numerous

1609: 1605: 1548: 1508: 1437: 1429: 1281: 1185: 1155: 1124: 1080: 1076: 1009: 892: 853: 795: 722: 694: 609: 496: 443: 429: 213: 127: 107: 84: 44: 6491: 6434: 6386: 6332: 6275: 6223: 6167: 6109: 6057: 4887: 3528: 3296: 2762: 2213: 1543:

DNA copies from their RNA; these DNA copies are then transcribed to new RNA.

1499:. In eukaryotes, modifications of RNA nucleotides are in general directed by 822:

the subunit interface, implying that they are important for normal function.

7786: 7559: 7533: 7415: 7405: 6158: 5951:"Loads of Precursors For RNA Have Been Detected in The Center of Our Galaxy" 5619: 5606:

Ruvkun G (October 2001). "Molecular biology. Glimpses of a tiny RNA world".

4639: 4581: 4358:

Orom UA, Derrien T, Beringer M, Gumireddy K, Gardini A, et al. (2010).

4227: 4204:"Polycomb proteins targeted by a short repeat RNA to the mouse X chromosome" 3911: 3709: 3604: 3242: 2941: 2590: 2408: 1998: 1921: 1905: 1601: 1520: 1504: 1492: 1484: 1416: 1403: 1374: 1327: 1270: 1245: 1215: 1193: 1163: 1072: 1068: 1040: 842: 757:. The presence of this functional group causes the helix to mostly take the 735: 726: 660: 533: 525: 170: 6509: 6452: 6394: 6350: 6283: 6231: 6185: 6117: 6065: 5866: 5807: 5670: 5627: 5592: 5543: 5435: 5300: 5214: 5179: 5144: 5087: 5052: 5003: 4954: 4905: 4742: 4707: 4599: 4534: 4493: 4458: 4393: 4344: 4303: 4245: 4117: 4079: 4013: 3978: 3929: 3876: 3784: 3717: 3659: 3636:"Long non-coding RNAs: new players in cell differentiation and development" 3612: 3569: 3488: 3438: 3386: 3337: 3250: 3158: 3123: 3082: 3017: 2960: 2901: 2860: 2811: 2729: 2639: 2527: 2478: 2375: 2337: 2283: 2248: 2240: 2094:

The proposal that life on Earth arose from an RNA World is widely accepted.

2089: 939: 528:" existed in which RNA served as both living organisms' storage method for 6101: 5848: 5574: 5486: 4848: 4799: 4658: 4180: 3827: 3207: 2842: 2711: 2680: 2443: 1844:

that enabled the development of effective mRNA vaccines against COVID-19.

1314:

Post-transcriptional expression levels of many genes can be controlled by

7940: 7791: 7721: 7575: 7456: 7257: 7247: 7171: 6841: 6811: 6655: 6645: 6573: 5894: 5257: 5034: 4985: 4689: 4335: 4318: 3960: 1917: 1885: 1787: 1762: 1488: 1472: 1331: 1297: 1225: 1143: 1104: 1056: 1052: 1001: 943: 920: 915:. Initiation of transcription begins with the binding of the enzyme to a 750: 706: 601: 537: 500: 482: 459: 229: 112: 102: 59: 30:

This article is about the biological macromolecule. For other uses, see

5709:"Hungarian and US scientists win Nobel for COVID-19 vaccine discoveries" 5525: 5406:

Holley RW, et al. (March 1965). "Structure of a ribonucleic acid".

5392: 3681:

Chen Q, Yan M, Cao Z, Li X, Zhang Y, Shi J, et al. (January 2016).

2992: 2435: 1634:). circRNAs are thought to arise via a "back-splice" reaction where the 1326:-based process involves steps that first process the RNA so that it can 1008:) in the cell cytoplasm. The coding sequence of the mRNA determines the 7945: 7466: 7410: 6993: 5823:"Catalytic Synthesis of Polyribonucleic Acid on Prebiotic Rock Glasses" 5279:

Dahm R (February 2005). "Friedrich Miescher and the discovery of DNA".

3430: 2033: 1889: 1775: 1765:) were discovered in the early 1980s, leading to a 1989 Nobel award to 1496: 1229: 1128: 1120: 1096: 1013: 799: 710: 702: 620: 616: 455: 447: 401: 6468:"Chemically modified RNA activated matrices enhance bone regeneration" 6215: 4419:

J.W. Nelson, R.R. Breaker (2017) "The lost language of the RNA World."

2470: 1928:

and gas clouds. In July 2022, astronomers reported massive amounts of

1808:

in 2006, and another Nobel for studies on the transcription of RNA to

1300:(miRNAs), specific short RNA molecules that can base-pair with mRNAs. 7960: 7955: 7905: 7538: 7446: 6665: 6640: 5478: 5335: 5249: 4790: 4765: 3819: 3513:. Stockholm: School of Biotechnology, Royal Institute of Technology. 2551: 1881: 1746: 1528: 1524: 1464: 1289: 1159: 1044: 1024: 947: 754: 718: 714: 698: 624: 588: 521: 467: 451: 122: 97: 4061: 3651: 1652: 17: 6538:

Anna Marie Pyle's Seminar: RNA Structure, Function, and Recognition

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Tirumalai MR, Kaelber JT, Park DR, Tran Q, Fox GE (August 2020).

5922: 5918:"NASA Ames Reproduces the Building Blocks of Life in Laboratory" 5557:

Dafny-Yelin M, Chung SM, Frankman EL, Tzfira T (December 2007).

1695:

The sequence of the 77 nucleotides of a yeast tRNA was found by

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Podlevsky JD, Bley CJ, Omana RV, Qi X, Chen JJ (January 2008).

3583:

Storz G (May 2002). "An expanding universe of noncoding RNAs".

7825: 6985: 6630: 5766:

Dissertation, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität, Freiburg im Breisgau

4136:

http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2006

2003: 1916:(PAHs), is one of the most carbon-rich compounds found in the 1873: 1672:, who called the material 'nuclein' since it was found in the 562: 553: 520:, prior to the evolution of DNA and possibly of protein-based 89: 3182:"Structure of the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase of poliovirus" 745:

Structure of a fragment of an RNA, showing a guanosyl subunit

4672:

Xie J, Zhang M, Zhou T, Hua X, Tang L, Wu W (January 2007).

3739:

Wei H, Zhou B, Zhang F, Tu Y, Hu Y, Zhang B, Zhai Q (2013).

6542: 1284:

have also been shown to use regulatory RNA systems such as

1142:(mRNA) carries information about a protein sequence to the 864:-ribonucleotides. All chirality centers are located in the 516:

It has become widely accepted in science that early in the

408:) or by forming a template for the production of proteins ( 5888:

Foundation for Applied Molecular Evolution (3 June 2022).

4558:"Small CRISPR RNAs guide antiviral defense in prokaryotes" 3353:"Non-coding RNAs: the architects of eukaryotic complexity" 1207:

A diagram of how mRNA is used to create polypeptide chains

513:) then links amino acids together to form coded proteins. 2874:

King TH, Liu B, McCully RR, Fournier MJ (February 2003).

2104: 2102: 1547:

also spread by copying DNA and RNA from one another, and

561:

The chemical structure of RNA is very similar to that of

6528:

Link collection (structures, sequences, tools, journals)

3510:

Mining the transcriptome – methods and applications

2227:

Tinoco I, Bustamante C (October 1999). "How RNA folds".

1539:

Reverse transcribing viruses replicate their genomes by

1360:. Their roles, at first mysterious, were shown by 1083:

long. Long RNAs, also called large RNAs, mainly include

4764:

Cavaillé J, Nicoloso M, Bachellerie JP (October 1996).

3281:(3rd ed.). Sinauer. pp. 261–76, 297, 339–44. 2827:"The Peptidyl Transferase Center: a Window to the Past" 2825:

Tirumalai MR, Rivas M, Tran Q, Fox GE (November 2021).

1800:. Studies on RNA interference earned a Nobel Prize for 5195:

Annual Review of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering

4507:

Mojica FJ, Diez-Villasenor C, Soria E, Juez G (2000).

2544:

Journal of the Chemical Society, Perkin Transactions 2

1459:

Uridine to pseudouridine is a common RNA modification.

1252:– regulators with specific short binding sites within 1131:), which have an insertion, thus increasing its size. 532:—a role fulfilled today by DNA, except in the case of 4872:"Viroids: an Ariadne's thread into the RNA labyrinth" 4615:"A general two-metal-ion mechanism for catalytic RNA" 1656:

Robert W. Holley, left, poses with his research team.

1170:

into its corresponding protein form with the help of

1146:, the protein synthesis factories in the cell. It is 1027:. The most prominent examples of non-coding RNAs are 580:

While the sugar-phosphate "backbone" of DNA contains

420:. The nucleic acids constitute one of the four major 2696:"The RNA Modification Database, RNAMDB: 2011 update" 2502:"RNA bulges as architectural and recognition motifs" 1786:

At about the same time, 22 nt long RNAs, now called

43:

A hairpin loop from a pre-mRNA. Highlighted are the

7931: 7881: 7824: 7779: 7707: 7662: 7645: 7614: 7547: 7516: 7495: 7429: 7388: 7352: 7290: 7199: 7164: 7138: 7129: 7087: 7061: 7035: 7026: 6964: 6885: 6784: 6735: 6679: 6618: 6367:

Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications

3041:"Salt dependence of nucleic acid hairpin stability" 2303: 2301: 1398:The third major group of regulatory RNAs is called 1079:

in length, and long RNAs are greater than 200

1067:According to the length of RNA chain, RNA includes 636:Like DNA, most biologically active RNAs, including 4202:Zhao J, Sun BK, Erwin JA, Song JJ, Lee JT (2008). 4130:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2006". 1188:that transfers a specific amino acid to a growing 4317:Taft RJ, Kaplan CD, Simons C, Mattick JS (2009). 4091: 4089: 1892:, were reportedly formed in the laboratory under 1848:Relevance for prebiotic chemistry and abiogenesis 829:. The scaffold for this structure is provided by 5734:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2023" 5685:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2023" 3943:Gueneau de Novoa P, Williams KP (January 2004). 3502: 3500: 3498: 1463:Many RNAs are involved in modifying other RNAs. 884:-RNA is much more stable against degradation by 6138:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 6030:Cech, Thomas R.; Steitz, Joan A. (March 2014). 5977:Rivilla, Victor M.; et al. 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Double-stranded RNA, such as viral RNA or 1519:Like DNA, RNA can carry genetic information. 911:—using DNA as a template, a process known as 374: 8: 4263: 4261: 4259: 4257: 4255: 2389:Barciszewski J, Frederic B, Clark C (1999). 1932:, including possible RNA precursors, in the 1896:conditions, using starter chemicals such as 3272: 3270: 3268: 2745:TRNA: Structure, biosynthesis, and function 845:are needed to stabilise many secondary and 817:, while pseudouridine and nucleosides with 659:In this fashion, RNAs can achieve chemical 442:) to convey genetic information (using the 7659: 7598: 7584: 7576: 7336: 7322: 7314: 7135: 7097:Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA / hnRNA) 7032: 6949: 6935: 6927: 6565: 6551: 6543: 4870:Daròs JA, Elena SF, Flores R (June 2006). 4270:"Genome regulation by long noncoding RNAs" 2974:Burghardt B, Hartmann AK (February 2007). 1368:of blocks of chromatin via recruitment of 1047:other RNA molecules, and the catalysis of 1039:and other roles. Certain RNAs are able to 596:group attached to the pentose ring in the 381: 367: 50: 6499: 6442: 6340: 6322: 6175: 6157: 6047: 6014: 5996: 5984:Frontiers in Astronomy and Space Sciences 5856: 5582: 5533: 5359:"Enzymatic synthesis of ribonucleic acid" 5134: 5042: 4993: 4944: 4895: 4838: 4789: 4697: 4648: 4638: 4589: 4524: 4383: 4334: 4293: 4235: 4069: 3968: 3919: 3866: 3774: 3764: 3559: 3420: 3376: 3327: 3197: 3113: 3072: 2991: 2950: 2940: 2891: 2850: 2801: 2719: 2670: 2629: 2517: 5381:Journal of the American Chemical Society 5207:10.1146/annurev-chembioeng-061010-114133 5160:Developmental and Comparative Immunology 1865:, presumed to have been abundant on the 1651: 1292:. Fire and Mello were awarded the 2006 1184:(tRNA) is a small RNA chain of about 80 570: 552:Three-dimensional representation of the 6898:List of genetics research organizations 3310:Mattick JS, Gagen MJ (September 2001). 2653:Elliott MS, Trewyn RW (February 1984). 2194:Berg JM, Tymoczko JL, Stryer L (2002). 2060: 1503:(snoRNA; 60–300 nt), found in the 1043:chemical reactions such as cutting and 58: 7743: 5068:Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 4134:Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 6 Aug 2018. 2571:. Cambridge University Press. p. 738:that has a guanine–adenine base-pair. 7117:Histone acetylation and deacetylation 4286:10.1146/annurev-biochem-051410-092902 3329:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003951 3096:Vater A, Klussmann S (January 2015). 2135:University of California, Los Angeles 1830:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1348:Next to be linked to regulation were 1294:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1166:, where it is bound to ribosomes and 802:(I). Inosine plays a key role in the 565:, but differs in three primary ways: 7: 7708: 7182:Ribosome-nascent chain complex (RNC) 3634:Fatica A, Bozzoni I (January 2014). 1436:. They change shape when they bind 1280:inducing increased gene expression. 1154:) corresponds to one amino acid. In 790:). Another notable modified base is 27:Family of large biological molecules 7663: 3544:"Ribozyme diagnostics comes of age" 2659:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 1790:, were found to have a role in the 1150:so that every three nucleotides (a 6534:Images of DNA, RNA, and complexes. 6268:10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.02.018 4613:Steitz TA, Steitz JA (July 1993). 2500:Hermann T, Patel DJ (March 2000). 2391:RNA biochemistry and biotechnology 1004:, the sites of protein synthesis ( 794:, a deaminated adenine base whose 25: 7722:Micro 3481:10.1038/scientificamerican1004-60 1840:for their discoveries concerning 1240:The earliest known regulators of 1091:. Small RNAs mainly include 5.8S 428:. RNA is assembled as a chain of 424:essential for all known forms of 8001: 8000: 7442:Cis-natural antisense transcript 6911: 6910: 6204:Journal of Cellular Biochemistry 5127:10.1128/JVI.80.10.5059-5064.2006 4735:10.1046/j.1365-2958.2003.03483.x 4526:10.1046/j.1365-2958.2000.01838.x 3151:10.1046/j.1365-2443.2002.00563.x 2976:"RNA secondary structure design" 2622:10.1128/JVI.75.10.4902-4906.2001 1977: 1914:polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 753:group at the 2' position of the 348: 347: 234: 233: 66: 7677:precursor, heterogenous nuclear 7370:Signal recognition particle RNA 7187:Post-translational modification 5949:Starr, Michelle (8 July 2022). 3316:Molecular Biology and Evolution 2565:Jankowski JA, Polak JM (1996). 2264:Quarterly Reviews of Biophysics 2128:"Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids" 689:. 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Archived from 5293:10.1016/j.ydbio.2004.11.028 4980:(Database issue): D339–43. 4937:10.1534/genetics.166.3.1437 4684:(Database issue): D183–87. 3955:(Database issue): D104–08. 3400:Mattick JS (October 2003). 3369:10.1093/embo-reports/kve230 3065:10.1529/biophysj.108.131524 1773:. In 1990, it was found in 1761:. Catalytic RNA molecules ( 1668:were discovered in 1868 by 1590:double-stranded RNA viruses 969:pathway in many organisms. 957:There are also a number of 8063: 7873:Multicopy single-stranded 7717:Interferential 7529:Reverse transcribing virus 6427:10.1016/j.stem.2010.08.012 6379:10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.09.102 6049:10.1016/j.cell.2014.03.008 4451:10.1016/j.cbpa.2005.09.016 4376:10.1016/j.cell.2010.09.001 4268:Rinn JL, Chang HY (2012). 4147:Fire, et al. (1998). 3010:10.1103/PhysRevE.75.021920 2747:. 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Biol 2794:10.1093/emboj/20.14.3617 1535:In reverse transcription 1479:, which contain several 1269:shutting down blocks of 942:are added to eukaryotic 852:The naturally occurring 623:, whereas in RNA, it is 518:history of life on Earth 7863:Genomic 7496:Cis-regulatory elements 7467:Repeat-associated siRNA 7226:Gene regulatory network 6159:10.1073/pnas.1605336113 6090:Nature Chemical Biology 5651:Trends in Biotechnology 5620:10.1126/science.1066315 4640:10.1073/pnas.90.14.6498 4582:10.1126/science.1159689 4410:(Vol. 90, pp. 133–208). 4228:10.1126/science.1163045 4050:Nature Reviews Genetics 3912:10.1002/2211-5463.12962 3710:10.1126/science.aad7977 3640:Nature Reviews Genetics 3605:10.1126/science.1072249 3548:Chemistry & Biology 3243:10.1126/science.1069132 2942:10.1073/pnas.0401799101 2165:Analysis of Chromosomes 1682:Nobel Prize in Medicine 1244:were proteins known as 1071:and long RNA. Usually, 868:-ribose. By the use of 495:) molecules to deliver 7966:Artificial chromosomes 7754:Small nucleolar 7380:Transfer-messenger RNA 7231:cis-regulatory element 5023:Nucleic Acids Research 4974:Nucleic Acids Research 4723:Molecular Microbiology 4678:Nucleic Acids Research 4439:Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol 3949:Nucleic Acids Research 3542:Rossi JJ (July 2004). 2831:Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2700:Nucleic Acids Research 2241:10.1006/jmbi.1999.3001 2014:List of RNA Biologists 2009:History of RNA Biology 1994:Biomolecular structure 1657: 1648:History of RNA biology 1572: 1557:eukaryotic chromosomes 1460: 1263:post-transcriptionally 1222:Transfer-messenger RNA 1208: 997: 891:Like other structured 775: 746: 690: 677:Nucleic acid structure 592:instead. Ribose has a 557: 48: 7759:Small Cajal Body RNAs 7472:Small interfering RNA 6893:List of genetic codes 6532:Nucleic Acid Database 6102:10.1038/nchembio.1837 5849:10.1089/ast.2022.0027 5575:10.1104/pp.107.106062 5281:Developmental Biology 5109:Virol, J (May 2006). 2843:10.1128/MMBR.00104-21 1720:reverse transcriptase 1655: 1646:Further information: 1570: 1458: 1364:and others to be the 1206: 1109:small interfering RNA 1055:; these are known as 991: 767: 744: 684: 551: 414:deoxyribonucleic acid 334:Personalized medicine 328:Personalized medicine 191:Quantitative genetics 186:Mendelian inheritance 42: 7812:Subgenomic messenger 7727:Small interfering 7699:Transfer-messenger 7462:Piwi-interacting RNA 7253:alternative splicing 7243:Post-transcriptional 7069:Transcription factor 6792:Behavioural genetics 4408:Advances in genetics 4336:10.4161/cc.8.15.9154 3861:(Pt 12): 3565–3574. 3102:Drug Discovery Today 2776:Kiss T (July 2001). 2070:Bioorganic Chemistry 2049:RNA world hypothesis 1944:Medical applications 1842:modified nucleosides 1714:In the early 1970s, 1614:innate immune system 1541:reverse transcribing 1501:small nucleolar RNAs 1422:Bacterial small RNAs 1338:Long non-coding RNAs 1286:bacterial small RNAs 1282:Bacteria and archaea 1267:long non-coding RNAs 1117:Piwi-interacting RNA 831:secondary structural 485:. This process uses 254:Branches of genetics 32:RNA (disambiguation) 7401:Small nucleolar RNA 7177:Transfer RNA (tRNA) 6872:Population genomics 6862:Molecular evolution 6822:Genetic engineering 6315:2010PLoSO...514397P 6150:2016PNAS..11312508R 6144:(44): 12508–12513. 6007:2022FrASS...9.6870R 5841:2022AsBio..22..629J 5526:10.1105/tpc.2.4.279 5471:1976Natur.260..500F 5420:1965Sci...147.1462H 5393:10.1021/ja01595a086 5328:1939Natur.143..602C 5242:1979Natur.280..339H 5115:Journal of Virology 4782:1996Natur.383..732C 4631:1993PNAS...90.6498S 4574:2008Sci...321..960B 4220:2008Sci...322..750Z 4165:1998Natur.391..806F 3894:Halococcus morrhuae 3812:1981Natur.293..755L 3757:2013PLoSO...856842W 3702:2016Sci...351..397C 3597:2002Sci...296.1260S 3473:2004SciAm.291d..60M 3461:Scientific American 3235:2002Sci...296.1270A 3057:2008BpJ....95..738T 3045:Biophysical Journal 3002:2007PhRvE..75b1920B 2933:2004PNAS..101.7287M 2712:10.1093/nar/gkq1028 2610:Journal of Virology 2436:10.1021/bi00067a007 2322:2000Sci...289..920N 2029:RNA-based evolution 1930:prebiotic molecules 1582:Double-stranded RNA 1577:Double-stranded RNA 1571:Double-stranded RNA 1563:Double-stranded RNA 1354:long noncoding RNAs 1344:Long Non-coding RNA 1113:small nucleolar RNA 1085:long non-coding RNA 994:hammerhead ribozyme 950:are removed by the 847:tertiary structures 769:Secondary structure 665:RNA-protein complex 571:double-stranded RNA 544:Comparison with DNA 530:genetic information 224:Genetic engineering 181:Population genetics 54:Part of a series on 7841:Chloroplast 7684:modified Messenger 7647:Ribonucleic acids 7482:Trans-acting siRNA 7477:Small temporal RNA 7452:Long noncoding RNA 7291:Influential people 7270:Post-translational 7089:Post-transcription 6832:Genetic monitoring 5788:Trends in Genetics 5757:Siebert S (2006). 5035:10.1093/nar/gkl886 4986:10.1093/nar/gkm700 4690:10.1093/nar/gkl873 4274:Annu. Rev. Biochem 4098:Trends in Genetics 3961:10.1093/nar/gkh102 3431:10.1002/bies.10332 2168:. Agrotech Press. 2162:Shukla RN (2014). 2114:University of Utah 1904:commonly found in 1818:Venki Ramakrishnan 1709:Marshall Nirenberg 1705:Har Gobind Khorana 1670:Friedrich Miescher 1658: 1573: 1481:small nuclear RNAs 1461: 1424:generally act via 1209: 998: 928:Primary transcript 876:-ribonucleotides, 872:-ribose or rather 827:tertiary structure 776: 747: 697:in RNA contains a 691: 558: 196:Molecular genetics 155:History and topics 49: 8037:Molecular biology 8014: 8013: 7891:Xeno 7853:Complementary 7826:Deoxyribonucleic 7820: 7819: 7797:Small hairpin 7573: 7572: 7487:Short hairpin RNA 7396:Small nuclear RNA 7353:Protein synthesis 7311: 7310: 7195: 7194: 7125: 7124: 7001:Special transfers 6924: 6923: 6847:He Jiankui affair 6837:Genetic genealogy 6827:Genetic diversity 6756:the British Isles 6661:Genetic variation 6526:RNA World website 6216:10.1002/jcb.29364 5775:on March 9, 2012. 5414:(3664): 1462–65. 5121:(10): 5059–5064. 3906:(10): 1938–1946. 3806:(5835): 755–756. 3696:(6271): 397–400. 3591:(5571): 1260–63. 3520:978-91-7178-436-0 3288:978-0-87893-214-6 3229:(5571): 1270–73. 2980:Physical Review E 2754:978-1-55581-073-3 2582:978-0-521-47896-0 2471:10.1002/bip.22750 2400:978-0-7923-5862-6 2205:978-0-7167-4684-3 2175:978-93-84568-17-7 1965:COVID-19 pandemic 1961:COVID-19 vaccines 1926:interstellar dust 1863:basalt lava glass 1740:bacteriophage MS2 1451:In RNA processing 1261:repressing genes 1051:formation in the 883: 879: 875: 871: 867: 863: 860:-RNA composed of 859: 819:2'-O-methylribose 804:wobble hypothesis 606:activation energy 479:protein synthesis 444:nitrogenous bases 391: 390: 118:Genetic variation 16:(Redirected from 8054: 8004: 8003: 7981:Yeast 7802:Small temporal 7732:Piwi-interacting 7660: 7656: 7637:Deoxynucleotides 7600: 7593: 7586: 7577: 7338: 7331: 7324: 7315: 7136: 7033: 6951: 6944: 6937: 6928: 6914: 6913: 6877:Reverse genetics 6852:Medical genetics 6567: 6560: 6553: 6544: 6514: 6513: 6503: 6463: 6457: 6456: 6446: 6405: 6399: 6398: 6361: 6355: 6354: 6344: 6326: 6294: 6288: 6287: 6250: 6244: 6243: 6199: 6190: 6189: 6179: 6161: 6128: 6122: 6121: 6084: 6078: 6077: 6051: 6027: 6021: 6020: 6018: 6000: 5974: 5968: 5967: 5965: 5963: 5946: 5940: 5939: 5937: 5935: 5926:. Archived from 5913: 5907: 5906: 5904: 5902: 5885: 5879: 5878: 5860: 5818: 5812: 5811: 5783: 5777: 5776: 5774: 5763: 5754: 5748: 5747: 5745: 5744: 5730: 5724: 5723: 5721: 5720: 5705: 5699: 5698: 5696: 5695: 5681: 5675: 5674: 5646: 5640: 5639: 5614:(5543): 797–99. 5603: 5597: 5596: 5586: 5563:Plant Physiology 5554: 5548: 5547: 5537: 5505: 5499: 5498: 5479:10.1038/260500a0 5465:(5551): 500–07. 5454: 5448: 5447: 5403: 5397: 5396: 5376: 5370: 5369: 5363: 5357:Ochoa S (1959). 5354: 5348: 5347: 5336:10.1038/143602c0 5322:(3623): 602–03. 5311: 5305: 5304: 5276: 5270: 5269: 5250:10.1038/280339a0 5236:(5720): 339–40. 5225: 5219: 5218: 5190: 5184: 5183: 5155: 5149: 5148: 5138: 5106: 5100: 5099: 5063: 5057: 5056: 5046: 5014: 5008: 5007: 4997: 4965: 4959: 4958: 4948: 4916: 4910: 4909: 4899: 4867: 4861: 4860: 4842: 4818: 4812: 4811: 4793: 4791:10.1038/383732a0 4776:(6602): 732–35. 4761: 4755: 4754: 4718: 4712: 4711: 4701: 4669: 4663: 4662: 4652: 4642: 4625:(14): 6498–502. 4610: 4604: 4603: 4593: 4568:(5891): 960–64. 4553: 4547: 4546: 4528: 4504: 4498: 4497: 4469: 4463: 4462: 4434: 4428: 4427:, eaam8812 1–11. 4417: 4411: 4404: 4398: 4397: 4387: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4338: 4314: 4308: 4307: 4297: 4265: 4250: 4249: 4239: 4214:(5902): 750–56. 4199: 4193: 4192: 4159:(6669): 806–11. 4144: 4138: 4128: 4122: 4121: 4093: 4084: 4083: 4073: 4041: 4026: 4025: 3989: 3983: 3982: 3972: 3940: 3934: 3933: 3923: 3887: 3881: 3880: 3870: 3846: 3840: 3839: 3820:10.1038/293755a0 3795: 3789: 3788: 3778: 3768: 3736: 3730: 3729: 3687: 3678: 3672: 3671: 3631: 3625: 3624: 3580: 3574: 3573: 3563: 3539: 3533: 3532: 3507:Wirta W (2006). 3504: 3493: 3492: 3456: 3450: 3449: 3447: 3441:. Archived from 3424: 3406: 3397: 3391: 3390: 3380: 3348: 3342: 3341: 3331: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3274: 3263: 3262: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3201: 3177: 3171: 3170: 3134: 3128: 3127: 3117: 3093: 3087: 3086: 3076: 3036: 3030: 3029: 2995: 2971: 2965: 2964: 2954: 2944: 2912: 2906: 2905: 2895: 2871: 2865: 2864: 2854: 2822: 2816: 2815: 2805: 2782:The EMBO Journal 2773: 2767: 2766: 2740: 2734: 2733: 2723: 2691: 2685: 2684: 2674: 2650: 2644: 2643: 2633: 2601: 2595: 2594: 2562: 2556: 2555: 2552:10.1039/a903691a 2538: 2532: 2531: 2521: 2497: 2491: 2490: 2454: 2448: 2447: 2419: 2413: 2412: 2386: 2380: 2379: 2351: 2342: 2341: 2316:(5481): 920–30. 2305: 2296: 2295: 2259: 2253: 2252: 2224: 2218: 2217: 2191: 2180: 2179: 2159: 2153: 2152: 2150: 2149: 2143: 2137:. Archived from 2132: 2124: 2118: 2117: 2106: 2097: 2096: 2065: 1987: 1982: 1981: 1938:Milky Way Galaxy 1902:organic compound 1822:Thomas A. Steitz 1781:RNA interference 1697:Robert W. Holley 1598:RNA interference 1545:Retrotransposons 1356:associated with 1316:RNA interference 1310:RNA interference 1296:for discovering 1019:These so-called 1012:sequence in the 967:RNA interference 897:circuit topology 881: 877: 873: 869: 865: 861: 857: 631:form of thymine. 394:Ribonucleic acid 383: 376: 369: 356: 351: 350: 246:Medical genetics 242: 237: 236: 70: 51: 21: 8062: 8061: 8057: 8056: 8055: 8053: 8052: 8051: 8017: 8016: 8015: 8010: 7992: 7933:Cloning vectors 7927: 7913:Locked 7877: 7827: 7816: 7775: 7703: 7650: 7649: 7641: 7610: 7604: 7574: 7569: 7543: 7524:Retrotransposon 7512: 7491: 7430:Gene regulation 7425: 7384: 7348: 7342: 7312: 7307: 7286: 7221:Transcriptional 7191: 7160: 7121: 7112:Polyadenylation 7083: 7057: 7022: 7016:Protein→Protein 6967: 6960: 6958:Gene expression 6955: 6925: 6920: 6902: 6881: 6780: 6771:the Middle East 6737:Archaeogenetics 6731: 6675: 6614: 6576: 6571: 6522: 6517: 6465: 6464: 6460: 6407: 6406: 6402: 6363: 6362: 6358: 6296: 6295: 6291: 6252: 6251: 6247: 6201: 6200: 6193: 6130: 6129: 6125: 6086: 6085: 6081: 6029: 6028: 6024: 5976: 5975: 5971: 5961: 5959: 5948: 5947: 5943: 5933: 5931: 5930:on 5 March 2015 5915: 5914: 5910: 5900: 5898: 5887: 5886: 5882: 5820: 5819: 5815: 5785: 5784: 5780: 5772: 5761: 5756: 5755: 5751: 5742: 5740: 5732: 5731: 5727: 5718: 5716: 5707: 5706: 5702: 5693: 5691: 5683: 5682: 5678: 5648: 5647: 5643: 5605: 5604: 5600: 5556: 5555: 5551: 5507: 5506: 5502: 5456: 5455: 5451: 5405: 5404: 5400: 5387:(14): 3548–49. 5378: 5377: 5373: 5361: 5356: 5355: 5351: 5313: 5312: 5308: 5278: 5277: 5273: 5227: 5226: 5222: 5192: 5191: 5187: 5157: 5156: 5152: 5108: 5107: 5103: 5065: 5064: 5060: 5029:(21): 6233–46. 5016: 5015: 5011: 4967: 4966: 4962: 4918: 4917: 4913: 4869: 4868: 4864: 4820: 4819: 4815: 4763: 4762: 4758: 4720: 4719: 4715: 4671: 4670: 4666: 4612: 4611: 4607: 4555: 4554: 4550: 4506: 4505: 4501: 4471: 4470: 4466: 4436: 4435: 4431: 4418: 4414: 4405: 4401: 4357: 4356: 4352: 4329:(15): 2332–38. 4316: 4315: 4311: 4267: 4266: 4253: 4201: 4200: 4196: 4146: 4145: 4141: 4132:Nobelprize.org. 4129: 4125: 4095: 4094: 4087: 4062:10.1038/nrg3722 4043: 4042: 4029: 3991: 3990: 3986: 3942: 3941: 3937: 3889: 3888: 3884: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3797: 3796: 3792: 3738: 3737: 3733: 3685: 3680: 3679: 3675: 3652:10.1038/nrg3606 3633: 3632: 3628: 3582: 3581: 3577: 3541: 3540: 3536: 3521: 3506: 3505: 3496: 3458: 3457: 3453: 3445: 3422:10.1.1.476.7561 3404: 3399: 3398: 3394: 3350: 3349: 3345: 3309: 3308: 3304: 3289: 3276: 3275: 3266: 3220: 3219: 3215: 3179: 3178: 3174: 3136: 3135: 3131: 3095: 3094: 3090: 3038: 3037: 3033: 2993:physics/0609135 2973: 2972: 2968: 2927:(19): 7287–92. 2914: 2913: 2909: 2873: 2872: 2868: 2837:(4): e0010421. 2824: 2823: 2819: 2788:(14): 3617–22. 2775: 2774: 2770: 2755: 2742: 2741: 2737: 2693: 2692: 2688: 2652: 2651: 2647: 2603: 2602: 2598: 2583: 2564: 2563: 2559: 2540: 2539: 2535: 2499: 2498: 2494: 2456: 2455: 2451: 2430:(16): 4207–15. 2421: 2420: 2416: 2401: 2388: 2387: 2383: 2353: 2352: 2345: 2307: 2306: 2299: 2261: 2260: 2256: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2206: 2193: 2192: 2183: 2176: 2161: 2160: 2156: 2147: 2145: 2141: 2130: 2126: 2125: 2121: 2108: 2107: 2100: 2067: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2053: 1983: 1976: 1973: 1946: 1934:galactic center 1872:In March 2015, 1850: 1832:was awarded to 1759:Richard Roberts 1728:Renato Dulbecco 1724:David Baltimore 1686:Arthur Kornberg 1650: 1644: 1628: 1622: 1579: 1565: 1537: 1517: 1453: 1412: 1396: 1390: 1346: 1340: 1312: 1306: 1242:gene expression 1238: 1137: 1065: 1021:non-coding RNAs 992:Structure of a 986: 981: 975: 930:RNAs are often 905: 759:A-form geometry 679: 673: 654:non-coding RNAs 634: 586:, RNA contains 546: 475:gene expression 387: 346: 339: 338: 329: 321: 320: 319: 318: 267: 259: 258: 250: 228: 209: 201: 200: 156: 148: 147: 134: 133: 132: 78: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8060: 8058: 8050: 8049: 8044: 8039: 8034: 8029: 8019: 8018: 8012: 8011: 8009: 8008: 7997: 7994: 7993: 7991: 7990: 7989: 7988: 7983: 7978: 7973: 7963: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7937: 7935: 7929: 7928: 7926: 7925: 7920: 7918:Peptide 7915: 7910: 7909: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7896:Glycol 7887: 7885: 7879: 7878: 7876: 7875: 7870: 7865: 7860: 7855: 7850: 7849: 7848: 7843: 7832: 7830: 7822: 7821: 7818: 7817: 7815: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7783: 7781: 7777: 7776: 7774: 7773: 7768: 7767: 7766: 7761: 7756: 7751: 7741: 7736: 7735: 7734: 7729: 7724: 7713: 7711: 7705: 7704: 7702: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7681: 7680: 7679: 7668: 7666: 7657: 7643: 7642: 7640: 7639: 7634: 7629: 7624: 7618: 7616: 7612: 7611: 7608:nucleic acids 7605: 7603: 7602: 7595: 7588: 7580: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7555:Telomerase RNA 7551: 7549: 7545: 7544: 7542: 7541: 7536: 7531: 7526: 7520: 7518: 7514: 7513: 7511: 7510: 7505: 7499: 7497: 7493: 7492: 7490: 7489: 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7454: 7449: 7444: 7439: 7433: 7431: 7427: 7426: 7424: 7423: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7392: 7390: 7389:RNA processing 7386: 7385: 7383: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7367: 7362: 7356: 7354: 7350: 7349: 7343: 7341: 7340: 7333: 7326: 7318: 7309: 7308: 7306: 7305: 7300: 7298:François Jacob 7294: 7292: 7288: 7287: 7285: 7284: 7283: 7282: 7277: 7267: 7262: 7261: 7260: 7255: 7250: 7240: 7235: 7234: 7233: 7228: 7218: 7217: 7216: 7205: 7203: 7197: 7196: 7193: 7192: 7190: 7189: 7184: 7179: 7174: 7168: 7166: 7162: 7161: 7159: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7142: 7140: 7133: 7127: 7126: 7123: 7122: 7120: 7119: 7114: 7109: 7104: 7099: 7093: 7091: 7085: 7084: 7082: 7081: 7076: 7074:RNA polymerase 7071: 7065: 7063: 7059: 7058: 7056: 7055: 7050: 7045: 7039: 7037: 7030: 7024: 7023: 7021: 7020: 7019: 7018: 7013: 7008: 6998: 6997: 6996: 6978: 6972: 6970: 6962: 6961: 6956: 6954: 6953: 6946: 6939: 6931: 6922: 6921: 6919: 6918: 6907: 6904: 6903: 6901: 6900: 6895: 6889: 6887: 6883: 6882: 6880: 6879: 6874: 6869: 6867:Plant genetics 6864: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6844: 6839: 6834: 6829: 6824: 6819: 6814: 6809: 6807:Genome editing 6804: 6799: 6794: 6788: 6786: 6785:Related topics 6782: 6781: 6779: 6778: 6773: 6768: 6763: 6758: 6753: 6748: 6742: 6740: 6733: 6732: 6730: 6729: 6724: 6719: 6714: 6709: 6707:Immunogenetics 6704: 6699: 6694: 6689: 6683: 6681: 6677: 6676: 6674: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6622: 6620: 6619:Key components 6616: 6615: 6613: 6612: 6607: 6602: 6597: 6592: 6587: 6581: 6578: 6577: 6572: 6570: 6569: 6562: 6555: 6547: 6541: 6540: 6535: 6529: 6521: 6520:External links 6518: 6516: 6515: 6458: 6421:(5): 618–630. 6415:Cell Stem Cell 6400: 6373:(3): 743–751. 6356: 6309:(12): e14397. 6289: 6245: 6210:(2): 898–929. 6191: 6123: 6096:(7): 511–517. 6079: 6022: 5969: 5941: 5908: 5880: 5835:(6): 629–636. 5813: 5778: 5749: 5738:NobelPrize.org 5725: 5700: 5689:NobelPrize.org 5676: 5657:(12): 563–70. 5641: 5598: 5569:(4): 1272–81. 5549: 5514:The Plant Cell 5500: 5449: 5398: 5371: 5349: 5306: 5271: 5220: 5185: 5166:(5): 499–508. 5150: 5101: 5058: 5009: 4960: 4931:(3): 1437–50. 4911: 4862: 4833:(7): 1077–88. 4813: 4756: 4713: 4664: 4605: 4548: 4513:Mol. Microbiol 4499: 4464: 4445:(6): 594–602. 4429: 4412: 4399: 4350: 4309: 4251: 4194: 4139: 4123: 4104:(7): 399–404. 4085: 4027: 3984: 3935: 3882: 3841: 3790: 3731: 3673: 3626: 3575: 3534: 3519: 3494: 3451: 3448:on 2009-03-06. 3415:(10): 930–39. 3392: 3363:(11): 986–91. 3343: 3322:(9): 1611–30. 3302: 3287: 3264: 3213: 3192:(8): 1109–22. 3172: 3139:Genes to Cells 3129: 3088: 3031: 2966: 2907: 2880:Molecular Cell 2866: 2817: 2768: 2753: 2735: 2686: 2665:(4): 2407–10. 2645: 2616:(10): 4902–6. 2596: 2581: 2557: 2546:(8): 1619–26. 2533: 2492: 2449: 2414: 2399: 2381: 2362:(5): 1225–49. 2343: 2297: 2270:(3): 199–253. 2254: 2219: 2204: 2181: 2174: 2154: 2119: 2098: 2076:(6): 430–443. 2059: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2051: 2046: 2041: 2036: 2031: 2026: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1990: 1989: 1988: 1985:Biology portal 1972: 1969: 1945: 1942: 1849: 1846: 1834:Katalin Karikó 1828:. In 2023 the 1810:Roger Kornberg 1643: 1640: 1624:Main article: 1621: 1618: 1596:, can trigger 1575:Main article: 1564: 1561: 1536: 1533: 1516: 1513: 1452: 1449: 1434:allosterically 1411: 1408: 1389: 1386: 1362:Jeannie T. Lee 1339: 1336: 1305: 1302: 1274:epigenetically 1237: 1236:Regulatory RNA 1234: 1136: 1135:In translation 1133: 1064: 1061: 1037:RNA processing 985: 982: 974: 971: 909:RNA polymerase 904: 901: 839:internal loops 837:, bulges, and 773:telomerase RNA 731:hydrogen bonds 675:Main article: 672: 669: 633: 632: 627:, which is an 613: 578: 559: 545: 542: 422:macromolecules 406:non-coding RNA 389: 388: 386: 385: 378: 371: 363: 360: 359: 358: 357: 341: 340: 337: 336: 330: 327: 326: 323: 322: 317: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 294:Immunogenetics 291: 286: 281: 276: 270: 269: 268: 265: 264: 261: 260: 257: 256: 249: 248: 243: 226: 221: 219:DNA sequencing 216: 210: 207: 206: 203: 202: 199: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 168: 163: 157: 154: 153: 150: 149: 146: 145: 140: 131: 130: 125: 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 95: 92: 87: 81: 80: 79: 77:Key components 76: 75: 72: 71: 63: 62: 56: 55: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8059: 8048: 8047:Nucleic acids 8045: 8043: 8042:Biotechnology 8040: 8038: 8035: 8033: 8030: 8028: 8025: 8024: 8022: 8007: 7999: 7998: 7995: 7987: 7984: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7972: 7969: 7968: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7938: 7936: 7934: 7930: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7901:Threose 7899: 7897: 7894: 7893: 7892: 7889: 7888: 7886: 7884: 7880: 7874: 7871: 7869: 7866: 7864: 7861: 7859: 7858:Deoxyribozyme 7856: 7854: 7851: 7847: 7846:Mitochondrial 7844: 7842: 7839: 7838: 7837: 7834: 7833: 7831: 7829: 7823: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7784: 7782: 7778: 7772: 7769: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7757: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7746: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7719: 7718: 7715: 7714: 7712: 7710: 7706: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7690: 7687: 7685: 7682: 7678: 7675: 7674: 7673: 7670: 7669: 7667: 7665: 7664:Translational 7661: 7658: 7654: 7648: 7644: 7638: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7628: 7625: 7623: 7620: 7619: 7617: 7613: 7609: 7601: 7596: 7594: 7589: 7587: 7582: 7581: 7578: 7566: 7563: 7561: 7558: 7556: 7553: 7552: 7550: 7546: 7540: 7537: 7535: 7532: 7530: 7527: 7525: 7522: 7521: 7519: 7515: 7509: 7508:SECIS element 7506: 7504: 7501: 7500: 7498: 7494: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7453: 7450: 7448: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7437:Antisense RNA 7435: 7434: 7432: 7428: 7422: 7419: 7417: 7414: 7412: 7409: 7407: 7404: 7402: 7399: 7397: 7394: 7393: 7391: 7387: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7365:Ribosomal RNA 7363: 7361: 7360:Messenger RNA 7358: 7357: 7355: 7351: 7347: 7339: 7334: 7332: 7327: 7325: 7320: 7319: 7316: 7304: 7303:Jacques Monod 7301: 7299: 7296: 7295: 7293: 7289: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7272: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7265:Translational 7263: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7251: 7249: 7246: 7245: 7244: 7241: 7239: 7236: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7223: 7222: 7219: 7215: 7212: 7211: 7210: 7207: 7206: 7204: 7202: 7198: 7188: 7185: 7183: 7180: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7169: 7167: 7163: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7143: 7141: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7128: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7108: 7105: 7103: 7100: 7098: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7090: 7086: 7080: 7077: 7075: 7072: 7070: 7067: 7066: 7064: 7060: 7054: 7051: 7049: 7046: 7044: 7041: 7040: 7038: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7028:Transcription 7025: 7017: 7014: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7003: 7002: 6999: 6995: 6991: 6987: 6984: 6983: 6982: 6981:Central dogma 6979: 6977: 6974: 6973: 6971: 6969: 6963: 6959: 6952: 6947: 6945: 6940: 6938: 6933: 6932: 6929: 6917: 6909: 6908: 6905: 6899: 6896: 6894: 6891: 6890: 6888: 6884: 6878: 6875: 6873: 6870: 6868: 6865: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6843: 6840: 6838: 6835: 6833: 6830: 6828: 6825: 6823: 6820: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6789: 6787: 6783: 6777: 6774: 6772: 6769: 6767: 6764: 6762: 6759: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6747: 6744: 6743: 6741: 6738: 6734: 6728: 6725: 6723: 6720: 6718: 6715: 6713: 6710: 6708: 6705: 6703: 6700: 6698: 6695: 6693: 6690: 6688: 6685: 6684: 6682: 6678: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6623: 6621: 6617: 6611: 6608: 6606: 6603: 6601: 6598: 6596: 6593: 6591: 6588: 6586: 6583: 6582: 6579: 6575: 6568: 6563: 6561: 6556: 6554: 6549: 6548: 6545: 6539: 6536: 6533: 6530: 6527: 6524: 6523: 6519: 6511: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6469: 6462: 6459: 6454: 6450: 6445: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6404: 6401: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6360: 6357: 6352: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6293: 6290: 6285: 6281: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6261: 6257: 6249: 6246: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6225: 6221: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6198: 6196: 6192: 6187: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6169: 6165: 6160: 6155: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6127: 6124: 6119: 6115: 6111: 6107: 6103: 6099: 6095: 6091: 6083: 6080: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6059: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6041: 6037: 6033: 6026: 6023: 6017: 6012: 6008: 6004: 5999: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5985: 5980: 5973: 5970: 5958: 5957: 5952: 5945: 5942: 5929: 5925: 5924: 5919: 5912: 5909: 5897: 5896: 5891: 5884: 5881: 5876: 5872: 5868: 5864: 5859: 5854: 5850: 5846: 5842: 5838: 5834: 5830: 5829: 5824: 5817: 5814: 5809: 5805: 5801: 5797: 5794:(6): 223–29. 5793: 5789: 5782: 5779: 5771: 5767: 5760: 5753: 5750: 5739: 5735: 5729: 5726: 5714: 5710: 5704: 5701: 5690: 5686: 5680: 5677: 5672: 5668: 5664: 5660: 5656: 5652: 5645: 5642: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5602: 5599: 5594: 5590: 5585: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5553: 5550: 5545: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5520:(4): 279–89. 5519: 5515: 5511: 5504: 5501: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5472: 5468: 5464: 5460: 5453: 5450: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5402: 5399: 5394: 5390: 5386: 5382: 5375: 5372: 5367: 5366:Nobel Lecture 5360: 5353: 5350: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5310: 5307: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5290: 5287:(2): 274–88. 5286: 5282: 5275: 5272: 5267: 5263: 5259: 5255: 5251: 5247: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5224: 5221: 5216: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5200: 5196: 5189: 5186: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5165: 5161: 5154: 5151: 5146: 5142: 5137: 5132: 5128: 5124: 5120: 5116: 5112: 5105: 5102: 5097: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5074:(6): 649–57. 5073: 5069: 5062: 5059: 5054: 5050: 5045: 5040: 5036: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5020: 5013: 5010: 5005: 5001: 4996: 4991: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4964: 4961: 4956: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4938: 4934: 4930: 4926: 4922: 4915: 4912: 4907: 4903: 4898: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4882:(6): 593–98. 4881: 4877: 4873: 4866: 4863: 4858: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4841: 4836: 4832: 4828: 4824: 4817: 4814: 4809: 4805: 4801: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4760: 4757: 4752: 4748: 4744: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4729:(3): 617–29. 4728: 4724: 4717: 4714: 4709: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4675: 4668: 4665: 4660: 4656: 4651: 4646: 4641: 4636: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4620: 4616: 4609: 4606: 4601: 4597: 4592: 4587: 4583: 4579: 4575: 4571: 4567: 4563: 4559: 4552: 4549: 4544: 4540: 4536: 4532: 4527: 4522: 4519:(1): 244–46. 4518: 4514: 4510: 4503: 4500: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4480:(3): 342–48. 4479: 4475: 4468: 4465: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4433: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4416: 4413: 4409: 4403: 4400: 4395: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4361: 4354: 4351: 4346: 4342: 4337: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4313: 4310: 4305: 4301: 4296: 4291: 4287: 4283: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4264: 4262: 4260: 4258: 4256: 4252: 4247: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4205: 4198: 4195: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4173:10.1038/35888 4170: 4166: 4162: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4143: 4140: 4137: 4133: 4127: 4124: 4119: 4115: 4111: 4107: 4103: 4099: 4092: 4090: 4086: 4081: 4077: 4072: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4056:(6): 423–37. 4055: 4051: 4047: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4032: 4028: 4023: 4019: 4015: 4011: 4007: 4003: 4000:(3): 318–56. 3999: 3995: 3988: 3985: 3980: 3976: 3971: 3966: 3962: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3946: 3939: 3936: 3931: 3927: 3922: 3917: 3913: 3909: 3905: 3901: 3900:FEBS Open Bio 3897: 3895: 3886: 3883: 3878: 3874: 3869: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3845: 3842: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3801: 3794: 3791: 3786: 3782: 3777: 3772: 3767: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3751:(2): e56842. 3750: 3746: 3742: 3735: 3732: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3715: 3711: 3707: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3684: 3677: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3630: 3627: 3622: 3618: 3614: 3610: 3606: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3579: 3576: 3571: 3567: 3562: 3557: 3554:(7): 894–95. 3553: 3549: 3545: 3538: 3535: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3516: 3512: 3511: 3503: 3501: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3486: 3482: 3478: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3455: 3452: 3444: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3403: 3396: 3393: 3388: 3384: 3379: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3347: 3344: 3339: 3335: 3330: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3303: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3284: 3280: 3273: 3271: 3269: 3265: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3228: 3224: 3217: 3214: 3209: 3205: 3200: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3176: 3173: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3145:(8): 755–68. 3144: 3140: 3133: 3130: 3125: 3121: 3116: 3111: 3108:(1): 147–55. 3107: 3103: 3099: 3092: 3089: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3070: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3051:(2): 738–52. 3050: 3046: 3042: 3035: 3032: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2994: 2989: 2986:(2): 021920. 2985: 2981: 2977: 2970: 2967: 2962: 2958: 2953: 2948: 2943: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2922: 2918: 2911: 2908: 2903: 2899: 2894: 2889: 2886:(2): 425–35. 2885: 2881: 2877: 2870: 2867: 2862: 2858: 2853: 2848: 2844: 2840: 2836: 2832: 2828: 2821: 2818: 2813: 2809: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2772: 2769: 2764: 2760: 2756: 2750: 2746: 2739: 2736: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2717: 2713: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2690: 2687: 2682: 2678: 2673: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2649: 2646: 2641: 2637: 2632: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2600: 2597: 2592: 2588: 2584: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2569: 2561: 2558: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2537: 2534: 2529: 2525: 2520: 2515: 2512:(3): R47–54. 2511: 2507: 2503: 2496: 2493: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2453: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2418: 2415: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2396: 2392: 2385: 2382: 2377: 2373: 2369: 2365: 2361: 2357: 2350: 2348: 2344: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2304: 2302: 2298: 2293: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2258: 2255: 2250: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2235:(2): 271–81. 2234: 2230: 2223: 2220: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2201: 2197: 2190: 2188: 2186: 2182: 2177: 2171: 2167: 2166: 2158: 2155: 2144:on 2015-09-23 2140: 2136: 2129: 2123: 2120: 2115: 2111: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2064: 2061: 2055: 2050: 2047: 2045: 2044:Transcriptome 2042: 2040: 2037: 2035: 2032: 2030: 2027: 2025: 2024:Macromolecule 2022: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1991: 1986: 1980: 1975: 1970: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1957:mRNA vaccines 1954: 1950: 1943: 1941: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1903: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1887: 1883: 1879: 1875: 1870: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1855: 1847: 1845: 1843: 1839: 1838:Drew Weissman 1835: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1784: 1782: 1778: 1777: 1772: 1771:Sidney Altman 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1743: 1741: 1737: 1733: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1717: 1712: 1710: 1706: 1703:(shared with 1702: 1698: 1693: 1691: 1687: 1684:(shared with 1683: 1680:won the 1959 1679: 1675: 1671: 1667: 1666:Nucleic acids 1663: 1654: 1649: 1641: 1639: 1637: 1633: 1627: 1619: 1617: 1615: 1611: 1607: 1604:, as well as 1603: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1578: 1569: 1562: 1560: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1534: 1532: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1494: 1490: 1486: 1482: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1466: 1457: 1450: 1448: 1446: 1441: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1418: 1409: 1407: 1405: 1401: 1400:enhancer RNAs 1395: 1388:Enhancer RNAs 1387: 1385: 1383: 1382:cell division 1379: 1376: 1371: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1345: 1337: 1335: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1311: 1303: 1301: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1278:enhancer RNAs 1275: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1235: 1233: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1212:Ribosomal RNA 1205: 1201: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1177: 1176:ribonucleases 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1140:Messenger RNA 1134: 1132: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1093:ribosomal RNA 1090: 1087:(lncRNA) and 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1070: 1062: 1060: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1034: 1033:ribosomal RNA 1030: 1026: 1022: 1017: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 995: 990: 983: 980: 972: 970: 968: 964: 960: 955: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 922: 918: 914: 913:transcription 910: 902: 900: 898: 894: 889: 887: 855: 850: 848: 844: 840: 836: 835:hairpin loops 832: 828: 823: 820: 816: 811: 809: 805: 801: 797: 793: 789: 785: 784:ribothymidine 781: 780:Pseudouridine 774: 770: 766: 762: 760: 756: 752: 743: 739: 737: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 688: 683: 678: 670: 668: 666: 662: 657: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 630: 626: 622: 618: 614: 611: 607: 603: 599: 595: 591: 590: 585: 584: 579: 576: 572: 568: 567: 566: 564: 555: 550: 543: 541: 539: 535: 531: 527: 524:as well, an " 523: 519: 514: 512: 511: 506: 505:ribosomal RNA 502: 498: 494: 493: 488: 484: 480: 476: 471: 469: 465: 461: 457: 453: 449: 445: 441: 440: 435: 434:messenger RNA 431: 427: 423: 419: 418:nucleic acids 415: 411: 410:messenger RNA 407: 403: 399: 395: 384: 379: 377: 372: 370: 365: 364: 362: 361: 355: 345: 344: 343: 342: 335: 332: 331: 325: 324: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 275: 272: 271: 263: 262: 255: 252: 251: 247: 244: 240: 231: 227: 225: 222: 220: 217: 215: 212: 211: 205: 204: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 176: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 158: 152: 151: 144: 141: 139: 136: 135: 129: 126: 124: 121: 119: 116: 114: 111: 109: 106: 104: 101: 99: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 82: 74: 73: 69: 65: 64: 61: 57: 53: 52: 46: 41: 37: 33: 19: 8032:RNA splicing 7976:Bacterial 7951:Lambda phage 7646: 7615:Constituents 7565:List of RNAs 7375:Transfer RNA 7345: 7280:irreversible 7165:Key elements 7062:Key elements 6976:Genetic code 6966:Introduction 6817:Genetic code 6751:the Americas 6727:Quantitative 6697:Cytogenetics 6692:Conservation 6635: 6585:Introduction 6475: 6471: 6461: 6418: 6414: 6403: 6370: 6366: 6359: 6306: 6302: 6292: 6259: 6256:Biomaterials 6255: 6248: 6207: 6203: 6141: 6137: 6126: 6093: 6089: 6082: 6042:(1): 77–94. 6039: 6035: 6025: 5988: 5982: 5972: 5960:. Retrieved 5956:ScienceAlert 5954: 5944: 5932:. Retrieved 5928:the original 5921: 5911: 5899:. Retrieved 5893: 5883: 5832: 5828:Astrobiology 5826: 5816: 5791: 5787: 5781: 5770:the original 5765: 5752: 5741:. Retrieved 5737: 5728: 5717:. Retrieved 5715:. 2023-10-02 5712: 5703: 5692:. Retrieved 5688: 5679: 5654: 5650: 5644: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5566: 5562: 5552: 5517: 5513: 5503: 5462: 5458: 5452: 5411: 5407: 5401: 5384: 5380: 5374: 5365: 5352: 5319: 5315: 5309: 5284: 5280: 5274: 5233: 5229: 5223: 5198: 5194: 5188: 5163: 5159: 5153: 5118: 5114: 5104: 5071: 5067: 5061: 5026: 5022: 5012: 4977: 4973: 4963: 4928: 4924: 4914: 4879: 4876:EMBO Reports 4875: 4865: 4830: 4826: 4816: 4773: 4769: 4759: 4726: 4722: 4716: 4681: 4677: 4667: 4622: 4618: 4608: 4565: 4561: 4551: 4516: 4512: 4502: 4477: 4473: 4467: 4442: 4438: 4432: 4424: 4420: 4415: 4407: 4402: 4370:(1): 46–58. 4367: 4363: 4353: 4326: 4322: 4312: 4277: 4273: 4211: 4207: 4197: 4156: 4152: 4142: 4131: 4126: 4101: 4097: 4053: 4049: 3997: 3993: 3987: 3952: 3948: 3938: 3903: 3899: 3893: 3885: 3858: 3855:Microbiology 3854: 3844: 3803: 3799: 3793: 3748: 3744: 3734: 3693: 3689: 3676: 3643: 3639: 3629: 3588: 3584: 3578: 3551: 3547: 3537: 3509: 3467:(4): 60–67. 3464: 3460: 3454: 3443:the original 3412: 3408: 3395: 3360: 3357:EMBO Reports 3356: 3346: 3319: 3315: 3305: 3278: 3226: 3222: 3216: 3189: 3185: 3175: 3142: 3138: 3132: 3105: 3101: 3091: 3048: 3044: 3034: 2983: 2979: 2969: 2924: 2920: 2910: 2883: 2879: 2869: 2834: 2830: 2820: 2785: 2781: 2771: 2744: 2738: 2703: 2699: 2689: 2662: 2658: 2648: 2613: 2609: 2599: 2567: 2560: 2543: 2536: 2509: 2505: 2495: 2465:(2): 65–82. 2462: 2458: 2452: 2427: 2424:Biochemistry 2423: 2417: 2390: 2384: 2359: 2355: 2313: 2309: 2267: 2263: 2257: 2232: 2228: 2222: 2196:Biochemistry 2195: 2164: 2157: 2146:. 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