469:
1319:
0.90 cu.in. (15 cm) to 4.50 cu.in. (75 cm) in displacement, also all now available in spark-ignition format up to 84 cm displacement for use with gasoline. The German Seidel firm formerly made both seven- and nine-cylinder "large" (starting at 35 cm displacement) radio control model radial engines, mostly for glow plug ignition, with an experimental fourteen-cylinder twin-row radial being tried out - the
American Evolution firm now sells the Seidel-designed radials, with their manufacturing being done in India.
1036:
207:
1157:
312:, which differed from the so-called "stationary" radial in that the crankcase and cylinders revolved with the propeller. It was similar in concept to the later radial, the main difference being that the propeller was bolted to the engine, and the crankshaft to the airframe. The problem of the cooling of the cylinders, a major factor with the early "stationary" radials, was alleviated by the engine generating its own cooling airflow.
38:
1366:, whereby the heat added to the air being forced through the ducts between the cylinders expanded the exhausting cooling air, producing thrust when forced through a nozzle. The Meredith effect requires high airspeed and careful design to generate a suitable high speed exhaust of the heated air – the NACA cowling was not designed to achieve this, nor would the effect have been significant at low airspeeds. The effect
89:
1149:
218:
956:
884:
112:
1056:
and fins were introduced that largely eliminated these problems. The downside was a relatively large frontal area that had to be left open to provide enough airflow, which increased drag. This led to significant arguments in the industry in the late 1930s about the possibility of using radials for high-speed aircraft like modern fighters.
154:
valves and one for the exhaust valves. The radial engine normally uses fewer cam lobes than other types. For example, in the engine in the animated illustration, four cam lobes serve all 10 valves across the five cylinders, whereas 10 would be required for a typical inline engine with the same number of cylinders and valves.
1064:
drag, while still providing (after a number of experiments and modifications) enough cooling air to the rear. This basic concept was soon copied by many other manufacturers, and many late-WWII aircraft returned to the radial design as newer and much larger designs began to be introduced. Examples include the
1055:
Two-row designs began to appear in large numbers during the 1930s, when aircraft size and weight grew to the point where single-row engines of the required power were simply too large to be practical. Two-row designs often had cooling problems with the rear bank of cylinders, but a variety of baffles
1047:
Originally radial engines had one row of cylinders, but as engine sizes increased it became necessary to add extra rows. The first radial-configuration engine known to use a twin-row design was the 160 hp GnĂ´me "Double Lambda" rotary engine of 1912, designed as a 14-cylinder twin-row version of
805:
In the years leading up to World War II, as the need for armored vehicles was realized, designers were faced with the problem of how to power the vehicles, and turned to using aircraft engines, among them radial types. The radial aircraft engines provided greater power-to-weight ratios and were more
153:
As with most four-strokes, the crankshaft takes two revolutions to complete the four strokes of each piston (intake, compression, combustion, exhaust). The camshaft ring is geared to spin slower and in the opposite direction to the crankshaft. Its cam lobes are placed in two rows; one for the intake
493:
radials. Germany, Japan, and the Soviet Union started with building licensed versions of the
Armstrong Siddeley, Bristol, Wright, or Pratt & Whitney radials before producing their own improved versions. France continued its development of various rotary engines but also produced engines derived
359:
the crankshaft being firmly mounted to the aircraft's airframe, so that the engine's internal working components (fully internal crankshaft "floating" in its crankcase bearings, with its conrods and pistons) were spun in the opposing direction to the crankcase and cylinders, which still rotated as
149:
can be maintained, providing smooth operation. For example, on a five-cylinder engine the firing order is 1, 3, 5, 2, 4, and back to cylinder 1. Moreover, this always leaves a one-piston gap between the piston on its combustion stroke and the piston on compression. The active stroke directly helps
1318:
history. The rival Saito
Seisakusho firm in Japan has since produced a similarly sized five-cylinder radial four-stroke model engine of their own as a direct rival to the OS design, with Saito also creating a series of three-cylinder methanol and gasoline-fueled model radial engines ranging from
1083:
For even greater power, adding further rows was not considered viable due to the difficulty of providing the required airflow to the rear banks. Larger engines were designed, mostly using water cooling although this greatly increased complexity and eliminated some of the advantages of the radial
1063:
designed a new cooling system for this engine that used a high-speed fan to blow compressed air into channels that carry air to the middle of the banks, where a series of baffles directed the air over all of the cylinders. This allowed the cowling to be tightly fitted around the engine, reducing
963:
Liquid cooling systems are generally more vulnerable to battle damage. Even minor shrapnel damage can easily result in a loss of coolant and consequent engine overheating, while an air-cooled radial engine may be largely unaffected by minor damage. Radials have shorter and stiffer crankshafts, a
1313:
firm's FR5-300 five-cylinder, 3.0 cu.in. (50 cm) displacement "Sirius" radial in 1986. The
American "Technopower" firm had made smaller-displacement five- and seven-cylinder model radial engines as early as 1976, but the OS firm's engine was the first mass-produced radial engine design in
1262:
smelters and for pumping water. They differed from most radials in that they had an even number of cylinders in a single bank (or row) and an unusual double master connecting rod. Variants were built that could be run on either diesel oil or gasoline or mixtures of both. A number of powerhouse
335:
rotary engines, the ultimate examples of which reached 250 hp (190 kW) although none of those over 160 hp (120 kW) were successful. By 1917 rotary engine development was lagging behind new inline and V-type engines, which by 1918 were producing as much as 400 hp
1017:
Whenever a radial engine remains shut down for more than a few minutes, oil or fuel may drain into the combustion chambers of the lower cylinders or accumulate in the lower intake pipes, ready to be drawn into the cylinders when the engine starts. As the piston approaches
104:
1233:
of roughly 80% that for an equivalent gasoline engine. During WWII the research continued, but no mass-production occurred because of the Nazi occupation. By 1943 the engine had grown to produce over 1,000 hp (750 kW) with a
262:
used his experience constructing motorcycles to build the world's first air-cooled radial engine, a three-cylinder engine which he used as the basis for a more powerful five-cylinder model in 1907. This was installed in his
367:
By the end of the war the rotary engine had reached the limits of the design, particularly in regard to the amount of fuel and air that could be drawn into the cylinders through the hollow crankshaft, while advances in both
967:
While a single-bank radial permits all cylinders to be cooled equally, the same is not true for multi-row engines where the rear cylinders can be affected by the heat coming off the front row, and air flow being masked.
975:
considerably. The answer was the addition of specially designed cowlings with baffles to force the air between the cylinders. The first effective drag-reducing cowling that didn't impair engine cooling was the
British
134:
are connected to the crankshaft with a master-and-articulating-rod assembly. One piston, the uppermost one in the animation, has a master rod with a direct attachment to the crankshaft. The remaining pistons pin their
1228:
radial engine. After a series of improvements, in 1938 the 14F2 model produced 520 hp (390 kW) at 1910 rpm cruise power, with a power-to-weight ratio near that of contemporary gasoline engines and a
422:
was developed in 1922 with Navy funding, and using aluminum cylinders with steel liners ran for an unprecedented 300 hours, at a time when 50 hours endurance was normal. At the urging of the Army and Navy the
1140:
which was the largest piston aircraft engine ever built in the United States with 36 cylinders totaling about 7,750 in (127 L) of displacement and a power output of 5,000 horsepower (3,700 kilowatts).
1022:(TDC) of the compression stroke, this liquid, being incompressible, stops piston movement. Starting or attempting to start the engine in such condition may result in a bent or broken connecting rod.
1804:
The high-speed frontier: Case histories of four NACA programs, 1920- SP-445, NASA (1980), Chapter 5: High-speed
Cowlings, Air Inlets and Outlets, and Internal-Flow Systems: The ramjet investigation
372:
and cylinder cooling finally allowed stationary radial engines to supersede rotary engines. In the early 1920s Le RhĂ´ne converted a number of their rotary engines into stationary radial engines.
1242:
company and had plans for a 32-cylinder diesel engine of 4,000 hp (3,000 kW), but in 1947 the company abandoned piston engine development in favour of the emerging turbine engines.
286:. Before 1914, Alessandro Anzani had developed radial engines ranging from 3 cylinders (spaced 120° apart) — early enough to have been used on a few French-built examples of the famous
139:' attachments to rings around the edge of the master rod. Extra "rows" of radial cylinders can be added in order to increase the capacity of the engine without adding to its diameter.
2017:
1132:
diesel engine with 42 cylinders in 6 rows of 7, displacing 143.6 litres (8,760 cu in) and producing 3,942 hp (2,940 kW). Three of these were used on the fast
427:
bought
Lawrance's company, and subsequent engines were built under the Wright name. The radial engines gave confidence to Navy pilots performing long-range overwater flights.
935:. HCI Aviation offers the R180 5-cylinder (75 hp (56 kW)) and R220 7-cylinder (110 hp (82 kW)), available "ready to fly" and as a build-it-yourself kit.
964:
single-bank radial engine needing only two crankshaft bearings as opposed to the seven required for a liquid-cooled, six-cylinder, inline engine of similar stiffness.
94:
Pistons are in gold and valves in pink, master rod in pale purple, slaved connecting rods in blue, crankshaft / counterbalance in gray and timing ring and cams in red.
641:
eighteen-cylinder radial in 1946 - the smallest-displacement radial design from the
Shvetsov OKB during the war was the indigenously designed, 8.6 litre displacement
30:
This article is about the conventional radial engine with fixed cylinders and a revolving crankshaft. For the otherwise similar engine with a rotating crankcase, see
290:
from the original Blériot factory — to a massive 20-cylinder engine of 200 hp (150 kW), with its cylinders arranged in four rows of five cylinders apiece.
150:
compress the next cylinder to fire, making the motion more uniform. If an even number of cylinders were used, an equally timed firing cycle would not be feasible.
806:
reliable than conventional inline vehicle engines available at the time. This reliance had a downside though: if the engines were mounted vertically, as in the
1825:
947:, Saito Seisakusho of Japan, and Shijiazhuang of China, and Evolution (designed by Wolfgang Seidel of Germany, and made in India) and Technopower in the US.
1113:
continued experiments with larger radials, but the UK abandoned such designs in favour of newer versions of the
Centaurus and rapid movement to the use of
981:
407:
2010:
414:
and reliability; by 1921 the U.S. Navy had announced it would only order aircraft fitted with air-cooled radials and other naval air arms followed suit.
116:
757:
were used in various types, and more than 2,500 of the largest-displacement production
British radial from the Bristol firm to use sleeve valving, the
1712:
297:, but one of the most successful of the early radial engines (and the earliest "stationary" design produced for World War I combat aircraft) was the
622:
was the sole source of design for all of the Soviet government factory-produced radial engines used in its World War II aircraft, starting with the
718:
were rare examples of Japanese liquid-cooled inline engine aircraft at that time but later, they were also redesigned to fit radial engines as the
1180:
Packard designed and built a 9-cylinder 980 cubic inch (16.06 litre) displacement diesel radial aircraft engine, the 225 horsepower (168 kW)
1952:
939:
of the Czech Republic builds several radial engines ranging in power from 25 to 150 hp (19 to 112 kW). Miniature radial engines for
2562:
2003:
1532:
1406:
525:
1876:
1040:
1285:
are a prototype radial design that have an even number of cylinders, either four or eight; but this is not problematic, because they are
2567:
553:
462:
528:, with a displacement of 2,800 in (46 L) and between 2,000 and 2,400 hp (1,500-1,800 kW), powered the American single-engine
1196:
set a record for staying aloft for 84 hours and 32 minutes without being refueled. This record stood for 55 years until broken by the
2128:
1751:
1563:
1507:
1482:
1448:
1297:
A number of radial motors operating on compressed air have been designed, mostly for use in model airplanes and in gas compressors.
1095:
and other systems was carried out in the US, and demonstrated that ample airflow was available with careful design. This led to the
518:
301:
that were produced in large numbers. Georges Canton and Pierre Unné patented the original engine design in 1909, offering it to the
298:
1766:
Some six-cylinder inline engines used as few as three bearings, but at the cost of heavier crankshafts, or crankshaft whipping.
1607:
1230:
652:, with between 1,560 and 2,000 PS (1,540-1,970 hp, or 1,150-1,470 kW), powered the German single-seat, single-engine
424:
1168:
While most radial engines have been produced for gasoline, there have been diesel radial engines. Two major advantages favour
1902:
1251:
1161:
571:
465:. More Twin Wasps were produced than any other aviation piston engine in the history of aviation; nearly 175,000 were built.
461:, was test run later that year, beginning a line of engines over the next 25 years that included the 14-cylinder, twin-row
1847:
1591:
821:, a 7-cylinder radial aero engine which first flew in 1931, became a widely used tank powerplant, being installed in the
2221:
2148:
988:
which further reduced drag and improved cooling. Nearly all aircraft radial engines since have used NACA-type cowlings.
592:
514:
2044:
1831:
1375:
872:
468:
56:
1118:
1096:
940:
606:
549:
537:
479:
458:
400:
388:
221:
1128:
Large radials continued to be built for other uses, although they are no longer common. An example is the 5-ton
2298:
2138:
1328:
1225:
383:
that had powered World War I aircraft were appreciated but were unrealized. British designers had produced the
376:
252:
130:
unless mechanically complex forked connecting rods are used, none of which have been successful. Instead, the
2557:
1682:
980:
or "drag ring" which formed a narrow band around the engine covering the cylinder heads, reducing drag. The
838:
435:
340:
244:
190:
1035:
2293:
2248:
2158:
2091:
1133:
814:, their comparatively large diameter gave the tank a higher silhouette than designs using inline engines.
360:
the propeller itself did since it was still firmly fastened to the crankcase's frontside, as with regular
971:
A potential disadvantage of radial engines is that having the cylinders exposed to the airflow increases
457:
company was founded, competing with Wright's radial engines. Pratt & Whitney's initial offering, the
2283:
2278:
2258:
2183:
2143:
2133:
2086:
2081:
1780:
1315:
1271:
578:
434:
radial engine of 1925 was widely claimed as "the first truly reliable aircraft engine". Wright employed
411:
348:
1956:
1370:
put to use in the radiators of several mid-1940s aircraft that used liquid-cooled engines such as the
912:
2288:
2268:
2263:
2253:
2231:
2173:
2064:
2059:
2026:
1371:
932:
778:
746:
545:
541:
442:, which first flew later that year. The J-5 was used on many advanced aircraft of the day, including
439:
431:
387:
radial in 1917, but were unable to resolve the cooling problems, and it was not until the 1920s that
320:
59:
53:
2522:
2346:
2273:
2168:
2118:
1000:
588:
533:
447:
1412:
2341:
2211:
2206:
2163:
2101:
1235:
904:
738:
596:
529:
392:
210:
1880:
1052:
single-row seven-cylinder rotary, however reliability and cooling problems limited its success.
785:
and over 20,000 examples of the firm's 1925-origin nine-cylinder Mercury were used to power the
454:
206:
1624:
2331:
2216:
2201:
2178:
1747:
1741:
1559:
1528:
1503:
1478:
1444:
1379:
1333:
1286:
1282:
1255:
1189:
1065:
818:
786:
758:
675:
667:
653:
443:
186:
142:
63:
1640:
1555:
1549:
169:
on a cam plate which is concentric with the crankshaft, with a few smaller radials, like the
2321:
2316:
1193:
1156:
1137:
845:
790:
782:
774:
683:
502:
490:
415:
275:
259:
182:
1995:
581:
twin-row radials powered American warplanes: the nearly-43 litre displacement, 14-cylinder
336:(300 kW), and were powering almost all of the new French and British combat aircraft.
2336:
2326:
2240:
2193:
2096:
1851:
1611:
1440:
1434:
1363:
1289:, with twice the number of power strokes as a four-stroke engine per crankshaft rotation.
1213:
1209:
1185:
1122:
1073:
1069:
1019:
1003:, two of the fastest production piston-engined aircraft ever built, using radial engines.
996:
770:
766:
754:
719:
703:
638:
634:
483:
396:
283:
78:
145:
radials have an odd number of cylinders per row, so that a consistent every-other-piston
1309:
have been commercially available in a radial configuration, beginning with the Japanese
995:, radial engines dominated afterwards until overtaken by jet engines, with the late-war
666:
In Japan, most airplanes were powered by air-cooled radial engines like the 14-cylinder
37:
2106:
1743:
The World's Most Significant and Magnificent Aircraft: Evolution of the Modern Airplane
1737:
1181:
1077:
991:
While inline liquid-cooled engines continued to be common in new designs until late in
972:
868:
794:
762:
750:
742:
711:
707:
699:
695:
691:
671:
559:
344:
236:
235:
constructed a water-cooled five-cylinder radial engine in 1901, a conversion of one of
177:, using individual camshafts within the crankcase for each cylinder. A few engines use
136:
123:
1802:
2551:
2507:
2364:
2153:
2071:
2030:
1378:, and it offered a minor improvement in later radial-engined aircraft, including the
1343:
1197:
1169:
944:
916:
849:
826:
822:
737:
radials: of the sleeve valved designs, more than 57,400 Hercules engines powered the
687:
660:
642:
627:
623:
600:
582:
384:
380:
309:
287:
279:
240:
225:
174:
31:
1604:
88:
17:
2049:
1976:
1525:
Flight Patterns: Trends of Aeronautical Development in the United States, 1918–1929
1338:
1306:
1148:
1110:
1106:
1049:
992:
985:
977:
936:
920:
908:
853:
734:
730:
723:
715:
567:
563:
487:
419:
328:
178:
158:
146:
74:
when viewed from the front, and is called a "star engine" in some other languages.
1258:
radial diesel engines from the late 1940s for electrical production, primarily at
1125:, which easily produced more power than radials without the weight or complexity.
217:
115:
Master rod (upright) and slaved connecting rods from a two-row, fourteen-cylinder
2308:
2113:
2054:
1129:
1092:
955:
928:
924:
865:
510:
332:
324:
316:
308:
From 1909 to 1919 the radial engine was overshadowed by its close relative, the
232:
82:
1844:
2481:
2476:
2471:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2396:
2384:
2123:
2076:
1990:
1776:
883:
857:
811:
637:
fourteen cylinder radial for fighters, and the massive, 58-litre displacement
369:
352:
339:
Most German aircraft of the time used water-cooled inline 6-cylinder engines.
294:
170:
127:
111:
27:
Reciprocating engine with cylinders arranged radially from a single crankshaft
1263:
installations utilising large numbers of these engines were made in the U.S.
1105:
configuration. The R-4360 saw service on large American aircraft in the post-
375:
By 1918 the potential advantages of air-cooled radials over the water-cooled
2466:
2403:
2391:
2379:
2374:
2369:
1854:
Aircraft Engine Historical Society — Diesels p.4 Retrieved: 30 January 2009.
1362:
It has been claimed that the NACA cowling generated extra thrust due to the
1164:
two-stroke diesel radial engine for power generation and pump drive purposes
1114:
1060:
1012:
892:
861:
830:
679:
506:
498:
472:
67:
552:, etc. The same firm's aforementioned smaller-displacement (at 30 litres),
103:
1059:
The solution was introduced with the BMW 801 14-cylinder twin-row radial.
895:
produces the M-14P radial of 360–450 hp (270–340 kW) as used on
2532:
2527:
2512:
2491:
2486:
2461:
2456:
2448:
2356:
1661:
1579:
1310:
1259:
896:
613:
264:
410:(NACA) noted in 1920 that air-cooled radials could offer an increase in
1863:
1101:
1085:
649:
599:, with the massive twin-row, nearly 55-litre displacement, 18-cylinder
558:
14-cylinder twin-row radial was used as the main engine design for the
343:
made licensed copies of the Gnome and Le RhĂ´ne rotary powerplants, and
302:
162:
92:
Moving parts showing operation of a typical small five-cylinder radial.
42:
648:
Over 28,000 of the German 42-litre displacement, 14-cylinder, two-row
1239:
900:
834:
807:
274:, originally built as a W3 "fan" configuration, one of which powered
271:
166:
131:
1274:(EMD) built the "pancake" engines 16-184 and 16-338 for marine use.
1224:
In 1932 the French company Clerget developed the 14D, a 14-cylinder
1582:". Charles Lindergh: An American Aviator, Retrieved 21 August 2015.
769:. The same firm's poppet-valved radials included: around 32,000 of
1155:
1147:
1034:
954:
882:
467:
216:
205:
189:, which are quieter and smoother running but require much tighter
110:
102:
87:
36:
1690:
1502:. Cambridge, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd. pp. 29, 31 & 44.
1216:
and set altitude records in 1934 that lasted until World War II.
959:
The 1935 Monaco-Trossi race car, a rare example of automobile use
574:
in all-time production numbers for each type of airframe design.
71:
1999:
1977:
Saito Seisakusho Worldwide E-book catalog, pages 9, 17 & 18
1592:- Archived (Nov. 11, 2013) manufacturer's product page, R-1830
1254:
of the United States developed and produced a series of large
616:
299:
Salmson 9Z series of nine-cylinder water-cooled radial engines
482:
was concentrating on developing radials such as the Jupiter,
438:
to design an aircraft to showcase it, and the result was the
351:, which was unusual for the period in being geared through a
633:'s design) and going on to design the 41-litre displacement
1238:. After the war, the Clerget company was integrated in the
903:
aerobatic aircraft. The M-14P is also used by builders of
848:, a 9-cylinder radial diesel aero engine, was used in the
450:, in which he made the first solo trans-Atlantic flight.
305:
company; the engine was often known as the Canton-Unné.
891:
A number of companies continue to build radials today.
1927:
1903:"General Motors / Electro-Motive 16-184 Diesel Engine"
1084:
air-cooled design. One example of this concept is the
1845:
Chapter 1: Development of the Diesel Aircraft Engine"
1991:
Cutaway radial engine in operation video on You Tube
1436:
Biographical Dictionary of the History of Technology
1091:
A major study into the airflow around radials using
70:
like the spokes of a wheel. It resembles a stylized
2500:
2447:
2355:
2307:
2239:
2230:
2192:
2037:
349:
Siemens-Halske Sh.III eleven-cylinder rotary engine
270:Another early radial engine was the three-cylinder
931:9-cylinder engines are available from Australia's
887:Four-stroke aircraft radial engine Scarlett mini 5
122:Since the axes of the cylinders are coplanar, the
1212:of 1928–1932 was successfully flight tested in a
395:produced reliable air-cooled radials such as the
1827:Powerplant Maintenance for Reciprocating Engines
1172:— lower fuel consumption and reduced fire risk.
319:many French and other Allied aircraft flew with
77:The radial configuration was commonly used for
753:, over 8,000 of the pioneering sleeve-valved
524:125,334 of the American twin-row, 18-cylinder
494:from Bristol designs, especially the Jupiter.
2011:
1411:. Dayton History Books Online. Archived from
1099:, which has 28 cylinders arranged in a 4 row
267:and made a number of short free-flight hops.
255:produced 52 hp (39 kW) at 950 rpm.
8:
1184:, in 1928. On 28 May 1931, a DR-980 powered
1152:Packard DR-980 diesel radial aircraft engine
1527:. University of Georgia Press. p. 26.
982:National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
408:National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
117:Pratt & Whitney R-1535 Twin Wasp Junior
2236:
2018:
2004:
1996:
497:Although other piston configurations and
1400:
1398:
1394:
1355:
1188:, with 481 gallons of fuel, piloted by
347:built their own designs, including the
126:cannot all be directly attached to the
107:Another example of the engine operation
1713:"MONACO - TROSSI mod. da competizione"
1551:Anne Morrow Lindbergh: A Gift for Life
526:Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp
1955:. Bock.de. 2009-10-19. Archived from
7:
1305:A number of multi-cylinder 4-stroke
984:studied the problem, developing the
463:Pratt & Whitney R-1830 Twin Wasp
519:the fastest piston-powered aircraft
430:Wright's 225 hp (168 kW)
1901:Pearce, William (18 August 2014).
1500:World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines
729:In Britain, Bristol produced both
25:
1603:Lewis Vintage Collection (2018),
355:in the rear end of the crankcase
157:Most radial engines use overhead
66:"radiate" outward from a central
1554:. Ticknor & Fields. p.
1439:. Taylor & Francis. p.
1953:"Bock radial piston compressor"
1781:"Air-cooled Engines in Service"
1683:"Verner Motor range of engines"
1433:Day, Lance; Ian McNeil (1996).
1088:, which never entered service.
425:Wright Aeronautical Corporation
1252:Nordberg Manufacturing Company
1162:Nordberg Manufacturing Company
951:Comparison with inline engines
626:(itself based on the American
1:
1928:"zoche aero-diesels homepage"
1293:Compressed air radial engines
2563:Piston engine configurations
1630:. Retrieved: 6 January 2018.
1614:. Retrieved: 6 January 2018.
1026:Other types of radial engine
593:North American B-25 Mitchell
515:Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone
85:engines became predominant.
1879:. OldEngine. Archived from
1866:Retrieved: 7 February 2009.
1832:Department of the Air Force
1523:Bilstein, Roger E. (2008).
1405:Vivian, E. Charles (1920).
873:M44 self propelled howitzer
749:, and some versions of the
595:, and some versions of the
2584:
2568:Engines by cylinder layout
1664:. Aerospace Engines A to Z
1594:Retrieved: 7 February 2019
1548:Herrmann, Dorothy (1993).
1010:
587:powered the single-engine
570:, each design being among
501:have taken over in modern
478:In the United Kingdom the
222:Pratt & Whitney R-1340
29:
1877:"Nordberg Diesel Engines"
1625:"Aircraft speed records."
1231:specific fuel consumption
1119:Armstrong Siddeley Python
929:150 hp (110 kW)
607:Boeing B-29 Superfortress
605:powering the four-engine
550:Northrop P-61 Black Widow
538:Republic P-47 Thunderbolt
503:propeller-driven aircraft
480:Bristol Aeroplane Company
406:In the United States the
401:Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar
1408:A History of Aeronautics
1329:List of aircraft engines
925:110 hp (82 kW)
517:radial engine, is still
293:Most radial engines are
191:manufacturing tolerances
181:such as the 14-cylinder
1834:. 1953. pp. 53–54.
1605:"'Rare Bear' web site."
1580:The Spirit of St. Louis
1134:Osa class missile boats
761:were used to power the
436:Giuseppe Mario Bellanca
341:Motorenfabrik Oberursel
2159:Single-acting cylinder
2092:Double-acting cylinder
1498:Gunston, Bill (1989).
1475:The Rotary Aero Engine
1473:Nahum, Andrew (1999).
1165:
1153:
1136:. Another one was the
1048:the firm's 80 hp
1044:
960:
919:S12 "Monster" and the
888:
645:five cylinder radial.
572:the production leaders
475:
229:
214:
119:
108:
95:
45:
2027:Engine configurations
1463:Lumsden 2003, p. 225.
1272:Electro-Motive Diesel
1159:
1151:
1038:
958:
886:
579:Wright Cyclone series
471:
453:In 1925 the American
412:power-to-weight ratio
220:
209:
114:
106:
91:
40:
2129:Oscillating cylinder
1779:(28 February 1929).
1746:. SAE. p. 155.
1477:. NMSI Trading Ltd.
1301:Model radial engines
779:Handley Page Hampden
747:Handley Page Halifax
694:(30,233 units, e.g.
686:(16,486 units, e.g.
678:(12,228 units, e.g.
670:(11,903 units, e.g.
546:Douglas A-26 Invader
542:Martin B-26 Marauder
440:Wright-Bellanca WB-1
185:and the 18-cylinder
60:engine configuration
18:Radial piston engine
2222:Two-and four-stroke
2124:Intake over exhaust
1907:oldmachinepress.com
1864:Aviation Chronology
1109:period. The US and
1043:, a four-row radial
1001:Grumman F8F Bearcat
943:are available from
856:saw service in the
839:LVT-2 Water Buffalo
706:(9,089 units, e.g.
702:), and 18-cylinder
589:Grumman TBF Avenger
534:Grumman F6F Hellcat
511:Grumman F8F Bearcat
455:Pratt & Whitney
448:Spirit of St. Louis
57:internal combustion
41:Radial engine in a
1850:2012-02-12 at the
1815:Price 1977, p. 24.
1738:Thurston, David B.
1643:. Culp Specialties
1610:2013-10-27 at the
1287:two-stroke engines
1283:Zoche aero-diesels
1166:
1154:
1045:
961:
905:homebuilt aircraft
889:
739:Vickers Wellington
659:, and twin-engine
597:Douglas A-20 Havoc
530:Vought F4U Corsair
476:
393:Armstrong Siddeley
230:
224:radial mounted in
215:
120:
109:
96:
54:reciprocating type
46:
2545:
2544:
2541:
2540:
2241:Inline / straight
2139:Overhead camshaft
1693:on 6 October 2014
1534:978-0-8203-3214-7
1334:Swashplate engine
1226:two-stroke diesel
1208:The experimental
1190:Walter Edwin Lees
1066:Bristol Centaurus
1031:Multi-row radials
819:Continental R-670
787:Westland Lysander
763:Hawker Tempest II
759:Bristol Centaurus
733:and conventional
676:Mitsubishi Kinsei
668:Mitsubishi Zuisei
654:Focke-Wulf Fw 190
444:Charles Lindbergh
364:German rotaries.
187:Bristol Centaurus
16:(Redirected from
2575:
2237:
2232:Cylinder layouts
2020:
2013:
2006:
1997:
1979:
1974:
1968:
1967:
1965:
1964:
1949:
1943:
1942:
1940:
1938:
1924:
1918:
1917:
1915:
1913:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1889:
1888:
1873:
1867:
1861:
1855:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1822:
1816:
1813:
1807:
1799:
1793:
1792:
1773:
1767:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1709:
1703:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1689:. Archived from
1679:
1673:
1672:
1670:
1669:
1658:
1652:
1651:
1649:
1648:
1637:
1631:
1628:AeroSpaceWeb.org
1621:
1615:
1601:
1595:
1589:
1583:
1576:
1570:
1569:
1545:
1539:
1538:
1520:
1514:
1513:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1470:
1464:
1461:
1455:
1454:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1420:
1402:
1383:
1360:
1194:Frederick Brossy
1138:Lycoming XR-7755
913:Culp Sopwith Pup
854:Continental R975
846:Guiberson T-1020
791:Bristol Blenheim
783:Fairey Swordfish
775:Short Sunderland
684:Mitsubishi Kasei
513:equipped with a
416:Charles Lawrance
260:Jacob Ellehammer
183:Bristol Hercules
99:Engine operation
79:aircraft engines
21:
2583:
2582:
2578:
2577:
2576:
2574:
2573:
2572:
2548:
2547:
2546:
2537:
2496:
2443:
2351:
2303:
2226:
2188:
2033:
2024:
1987:
1982:
1975:
1971:
1962:
1960:
1951:
1950:
1946:
1936:
1934:
1926:
1925:
1921:
1911:
1909:
1900:
1899:
1895:
1886:
1884:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1852:Wayback Machine
1843:
1839:
1824:
1823:
1819:
1814:
1810:
1800:
1796:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1754:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1721:
1719:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1696:
1694:
1681:
1680:
1676:
1667:
1665:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1646:
1644:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1622:
1618:
1612:Wayback Machine
1602:
1598:
1590:
1586:
1577:
1573:
1566:
1547:
1546:
1542:
1535:
1522:
1521:
1517:
1510:
1497:
1496:
1492:
1485:
1472:
1471:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1451:
1432:
1431:
1427:
1418:
1416:
1404:
1403:
1396:
1392:
1387:
1386:
1364:Meredith Effect
1361:
1357:
1352:
1325:
1303:
1295:
1214:Westland Wapiti
1210:Bristol Phoenix
1186:Bellanca CH-300
1146:
1123:Bristol Proteus
1074:Shvetsov ASh-82
1070:Hawker Sea Fury
1033:
1028:
1020:top dead center
1015:
1009:
997:Hawker Sea Fury
953:
941:model airplanes
933:Rotec Aerosport
927:7-cylinder and
881:
803:
771:Bristol Pegasus
755:Bristol Perseus
720:Kawasaki Ki-100
704:Nakajima Homare
639:Shvetsov ASh-73
635:Shvetsov ASh-82
397:Bristol Jupiter
379:and air-cooled
353:bevel geartrain
284:English Channel
204:
199:
137:connecting rods
124:connecting rods
101:
93:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2581:
2579:
2571:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2558:Radial engines
2550:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2539:
2538:
2536:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2510:
2504:
2502:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2453:
2451:
2445:
2444:
2442:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2400:
2399:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2361:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2350:
2349:
2344:
2339:
2334:
2329:
2324:
2319:
2313:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2301:
2296:
2291:
2286:
2281:
2276:
2271:
2266:
2261:
2256:
2251:
2245:
2243:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2198:
2196:
2190:
2189:
2187:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2144:Overhead valve
2141:
2136:
2134:Opposed-piston
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2099:
2094:
2089:
2084:
2079:
2074:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2052:
2047:
2041:
2039:
2035:
2034:
2031:piston engines
2025:
2023:
2022:
2015:
2008:
2000:
1994:
1993:
1986:
1985:External links
1983:
1981:
1980:
1969:
1944:
1919:
1893:
1868:
1856:
1837:
1817:
1808:
1794:
1777:Fedden, A.H.R.
1768:
1759:
1752:
1729:
1704:
1674:
1653:
1632:
1623:Aerospaceweb,
1616:
1596:
1584:
1571:
1564:
1540:
1533:
1515:
1508:
1490:
1483:
1465:
1456:
1449:
1425:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1385:
1384:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1347:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1331:
1324:
1321:
1302:
1299:
1294:
1291:
1280:
1279:
1269:
1268:
1248:
1247:
1222:
1221:
1206:
1205:
1178:
1177:
1170:diesel engines
1145:
1144:Diesel radials
1142:
1078:Lavochkin La-7
1032:
1029:
1027:
1024:
1011:Main article:
1008:
1005:
952:
949:
921:Murphy "Moose"
907:, such as the
880:
879:Modern radials
877:
869:tank destroyer
802:
799:
795:Blackburn Skua
751:Avro Lancaster
743:Short Stirling
712:Kawasaki Ki-61
708:Nakajima Ki-84
700:Nakajima Ki-43
696:Mitsubishi A6M
692:Nakajima Sakae
672:Kawasaki Ki-45
602:Duplex-Cyclone
591:, twin-engine
560:B-24 Liberator
540:, twin-engine
345:Siemens-Halske
253:Manly's engine
241:rotary engines
237:Stephen Balzer
203:
200:
198:
195:
100:
97:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2580:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2509:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2499:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2452:
2450:
2446:
2440:
2437:
2435:
2432:
2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
2402:
2398:
2395:
2394:
2393:
2390:
2386:
2383:
2382:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2358:
2354:
2348:
2345:
2343:
2340:
2338:
2335:
2333:
2330:
2328:
2325:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2315:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2306:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2285:
2282:
2280:
2277:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2246:
2244:
2242:
2238:
2235:
2233:
2229:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2194:Stroke cycles
2191:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2150:
2147:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2105:
2104:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2088:
2085:
2083:
2080:
2078:
2075:
2073:
2070:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2042:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2021:
2016:
2014:
2009:
2007:
2002:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1984:
1978:
1973:
1970:
1959:on 2011-10-08
1958:
1954:
1948:
1945:
1933:
1929:
1923:
1920:
1908:
1904:
1897:
1894:
1883:on 2018-09-19
1882:
1878:
1872:
1869:
1865:
1860:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1846:
1841:
1838:
1833:
1829:
1828:
1821:
1818:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1798:
1795:
1791:(9): 169–173.
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1772:
1769:
1763:
1760:
1755:
1753:0-7680-0537-X
1749:
1745:
1744:
1739:
1733:
1730:
1718:
1714:
1708:
1705:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1678:
1675:
1663:
1657:
1654:
1642:
1636:
1633:
1629:
1626:
1620:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1600:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1585:
1581:
1575:
1572:
1567:
1565:0-395-56114-0
1561:
1557:
1553:
1552:
1544:
1541:
1536:
1530:
1526:
1519:
1516:
1511:
1509:1-85260-163-9
1505:
1501:
1494:
1491:
1486:
1484:1-900747-12-X
1480:
1476:
1469:
1466:
1460:
1457:
1452:
1450:0-415-06042-7
1446:
1442:
1438:
1437:
1429:
1426:
1415:on 2009-05-23
1414:
1410:
1409:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1389:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1359:
1356:
1349:
1345:
1344:Wankel engine
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1330:
1327:
1326:
1322:
1320:
1317:
1316:aeromodelling
1312:
1308:
1307:model engines
1300:
1298:
1292:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1277:
1276:
1275:
1273:
1266:
1265:
1264:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1245:
1244:
1243:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1227:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1215:
1211:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1198:Rutan Voyager
1195:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1171:
1163:
1158:
1150:
1143:
1141:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1103:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1087:
1081:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1062:
1057:
1053:
1051:
1042:
1037:
1030:
1025:
1023:
1021:
1014:
1006:
1004:
1002:
998:
994:
989:
987:
983:
979:
974:
969:
965:
957:
950:
948:
946:
945:O. S. Engines
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
885:
878:
876:
874:
870:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
842:
840:
836:
832:
828:
827:M2 Light Tank
824:
823:M1 Combat Car
820:
815:
813:
809:
800:
798:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
735:poppet valved
732:
731:sleeve valved
727:
725:
721:
717:
713:
709:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
688:Kawanishi H8K
685:
681:
677:
673:
669:
664:
662:
661:Junkers Ju 88
658:
655:
651:
646:
644:
643:Shvetsov M-11
640:
636:
632:
631:
625:
624:Shvetsov M-25
621:
620:design bureau
619:
615:
610:
608:
604:
603:
598:
594:
590:
586:
585:
580:
577:The American
575:
573:
569:
565:
561:
557:
556:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
522:
520:
516:
512:
509:, which is a
508:
504:
500:
495:
492:
489:
485:
481:
474:
470:
466:
464:
460:
456:
451:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
432:J-5 Whirlwind
428:
426:
421:
417:
413:
409:
404:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
385:ABC Dragonfly
382:
381:rotary engine
378:
377:inline engine
373:
371:
365:
363:
358:
354:
350:
346:
342:
337:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
313:
311:
310:rotary engine
306:
304:
300:
296:
291:
289:
285:
281:
277:
276:Louis Blériot
273:
268:
266:
261:
258:In 1903–1904
256:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
227:
226:Sikorsky H-19
223:
219:
212:
208:
201:
196:
194:
192:
188:
184:
180:
179:sleeve valves
176:
175:Shvetsov M-11
172:
168:
164:
160:
159:poppet valves
155:
151:
148:
144:
140:
138:
133:
129:
125:
118:
113:
105:
98:
90:
86:
84:
80:
75:
73:
69:
65:
62:in which the
61:
58:
55:
51:
50:radial engine
44:
39:
33:
32:rotary engine
19:
2523:Split-single
2517:
2309:Flat / boxer
2169:Swing-piston
1972:
1961:. Retrieved
1957:the original
1947:
1935:. Retrieved
1931:
1922:
1910:. Retrieved
1906:
1896:
1885:. Retrieved
1881:the original
1871:
1859:
1840:
1826:
1820:
1811:
1803:
1801:Becker, J.;
1797:
1788:
1784:
1771:
1762:
1742:
1732:
1720:. Retrieved
1717:museoauto.it
1716:
1707:
1695:. Retrieved
1691:the original
1687:Verner Motor
1686:
1677:
1666:. Retrieved
1656:
1645:. Retrieved
1635:
1627:
1619:
1599:
1587:
1574:
1550:
1543:
1524:
1518:
1499:
1493:
1474:
1468:
1459:
1435:
1428:
1417:. Retrieved
1413:the original
1407:
1367:
1358:
1339:Quasiturbine
1304:
1296:
1281:
1270:
1249:
1236:turbocharger
1223:
1207:
1179:
1167:
1127:
1117:such as the
1111:Soviet Union
1107:World War II
1100:
1093:wind tunnels
1090:
1082:
1058:
1054:
1046:
1016:
993:World War II
990:
986:NACA cowling
978:Townend ring
970:
966:
962:
937:Verner Motor
909:Culp Special
890:
852:, while the
843:
816:
804:
773:used in the
728:
724:Yokosuka D4Y
716:Yokosuka D4Y
665:
656:
647:
629:
617:
611:
609:and others.
601:
584:Twin Cyclone
583:
576:
568:Douglas C-47
564:PBY Catalina
554:
523:
496:
488:sleeve valve
477:
452:
429:
405:
374:
366:
361:
356:
338:
314:
307:
292:
269:
257:
248:
231:
213:radial, 1944
173:and Russian
156:
152:
147:firing order
141:
121:
76:
49:
47:
2212:Five-stroke
2207:Four-stroke
2164:Split cycle
2102:Free-piston
2045:Atmospheric
1722:10 November
1662:"HCI (USA)"
1130:Zvezda M503
866:M18 Hellcat
612:The Soviet
459:R-1340 Wasp
362:umlaufmotor
317:World War I
282:across the
233:C. M. Manly
211:Continental
143:Four-stroke
83:gas turbine
2552:Categories
2217:Six-stroke
2202:Two-stroke
2119:Heron head
2077:Cam engine
1963:2011-12-06
1887:2006-11-20
1668:2023-02-11
1647:2013-12-22
1641:"Aircraft"
1419:2008-07-05
1390:References
1256:two-stroke
1115:turboprops
1072:, and the
1041:Wasp Major
871:, and the
858:M4 Sherman
812:M4 Sherman
499:turboprops
420:J-1 engine
370:metallurgy
295:air-cooled
288:Blériot XI
280:Blériot XI
251:aircraft.
228:helicopter
171:Kinner B-5
161:driven by
128:crankshaft
1061:Kurt Tank
1013:Hydrolock
1007:Hydrolock
893:Vedeneyev
862:M7 Priest
831:M3 Stuart
680:Aichi D3A
630:Cyclone 9
555:Twin Wasp
507:Rare Bear
473:Rare Bear
249:Aerodrome
68:crankcase
64:cylinders
2149:Pentroof
2097:Flathead
2087:Compound
2065:Rotative
1932:zoche.de
1848:Archived
1740:(2000).
1697:23 April
1608:Archived
1372:Spitfire
1323:See also
1311:O.S. Max
1260:aluminum
1246:Nordberg
897:Yakovlev
767:Sea Fury
614:Shvetsov
491:Hercules
399:and the
325:Le RhĂ´ne
265:triplane
202:Aircraft
163:pushrods
2357:V / Vee
2174:Uniflow
2107:Stelzer
2082:Camless
2060:Cornish
1376:Mustang
1220:Clerget
1204:Bristol
1176:Packard
1102:corncob
1086:BMW 803
1076:in the
1068:in the
710:). The
650:BMW 801
628:Wright
484:Mercury
389:Bristol
357:without
333:Bentley
329:Clerget
303:Salmson
245:Langley
197:History
167:lifters
132:pistons
81:before
43:biplane
2518:Radial
2508:Deltic
2154:Rotary
2072:Bourke
1937:30 May
1912:30 May
1785:Flight
1750:
1562:
1531:
1506:
1481:
1447:
1380:Fw 190
1240:SNECMA
1182:DR-980
1097:R-4360
1050:Lambda
911:, and
901:Sukhoi
850:M1A1E1
837:, and
835:M3 Lee
808:M3 Lee
793:, and
781:, and
657:WĂĽrger
618:OKB-19
566:, and
486:, and
331:, and
272:Anzani
243:, for
2501:Other
2184:Wedge
2050:Axial
1350:Notes
1278:Zoche
917:Pitts
801:Tanks
321:Gnome
52:is a
2179:Watt
2114:Hemi
2055:Beam
2038:Type
2029:for
1939:2016
1914:2016
1748:ISBN
1724:2016
1699:2013
1560:ISBN
1529:ISBN
1504:ISBN
1479:ISBN
1445:ISBN
1374:and
1250:The
1192:and
1121:and
1039:The
999:and
973:drag
899:and
844:The
817:The
810:and
765:and
722:and
714:and
698:and
391:and
165:and
72:star
48:The
2492:W30
2487:W24
2482:W18
2477:W16
2472:W12
2439:V24
2434:V20
2429:V18
2424:V16
2419:V14
2414:V12
2409:V10
2397:VR6
2385:VR5
2347:F16
2342:F12
2337:F10
2299:I14
2294:I12
1789:XXI
1441:239
1368:was
1267:EMD
726:3.
690:),
682:),
674:),
446:'s
418:'s
315:In
278:'s
247:'s
239:'s
2554::
2467:W8
2462:W6
2457:W3
2404:V8
2392:V6
2380:V5
2375:V4
2370:V3
2365:V2
2332:F8
2327:F6
2322:F4
2317:F2
2289:I9
2284:I8
2279:I7
2274:I6
2269:I5
2264:I4
2259:I3
2254:I2
2249:I1
1930:.
1905:.
1830:.
1787:.
1783:.
1715:.
1685:.
1558:.
1556:28
1443:.
1397:^
1200:.
1160:A
1080:.
923:.
915:,
875:.
864:,
860:,
841:.
833:,
829:,
825:,
797:.
789:,
777:,
745:,
741:,
663:.
562:,
548:,
544:,
536:,
532:,
521:.
505:,
403:.
327:,
323:,
193:.
2533:X
2528:U
2513:H
2449:W
2019:e
2012:t
2005:v
1966:.
1941:.
1916:.
1890:.
1756:.
1726:.
1701:.
1671:.
1650:.
1578:"
1568:.
1537:.
1512:.
1487:.
1453:.
1422:.
1382:.
34:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
