94:
262:" are examples of RDDs. As the name suggests, an RDD aims at dispersing radioactive material over an area, causing high cleanup costs, psychological, and economic damage. Nevertheless, direct human losses caused by RDDs are low and not attributed to the radiological aspect. RDDs are easily fabricated and components readily obtainable. RDDs are comparatively easy to detect with RPMs due to their high level of radioactivity. RDDs emit gamma radiation as well as sometimes, depending on what isotopes are used, neutrons.
239:. Utilizing recoil nuclei following neutron scatter events, natural helium glows (scintillates), allowing photomultipliers (e.g. SiPMs) to produce an electrical signal. Introducing moderators and lithium-6 to capture thermalized neutrons further increases the detection capabilities of natural helium, at the expense of losing the initial information of the neutrons (such as energy) and reducing sensitivity to shielded neutron-emitting materials.
36:
185:, called NORMs account for 99% of nuisance alarms. It is worth noting that bananas have erroneously been reported as the source of radiation alarms; they are not. Most produce contains potassium-40, but packing density of fruits and vegetables is too low to produce a significant signal. PVT does have the ability to provide some energy discrimination, which can be exploited to limit nuisance alarms from NORM.
367:
This article relates primarily to RPMs deployed for screening trucks at ports of entry. Over 1400 RPMs are deployed at US borders and a similar number at foreign locations for the purpose of interdicting illicit radiological and nuclear material. The US deployments cover all land border vehicles, all
125:
RPMs were originally developed for screening individuals and vehicles at secure facilities such as weapons laboratories. They were deployed at scrap metal facilities to detect radiation sources mixed among scrap that could contaminate a facility and result in a costly clean up. As part of the effort
160:
scintillators for gamma counting. They provide limited information on energy of detected photons, and as a result, they were criticized for their inability to distinguish gamma rays originating from nuclear sources from gamma rays originating from a large variety of benign cargo types that naturally
388:
RPMs are also deployed at civilian and military nuclear facilities to prevent theft of radiological materials. Steel mills often use RPMs to screen incoming scrap metal to avoid radioactive sources illegally disposed in this way. Garbage incineration plants often monitor incoming material to avoid
283:
Gamma radiation as well as neutron radiation can cause RPMs to trigger an alarm procedure. Alarms caused by statistical fluctuations of detection rates are referred to as false alarms. Alarms caused by benign radioactive sources are referred to as nuisance alarms. Causes of nuisance alarms can be
198:
scintillating crystals. These devices, having better energy resolution than PVT, were supposed to reduce nuisance alarm rates by distinguishing threats from benign sources on the basis of the detected gamma radiation spectra. ASPs based on NaI(Tl) had a cost several times that of first generation
210:
In the scope of the ASP program, high purity germanium (HPGe) based portal monitors were evaluated. HPGe, having significantly better energy resolution than NaI(Tl), allows rather precise measurement of the isotopes contributing to gamma ray spectra. However, due to very high costs and major
274:
are weapons of mass destruction. They are difficult to acquire, manufacture, refurbish, and handle. While INDs can be constructed to emit only low amounts of radiation making them difficult to detect with RPMs, all INDs emit some amounts of gamma and neutron radiation.
108:
s) are passive radiation detection devices used for the screening of individuals, vehicles, cargo or other vectors for detection of illicit sources such as at borders or secure facilities. Fear of terrorist attacks with radiological weapons spurred RPM deployment for
701:
Kouzes, R.T., J.H. Ely, L.E. Erikson, W.J. Kernan, A.T. Lintereur, E.R. Siciliano, D.L. Stephens, D.C. Stromswold, R.M. VanGinhoven, M.L. Woodring, Neutron
Detection Alternatives For Homeland Security, Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research A 623 (2010)
142:
Radiation Portal
Monitor (RPM) was designed to detect traces of radiation emitted from an object passing through a RPM. Gamma radiation is detected, and in some cases complemented by neutron detection when sensitivity for nuclear material is desired.
193:
In attempt to reduce the high nuisance alarm rates of first generation RPMs, the
Advanced Spectroscopic Portal (ASP) program was called into life. Some of the portal monitors evaluated for this purposes are based on
126:
to thwart nuclear smuggling after the breakup of the Soviet Union, RPMs were deployed around that territory, and later around many other
European and Asian countries, by the US Department of Energy (DOE)
463:
765:
Kouzes, R.; Ely, J.; Evans, J.; Hensley, W.; Lepel, E.; McDonald, J.; Schweppe, J.; Siciliano, E.; Strom, D.; Woodring, M. (2006). "Naturally occurring radioactive materials in cargo at US borders".
227:. Since the end of 2009, however, the global He-3 supply crisis has made this technology unavailable. The search for alternative neutron detection technologies has yielded satisfactory results.
575:
Ely, James; Kouzes, Richard; Schweppe, John; Siciliano, Edward; Strachan, Denis; Weier, Dennis (2006). "The use of energy windowing to discriminate SNM from NORM in radiation portal monitors".
219:
RPMs geared for interception of nuclear threats usually incorporate a neutron detection technology. The vast majority of all neutron detectors deployed in RPMs to date relies on
368:
seaport containerized cargo, and all mail and express courier facilities. Efforts are also being made to deploy similar measures to other cross border vectors including:
865:
46:
460:
815:
896:
846:
202:
The ASP program was canceled in 2011 after continued problems, including a high rate of false positives and difficulty maintaining stable operation.
288:
182:
127:
93:
544:
730:
Lewis, J.M.; R. P. Kelley; D. Murer; K. A. Jordan (2014). "Fission signal detection using helium-4 gas fast neutron scintillation detectors".
712:
910:
Kouzes, Richard T.; Siciliano, Edward R. (2006). "The response of radiation portal monitors to medical radionuclides at border crossings".
235:
The latest technology being deployed at ports uses pressurized natural helium to directly detect fast neutrons, without the need for bulky
294:
Ceramic, tiles, porcelain, pottery, granite, clay, and other rock and clay based products contain elevated levels of naturally occurring
618:"Evaluating testing, costs, and benefits of advanced spectroscopic portals for screening cargo at ports of entry: interim report" (2009)
810:
80:
247:
RPMs are deployed with the aim to intercept radiological threats as well as to deter malicious groups from deploying such threats.
131:
959:
630:
577:
Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
494:
Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
872:
653:"Combating Nuclear Smuggling: Lessons Learned from Cancelled Radiation Portal Monitor Program Could Help Future Acquisitions"
199:
RPMs. To date, NaI(Tl) based ASPs have not been able to demonstrate significantly better performance than PVT based RPMs.
58:
822:
134:(CBP) started the Radiation Portal Monitor Program (RPMP) to deploy RPMs around all US borders (land, sea and air).
114:
478:
Kouzes, R.T., "Detecting
Illicit Nuclear Materials", American Scientist 93, PP. 422-427 (September–October 2005).
211:
constraints such as cryo-cooling requirements, US government support for HPGe based portal monitors was dropped.
62:
979:
346:
lanes at land borders and are usually due to medical treatment of the driver or passengers, mostly due to
130:(NNSA) Second Line of Defense Program (SLD) starting in the late 1990s. After the attack of 9/11, the
919:
739:
584:
501:
419:
488:
Kouzes, Richard T.; Siciliano, Edward R.; Ely, James H.; Keller, Paul E.; McConn, Ronald J. (2008).
255:
97:
Truck driving through the
Radiation Portal Monitor Test Area at the Nevada National Security Site.
974:
790:
443:
617:
535:
716:
935:
890:
840:
782:
600:
517:
435:
236:
224:
157:
927:
774:
747:
592:
509:
427:
407:
339:
467:
271:
923:
743:
588:
505:
423:
17:
347:
110:
678:
968:
794:
558:
195:
447:
957:
United States
Customs and Border Protection’s Radiation Portal Monitors at Seaports
351:
321:
295:
931:
331:
299:
258:(RDDs) are weapons of mass disruption rather than weapons of mass destruction. "
596:
513:
355:
327:
313:
306:
259:
162:
939:
786:
604:
521:
439:
431:
778:
537:
Waste, Abuse, and
Mismanagement in Department of Homeland Security Contracts
174:
170:
490:"Passive neutron detection for interdiction of nuclear material at borders"
652:
220:
166:
751:
956:
317:
178:
489:
767:
Packaging, Transport, Storage and Security of Radioactive Material
92:
305:
Propane gas tankers, full or empty, contain elevated levels of
631:"Homeland Security Cancels Troubled Radiation Detector Effort"
29:
559:"Manual for Ludlum Model 3500-1000 Radiation Detector System"
408:"Coping with Plastic Scintillators in Nuclear Safeguards"
54:
861:
Permian Basin STEPS Network October Industry Meeting
679:"Shortage Slows a Program to Detect Nuclear Bombs"
859:Cooley, Geri. "NORM Management in the Oilfield".
291:(NORM) and technically enhanced NORM (TENORM)
43:The examples and perspective in this article
8:
342:alarms constitute the majority of alarms in
289:Naturally occurring radioactive materials
284:broken up into several large categories:
183:Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials
81:Learn how and when to remove this message
128:National Nuclear Security Administration
806:
804:
398:
381:Air luggage radiation portal monitoring
378:Crane based radiation portal monitoring
375:Air freight radiation portal monitoring
895:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
888:
845:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
838:
545:United States House of Representatives
406:Fehlau, P. E.; Brunson, G. S. (1983).
372:Pedestrian radiation portal monitoring
270:Improvised nuclear devices (INDs) and
813:, " Radiation Quick Reference Guide"
713:"Port of Antwerp Gets Nuke Detectors"
117:, particularly in the United States.
7:
677:Matthew L. Wald (22 November 2009).
412:IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science
156:First generation RPMs often rely on
384:Railway radiation portal monitoring
629:Matishak, Martin (July 26, 2011).
27:Passive radiation detection device
25:
811:Domestic Nuclear Detection Office
132:US Customs and Border Protection
34:
960:Department of Homeland Security
461:Second Line of Defense Program
256:Radiological dispersal devices
251:Radiological dispersal devices
215:He (thermal neutron detection)
161:emit radioactivity, including
1:
932:10.1016/j.radmeas.2005.10.005
189:NaI(Tl) (gamma ray detection)
547:. July 2006. pp. 12–13.
330:contains elevated levels of
320:contain elevated levels of
231:He (fast neutron detection)
57:, discuss the issue on the
996:
633:. Global Security Newswire
597:10.1016/j.nima.2006.01.053
514:10.1016/j.nima.2007.10.026
206:HPGe (gamma ray detection)
152:PVT (gamma ray detection)
102:Radiation Portal Monitors
432:10.1109/TNS.1983.4332242
298:and to a smaller degree
18:Radiation Portal Monitor
779:10.1179/174651006X95556
344:privately owned vehicle
912:Radiation Measurements
98:
96:
863:, October 14, 2008.
243:Radiological threats
223:tubes surrounded by
63:create a new article
55:improve this article
45:may not represent a
924:2006RadM...41..499K
744:2014ApPhL.105a4102L
589:2006NIMPA.560..373E
506:2008NIMPA.584..383K
424:1983ITNS...30..158F
302:and other isotopes.
466:2011-11-12 at the
237:neutron moderators
225:neutron moderators
138:Detected radiation
99:
752:10.1063/1.4887366
91:
90:
83:
65:, as appropriate.
16:(Redirected from
987:
944:
943:
907:
901:
900:
894:
886:
884:
883:
877:
871:. Archived from
870:
857:
851:
850:
844:
836:
834:
833:
827:
821:. Archived from
820:
808:
799:
798:
762:
756:
755:
732:Appl. Phys. Lett
727:
721:
720:
715:. Archived from
709:
703:
699:
693:
692:
690:
689:
674:
668:
667:
665:
663:
649:
643:
642:
640:
638:
626:
620:
615:
609:
608:
572:
566:
565:
563:
555:
549:
548:
542:
532:
526:
525:
500:(2–3): 383–400.
485:
479:
476:
470:
458:
452:
451:
403:
86:
79:
75:
72:
66:
38:
37:
30:
21:
995:
994:
990:
989:
988:
986:
985:
984:
965:
964:
953:
948:
947:
909:
908:
904:
887:
881:
879:
875:
868:
866:"Archived copy"
864:
858:
854:
837:
831:
829:
825:
818:
816:"Archived copy"
814:
809:
802:
764:
763:
759:
729:
728:
724:
711:
710:
706:
700:
696:
687:
685:
676:
675:
671:
661:
659:
651:
650:
646:
636:
634:
628:
627:
623:
616:
612:
574:
573:
569:
561:
557:
556:
552:
540:
534:
533:
529:
487:
486:
482:
477:
473:
468:Wayback Machine
459:
455:
405:
404:
400:
395:
389:contamination.
365:
340:Medical isotope
281:
272:nuclear weapons
268:
266:Nuclear devices
253:
245:
233:
217:
208:
191:
154:
149:
140:
123:
87:
76:
70:
67:
52:
39:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
993:
991:
983:
982:
977:
967:
966:
963:
962:
952:
951:External links
949:
946:
945:
918:(5): 499–512.
902:
852:
800:
757:
722:
719:on 2017-03-25.
704:
694:
683:New York Times
669:
644:
621:
610:
583:(2): 373–387.
567:
550:
527:
480:
471:
453:
418:(1): 158–161.
397:
396:
394:
391:
386:
385:
382:
379:
376:
373:
364:
361:
360:
359:
348:technetium-99m
337:
336:
335:
325:
310:
303:
280:
277:
267:
264:
252:
249:
244:
241:
232:
229:
216:
213:
207:
204:
190:
187:
153:
150:
148:
145:
139:
136:
122:
119:
111:cargo scanning
89:
88:
49:of the subject
47:worldwide view
42:
40:
33:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
992:
981:
980:Radioactivity
978:
976:
973:
972:
970:
961:
958:
955:
954:
950:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
921:
917:
913:
906:
903:
898:
892:
878:on 2011-07-05
874:
867:
862:
856:
853:
848:
842:
828:on 2010-12-26
824:
817:
812:
807:
805:
801:
796:
792:
788:
784:
780:
776:
772:
768:
761:
758:
753:
749:
745:
741:
738:(1): 014102.
737:
733:
726:
723:
718:
714:
708:
705:
698:
695:
684:
680:
673:
670:
658:
654:
648:
645:
632:
625:
622:
619:
614:
611:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
571:
568:
560:
554:
551:
546:
539:
538:
531:
528:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
484:
481:
475:
472:
469:
465:
462:
457:
454:
449:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
402:
399:
392:
390:
383:
380:
377:
374:
371:
370:
369:
362:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
338:
333:
329:
326:
323:
319:
315:
311:
308:
304:
301:
297:
293:
292:
290:
287:
286:
285:
278:
276:
273:
265:
263:
261:
257:
250:
248:
242:
240:
238:
230:
228:
226:
222:
214:
212:
205:
203:
200:
197:
188:
186:
184:
180:
176:
172:
168:
164:
159:
151:
146:
144:
137:
135:
133:
129:
120:
118:
116:
112:
107:
103:
95:
85:
82:
74:
71:December 2010
64:
60:
56:
50:
48:
41:
32:
31:
19:
915:
911:
905:
880:. Retrieved
873:the original
860:
855:
830:. Retrieved
823:the original
773:(1): 11–17.
770:
766:
760:
735:
731:
725:
717:the original
707:
697:
686:. Retrieved
682:
672:
660:. Retrieved
656:
647:
635:. Retrieved
624:
613:
580:
576:
570:
553:
536:
530:
497:
493:
483:
474:
456:
415:
411:
401:
387:
366:
352:thallium-201
343:
322:potassium-40
296:potassium-40
282:
269:
254:
246:
234:
218:
209:
201:
192:
155:
141:
124:
105:
101:
100:
77:
68:
44:
332:thorium-232
314:fertilizers
300:thorium-232
260:Dirty bombs
181:etc. Those
121:Application
969:Categories
882:2011-05-12
832:2011-05-12
688:2013-09-22
657:GAO-13-256
393:References
363:Deployment
356:iodine-131
328:Cat litter
307:radium-226
163:cat litter
147:Technology
975:Radiation
940:1350-4487
795:110462476
787:1746-5095
702:1035–1045
605:0168-9002
522:0168-9002
440:0018-9499
175:stoneware
171:porcelain
59:talk page
891:cite web
841:cite web
464:Archived
448:36408575
53:You may
920:Bibcode
740:Bibcode
585:Bibcode
502:Bibcode
420:Bibcode
196:NaI(Tl)
179:bananas
167:granite
938:
793:
785:
662:6 July
637:6 July
603:
520:
446:
438:
318:potash
279:Alarms
113:since
876:(PDF)
869:(PDF)
826:(PDF)
819:(PDF)
791:S2CID
562:(PDF)
541:(PDF)
444:S2CID
312:Many
61:, or
936:ISSN
897:link
847:link
783:ISSN
664:2015
639:2015
601:ISSN
518:ISSN
436:ISSN
354:and
350:and
316:and
221:He-3
115:9/11
928:doi
775:doi
748:doi
736:105
593:doi
581:560
510:doi
498:584
428:doi
158:PVT
106:RPM
971::
934:.
926:.
916:41
914:.
893:}}
889:{{
843:}}
839:{{
803:^
789:.
781:.
771:17
769:.
746:.
734:.
681:.
655:.
599:.
591:.
579:.
543:.
516:.
508:.
496:.
492:.
442:.
434:.
426:.
416:30
414:.
410:.
177:,
173:,
169:,
165:,
942:.
930::
922::
899:)
885:.
849:)
835:.
797:.
777::
754:.
750::
742::
691:.
666:.
641:.
607:.
595::
587::
564:.
524:.
512::
504::
450:.
430::
422::
358:.
334:.
324:.
309:.
104:(
84:)
78:(
73:)
69:(
51:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
