4675:: what is the true relationship between two or more objects at an archaeological site? It frequently happens that a sample for radiocarbon dating can be taken directly from the object of interest, but there are also many cases where this is not possible. Metal grave goods, for example, cannot be radiocarbon dated, but they may be found in a grave with a coffin, charcoal, or other material which can be assumed to have been deposited at the same time. In these cases, a date for the coffin or charcoal is indicative of the date of deposition of the grave goods, because of the direct functional relationship between the two. There are also cases where there is no functional relationship, but the association is reasonably strong: for example, a layer of charcoal in a rubbish pit provides a date which has a relationship to the rubbish pit.
1467:. In Libby's 1949 paper he used a value of 5720 Β± 47 years, based on research by Engelkemeir et al. This was remarkably close to the modern value, but shortly afterwards the accepted value was revised to 5568 Β± 30 years, and this value was in use for more than a decade. It was revised again in the early 1960s to 5,730 Β± 40 years, which meant that many calculated dates in papers published prior to this were incorrect (the error in the half-life is about 3%). For consistency with these early papers, it was agreed at the 1962 Radiocarbon Conference in Cambridge (UK) to use the "Libby half-life" of 5568 years. Radiocarbon ages are still calculated using this half-life, and are known as "Conventional Radiocarbon Age". Since the calibration curve (IntCal) also reports past atmospheric
4456:
no direct data was available. There is also a separate marine calibration curve, MARINE20. For a set of samples forming a sequence with a known separation in time, these samples form a subset of the calibration curve. The sequence can be compared to the calibration curve and the best match to the sequence established. This "wiggle-matching" technique can lead to more precise dating than is possible with individual radiocarbon dates. Wiggle-matching can be used in places where there is a plateau on the calibration curve, and hence can provide a much more accurate date than the intercept or probability methods are able to produce. The technique is not restricted to tree rings; for example, a stratified
33:
3838:
4765:), and subsequent research determined that the destruction of the forest was caused by the Valders ice readvance, the last southward movement of ice before the end of the Pleistocene in that area. Before the advent of radiocarbon dating, the fossilized trees had been dated by correlating sequences of annually deposited layers of sediment at Two Creeks with sequences in Scandinavia. This led to estimates that the trees were between 24,000 and 19,000 years old, and hence this was taken to be the date of the last advance of the
3198:
This effect is not uniform β the average effect is about 400 years, but there are local deviations of several hundred years for areas that are geographically close to each other. These deviations can be accounted for in calibration, and users of software such as CALIB can provide as an input the appropriate correction for the location of their samples. The effect also applies to marine organisms such as shells, and marine mammals such as whales and seals, which have radiocarbon ages that appear to be hundreds of years old.
4827:
cases the scrolls were determined to be within 100 years of the palaeographically determined age. The Isaiah scroll was included in the testing and was found to have two possible date ranges at a 2Ο confidence level, because of the shape of the calibration curve at that point: there is a 15% chance that it dates from 355 to 295 BC, and an 84% chance that it dates from 210 to 45 BC. Subsequently, these dates were criticized on the grounds that before the scrolls were tested, they had been treated with modern
4890:
radiocarbon dates began to prove these ideas wrong in many instances, it became apparent that these innovations must sometimes have arisen locally. This has been described as a "second radiocarbon revolution". More broadly, the success of radiocarbon dating stimulated interest in analytical and statistical approaches to archaeological data. Taylor has also described the impact of AMS, and the ability to obtain accurate measurements from very small samples, as ushering in a third radiocarbon revolution.
1869:
5327:
3614:
3893:. The ions are accelerated and passed through a stripper, which removes several electrons so that the ions emerge with a positive charge. The ions, which may have from 1 to 4 positive charges (C to C), depending on the accelerator design, are then passed through a magnet that curves their path; the heavier ions are curved less than the lighter ones, so the different isotopes emerge as separate streams of ions. A particle detector then records the number of ions detected in the
1510:
4344:(usually represented by the Greek letter sigma as 1Ο) on either side of the mean. However, a date range of 1Ο represents only a 68% confidence level, so the true age of the object being measured may lie outside the range of dates quoted. This was demonstrated in 1970 by an experiment run by the British Museum radiocarbon laboratory, in which weekly measurements were taken on the same sample for six months. The results varied widely (though consistently with a
4422:
4451:. There are separate curves for the northern hemisphere (IntCal20) and southern hemisphere (SHCal20), as they differ systematically because of the hemisphere effect. The continuous sequence of tree-ring dates for the northern hemisphere goes back to 13,910 BP as of 2020, and this provides close to annual dating for IntCal20 much of the period, reduced where there are calibration plateaus, and increased when short term C spikes due to
4788:
4402:
rings that vary in thickness because of environmental factors such as the amount of rainfall in a given year. These factors affect all trees in an area, so examining tree-ring sequences from old wood allows the identification of overlapping sequences. In this way, an uninterrupted sequence of tree rings can be extended far into the past. The first such published sequence, based on bristlecone pine tree rings, was created by
4720:
pollen purified from sediment sequences, or on small quantities of plant material or charcoal. Dates on organic material recovered from strata of interest can be used to correlate strata in different locations that appear to be similar on geological grounds. Dating material from one location gives date information about the other location, and the dates are also used to place strata in the overall geological timeline.
4779:
fossil forest was used in an interlaboratory test, with results provided by over 70 laboratories. These tests produced a median age of 11,788 Β± 8 BP (2Ο confidence) which when calibrated gives a date range of 13,730 to 13,550 cal BP. The Two Creeks radiocarbon dates are now regarded as a key result in developing the modern understanding of North
American glaciation at the end of the Pleistocene.
4368:
3981:. As with beta counting, both blank samples and standard samples are used. Two different kinds of blank may be measured: a sample of dead carbon that has undergone no chemical processing, to detect any machine background, and a sample known as a process blank made from dead carbon that is processed into target material in exactly the same way as the sample which is being dated. Any
3493:, or some mixture of the two. Calcium carbonate is very susceptible to dissolving and recrystallizing; the recrystallized material will contain carbon from the sample's environment, which may be of geological origin. If testing recrystallized shell is unavoidable, it is sometimes possible to identify the original shell material from a sequence of tests. It is also possible to test
1449:
4406:. Hans Suess used this data to publish the first calibration curve for radiocarbon dating in 1967. The curve showed two types of variation from the straight line: a long term fluctuation with a period of about 9,000 years, and a shorter-term variation, often referred to as "wiggles", with a period of decades. Suess said he drew the line showing the wiggles by "cosmic
2659:
358:. In addition to permitting more accurate dating within archaeological sites than previous methods, it allows comparison of dates of events across great distances. Histories of archaeology often refer to its impact as the "radiocarbon revolution". Radiocarbon dating has allowed key transitions in prehistory to be dated, such as the end of the
2690:
4874:
comparison and synchronization of events across great distances. The advent of radiocarbon dating may even have led to better field methods in archaeology since better data recording leads to a firmer association of objects with the samples to be tested. These improved field methods were sometimes motivated by attempts to prove that a
3818:). Each measuring device is also used to measure the activity of a blank sample β a sample prepared from carbon old enough to have no activity. This provides a value for the background radiation, which must be subtracted from the measured activity of the sample being dated to get the activity attributable solely to that sample's
4468:
based on the prior information that the sequence should be ordered in time. When
Bayesian analysis was introduced, its use was limited by the need to use mainframe computers to perform the calculations, but the technique has since been implemented on programs available for personal computers, such as OxCal.
5200:: a) using the Libby half-life of 5568 years, rather than the currently accepted actual half-life of 5730 years; (b) the use of an NIST standard known as HOxII to define the activity of radiocarbon in 1950; (c) the use of 1950 as the date from which years "before present" are counted; (d) a correction for
4969:. With the development of AMS in the 1980s it became possible to measure these isotopes precisely enough for them to be the basis of useful dating techniques, which have been primarily applied to dating rocks. Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes can also form the basis of dating methods, as with
4826:
estimates were made of the age of 21 of the scrolls, and samples from most of these, along with other scrolls which had not been palaeographically dated, were tested by two AMS laboratories in the 1990s. The results ranged in age from the early 4th century BC to the mid 4th century AD. In all but two
4719:
Archaeology is not the only field to make use of radiocarbon dating. Radiocarbon dates can also be used in geology, sedimentology, and lake studies, for example. The ability to date minute samples using AMS has meant that palaeobotanists and palaeoclimatologists can use radiocarbon dating directly on
4455:
provide additional correlation. Radiocarbon dating earlier than the continuous tree ring sequence relies on correlation with more approximate records. SHCal20 is based on independent data where possible and derived from the northern curve by adding the average offset for the southern hemisphere where
4397:
ratio had been constant historically. Although Libby had pointed out as early as 1955 the possibility that this assumption was incorrect, it was not until discrepancies began to accumulate between measured ages and known historical dates for artefacts that it became clear that a correction would need
4301:
The calculation uses 8,033 years, the mean-life derived from Libby's half-life of 5,568 years, not 8,267 years, the mean-life derived from the more accurate modern value of 5,730 years. Libby's value for the half-life is used to maintain consistency with early radiocarbon testing results; calibration
3449:
content; this can mean conversion to gaseous, liquid, or solid form, depending on the measurement technique to be used. Before this can be done, the sample must be treated to remove any contamination and any unwanted constituents. This includes removing visible contaminants, such as rootlets that may
3184:
thus introduced takes a long time to percolate through the entire volume of the ocean. The deepest parts of the ocean mix very slowly with the surface waters, and the mixing is uneven. The main mechanism that brings deep water to the surface is upwelling, which is more common in regions closer to the
1913:
ratio having remained the same over the preceding few thousand years. To verify the accuracy of the method, several artefacts that were datable by other techniques were tested; the results of the testing were in reasonable agreement with the true ages of the objects. Over time, however, discrepancies
1732:
ratio as the atmosphere. These organisms contain about 1.3% of the carbon in the reservoir; sea organisms have a mass of less than 1% of those on land and are not shown in the diagram. Accumulated dead organic matter, of both plants and animals, exceeds the mass of the biosphere by a factor of nearly
1651:
as would be expected if the ratio were the same as in the atmosphere. The time it takes for carbon from the atmosphere to mix with the surface ocean is only a few years, but the surface waters also receive water from the deep ocean, which has more than 90% of the carbon in the reservoir. Water in the
1422:
in a sample into an estimated calendar age. The calculations involve several steps and include an intermediate value called the "radiocarbon age", which is the age in "radiocarbon years" of the sample: an age quoted in radiocarbon years means that no calibration curve has been used β the calculations
4889:
The dating framework provided by radiocarbon led to a change in the prevailing view of how innovations spread through prehistoric Europe. Researchers had previously thought that many ideas spread by diffusion through the continent, or by invasions of peoples bringing new cultural ideas with them. As
4885:
date was incorrect. Taylor also suggests that the availability of definite date information freed archaeologists from the need to focus so much of their energy on determining the dates of their finds, and led to an expansion of the questions archaeologists were willing to research. For example, from
4467:
can be applied when there are several radiocarbon dates to be calibrated. For example, if a series of radiocarbon dates is taken from different levels in a stratigraphic sequence, Bayesian analysis can be used to evaluate dates which are outliers and can calculate improved probability distributions,
4401:
To produce a curve that can be used to relate calendar years to radiocarbon years, a sequence of securely dated samples is needed which can be tested to determine their radiocarbon age. The study of tree rings led to the first such sequence: individual pieces of wood show characteristic sequences of
3515:
Soil contains organic material, but because of the likelihood of contamination by humic acid of more recent origin, it is very difficult to get satisfactory radiocarbon dates. It is preferable to sieve the soil for fragments of organic origin, and date the fragments with methods that are tolerant of
3412:
Any addition of carbon to a sample of a different age will cause the measured date to be inaccurate. Contamination with modern carbon causes a sample to appear to be younger than it really is: the effect is greater for older samples. If a sample that is 17,000 years old is contaminated so that 1% of
1528:
Carbon is distributed throughout the atmosphere, the biosphere, and the oceans; these are referred to collectively as the carbon exchange reservoir, and each component is also referred to individually as a carbon exchange reservoir. The different elements of the carbon exchange reservoir vary in how
4769:
before its final retreat marked the end of the
Pleistocene in North America. In 1952 Libby published radiocarbon dates for several samples from the Two Creeks site and two similar sites nearby; the dates were averaged to 11,404 BP with a standard error of 350 years. This result was uncalibrated, as
4710:
communities to waterproof baskets; the bitumen's radiocarbon age will be greater than is measurable by the laboratory, regardless of the actual age of the context, so testing the basket material will give a misleading age if care is not taken. A separate issue, related to re-use, is that of lengthy
4689:
As a tree grows, only the outermost tree ring exchanges carbon with its environment, so the age measured for a wood sample depends on where the sample is taken from. This means that radiocarbon dates on wood samples can be older than the date at which the tree was felled. In addition, if a piece of
4657:
in 2014 about radiocarbon date reporting conventions recommends that information should be provided about sample treatment, including the sample material, pretreatment methods, and quality control measurements; that the citation to the software used for calibration should specify the version number
3197:
with the surface waters, and as a result water from some deep ocean areas has an apparent radiocarbon age of several thousand years. Upwelling mixes this "old" water with the surface water, giving the surface water an apparent age of about several hundred years (after correcting for fractionation).
4778:
who had worked on the
Scandinavian varve series, but his objections were eventually discounted by other geologists. In the 1990s samples were tested with AMS, yielding (uncalibrated) dates ranging from 11,640 BP to 11,800 BP, both with a standard error of 160 years. Subsequently, a sample from the
4591:
For example, the uncalibrated date "UtC-2020: 3510 Β± 60 BP" indicates that the sample was tested by the
Utrecht van der Graaff Laboratorium ("UtC"), where it has a sample number of "2020", and that the uncalibrated age is 3510 years before present, Β± 60 years. Related forms are sometimes used: for
4460:
sequence in New
Zealand, believed to predate human colonization of the islands, has been dated to 1314 AD Β± 12 years by wiggle-matching. The wiggles also mean that reading a date from a calibration curve can give more than one answer: this occurs when the curve wiggles up and down enough that
4430:
Over the next thirty years many calibration curves were published using a variety of methods and statistical approaches. These were superseded by the IntCal series of curves, beginning with IntCal98, published in 1998, and updated in 2004, 2009, 2013, and 2020. The improvements to these curves are
4417:
A calibration curve is used by taking the radiocarbon date reported by a laboratory and reading across from that date on the vertical axis of the graph. The point where this horizontal line intersects the curve will give the calendar age of the sample on the horizontal axis. This is the reverse of
3334:
can produce similar results, and can also reduce the apparent age if they are of more recent origin than the sample. The effect varies greatly and there is no general offset that can be applied; additional research is usually needed to determine the size of the offset, for example by comparing the
3232:
ratio is lower in the southern hemisphere, with an apparent additional age of about 40 years for radiocarbon results from the south as compared to the north. This is because the greater surface area of ocean in the southern hemisphere means that there is more carbon exchanged between the ocean and
3809:
For both the gas proportional counter and liquid scintillation counter, what is measured is the number of beta particles detected in a given time period. Since the mass of the sample is known, this can be converted to a standard measure of activity in units of either counts per minute per gram of
4051:
To determine the age of a sample whose activity has been measured by beta counting, the ratio of its activity to the activity of the standard must be found. To determine this, a blank sample (of old, or dead, carbon) is measured, and a sample of known activity is measured. The additional samples
3734:
of his own design. He converted the carbon in his sample to lamp black (soot) and coated the inner surface of a cylinder with it. This cylinder was inserted into the counter in such a way that the counting wire was inside the sample cylinder, in order that there should be no material between the
3604:
The quantity of material needed for testing depends on the sample type and the technology being used. There are two types of testing technology: detectors that record radioactivity, known as beta counters, and accelerator mass spectrometers. For beta counters, a sample weighing at least 10 grams
3775:
atoms; the bursts are proportional to the energy of the particle, so other sources of ionization, such as background radiation, can be identified and ignored. The counters are surrounded by lead or steel shielding, to eliminate background radiation and to reduce the incidence of cosmic rays. In
3721:
ratio can be converted into each other exactly. For some time, beta counting methods were more accurate than AMS, but AMS is now more accurate and has become the method of choice for radiocarbon measurements. In addition to improved accuracy, AMS has two further significant advantages over beta
3794:
activity is liquid scintillation counting, which was invented in 1950, but which had to wait until the early 1960s, when efficient methods of benzene synthesis were developed, to become competitive with gas counting; after 1970 liquid counters became the more common technology choice for newly
4873:
prehistory possible by contributing a time scale that transcends local, regional and continental boundaries". It provides more accurate dating within sites than previous methods, which usually derived either from stratigraphy or from typologies (e.g. of stone tools or pottery); it also allows
3643:
in a sample was to detect the radioactive decay of individual carbon atoms. In this approach, what is measured is the activity, in number of decay events per unit mass per time period, of the sample. This method is also known as "beta counting", because it is the beta particles emitted by the
4653:. Calibrated dates can also be expressed as "BP" instead of using "BC" and "AD". The curve used to calibrate the results should be the latest available IntCal curve. Calibrated dates should also identify any programs, such as OxCal, used to perform the calibration. In addition, an article in
5249:
is made. This effect is accounted for during calibration by using a different marine calibration curve; without this curve, modern marine life would appear to be 400 years old when radiocarbon dated. Similarly, the statement about land organisms is only true once fractionation is taken into
1478:
concentration using this conventional age, any conventional ages calibrated against the IntCal curve will produce a correct calibrated age. When a date is quoted, the reader should be aware that if it is an uncalibrated date (a term used for dates given in radiocarbon years) it may differ
4723:
Radiocarbon is also used to date carbon released from ecosystems, particularly to monitor the release of old carbon that was previously stored in soils as a result of human disturbance or climate change. Recent advances in field collection techniques also allow the radiocarbon dating of
4310:
The reliability of the results can be improved by lengthening the testing time. For example, if counting beta decays for 250 minutes is enough to give an error of Β± 80 years, with 68% confidence, then doubling the counting time to 500 minutes will allow a sample with only half as much
3512:. Of these, humins give the most reliable date as they are insoluble in alkali and less likely to contain contaminants from the sample's environment. A particular difficulty with dried peat is the removal of rootlets, which are likely to be hard to distinguish from the sample material.
3463:
It is common to reduce a wood sample to just the cellulose component before testing, but since this can reduce the volume of the sample to 20% of its original size, testing of the whole wood is often performed as well. Charcoal is often tested but is likely to need treatment to remove
3099:
radiation are similar to measurements for the rest of the biosphere. Correcting for isotopic fractionation, as is done for all radiocarbon dates to allow comparison between results from different parts of the biosphere, gives an apparent age of about 400 years for ocean surface water.
2507:
1914:
began to appear between the known chronology for the oldest
Egyptian dynasties and the radiocarbon dates of Egyptian artefacts. Neither the pre-existing Egyptian chronology nor the new radiocarbon dating method could be assumed to be accurate, but a third possibility was that the
353:
atoms in the sample and not just the few that happen to decay during the measurements; it can therefore be used with much smaller samples (as small as individual plant seeds), and gives results much more quickly. The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on
4410:", by which he meant that the variations were caused by extraterrestrial forces. It was unclear for some time whether the wiggles were real or not, but they are now well-established. These short term fluctuations in the calibration curve are now known as de Vries effects, after
4770:
the need for calibration of radiocarbon ages was not yet understood. Further results over the next decade supported an average date of 11,350 BP, with the results thought to be the most accurate averaging 11,600 BP. There was initial resistance to these results on the part of
4348:
of errors in the measurements), and included multiple date ranges (of 1Ο confidence) that did not overlap with each other. The measurements included one with a range from about 4,250 to about 4,390 years ago, and another with a range from about 4,520 to about 4,690.
4757:, the current geological epoch, begins about 11,700 years ago when the Pleistocene ends. Establishing the date of this boundary β which is defined by sharp climatic warming β as accurately as possible has been a goal of geologists for much of the 20th century. At
4052:
allow errors such as background radiation and systematic errors in the laboratory setup to be detected and corrected for. The most common standard sample material is oxalic acid, such as the HOxII standard, 1,000 lb (450 kg) of which was prepared by the
4336:
to be measurable. Older dates have been obtained by using special sample preparation techniques, large samples, and very long measurement times. These techniques can allow measurement of dates up to 60,000 and in some cases up to 75,000 years before the present.
5690:
Jull, A.J.T.; Pearson, C.L.; Taylor, R.E.; Southon, J.R.; Santos, G.M.; Kohl, C.P.; Hajdas, I.; Molnar, M.; Baisan, C.; Lange, T.E.; Cruz, R.; Janovics, R.; Major, I. (2018). "Radiocarbon dating and intercomparison of some early historical radiocarbon samples".
5281:
Two recent estimates included 8β80 radiocarbon years over the last 1000 years, with an average of 41 Β± 14 years; and β2 to 83 radiocarbon years over the last 2000 years, with an average of 44 Β± 17 years. For older datasets an offset of about 50 years has been
3959:, for use in calculating the sample's radiocarbon age. The use of AMS, as opposed to simpler forms of mass spectrometry, is necessary because of the need to distinguish the carbon isotopes from other atoms or molecules that are very close in mass, such as
5313:
in the atmosphere decreases at the same rate as the reduction due to radiocarbon decay in the sample. For example, there was a plateau between around 750 and 400 BCE, which makes radiocarbon dates less accurate for samples dating to this period.
3722:
counting: it can perform accurate testing on samples much too small for beta counting, and it is much faster β an accuracy of 1% can be achieved in minutes with AMS, which is far quicker than would be achievable with the older technology.
2174:
concentrations in the neighbourhood of large cities are lower than the atmospheric average. This fossil fuel effect (also known as the Suess effect, after Hans Suess, who first reported it in 1955) would only amount to a reduction of 0.2% in
1410:
in the atmosphere has varied significantly and as a result, the values provided by the equation above have to be corrected by using data from other sources. This is done by calibration curves (discussed below), which convert a measurement of
3185:
equator. Upwelling is also influenced by factors such as the topography of the local ocean bottom and coastlines, the climate, and wind patterns. Overall, the mixing of deep and surface waters takes far longer than the mixing of atmospheric
1940:: comparison of overlapping series of tree rings allowed the construction of a continuous sequence of tree-ring data that spanned 8,000 years. (Since that time the tree-ring data series has been extended to 13,900 years.) In the 1960s,
4831:
in order to make the writing easier to read; it was argued that failure to remove the castor oil sufficiently would have caused the dates to be too young. Multiple papers have been published both supporting and opposing the criticism.
3539:
in the sample before testing. This can be done with a thermal diffusion column. The process takes about a month and requires a sample about ten times as large as would be needed otherwise, but it allows more precise measurement of the
206:(the period of time after which half of a given sample will have decayed) is about 5,730 years, the oldest dates that can be reliably measured by this process date to approximately 50,000 years ago (in this interval about 99.8% of the
4047:
The calculations to be performed on the measurements taken depend on the technology used, since beta counters measure the sample's radioactivity whereas AMS determines the ratio of the three different carbon isotopes in the sample.
4461:
the radiocarbon age intercepts the curve in more than one place, which may lead to a radiocarbon result being reported as two separate age ranges, corresponding to the two parts of the curve that the radiocarbon age intercepted.
8387:
Bousman, C. Britt; Vierra, Bradley J. (2012). "Chronology, Environmental
Setting, and Views of the Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene Cultural Transitions in North America". In Bousman, C. Britt; Vierra, Bradley J. (eds.).
3413:
the sample is modern carbon, it will appear to be 600 years younger; for a sample that is 34,000 years old, the same amount of contamination would cause an error of 4,000 years. Contamination with old carbon, with no remaining
4352:
Errors in procedure can also lead to errors in the results. If 1% of the benzene in a modern reference sample accidentally evaporates, scintillation counting will give a radiocarbon age that is too young by about 80 years.
4425:
The
Northern hemisphere curve from IntCal20. As of 2020, this is the most recent version of the standard calibration curve. The diagonal line shows where the curve would lie if radiocarbon ages and calendar ages were the
9629:
2088:
ratio in the atmosphere at that time. Equipped with the results of carbon-dating the tree rings, it became possible to construct calibration curves designed to correct the errors caused by the variation over time in the
7818:
Heaton, Timothy J.; KΓΆhler, Peter; Butzin, Martin; Bard, Edouard; Reimer, Ron W.; Austin, William E. N.; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Grootes, Pieter M.; Hughen, Konrad A.; Kromer, Bernd; Reimer, Paula J. (August 2020).
1639:
has decayed, or the reservoir is receiving carbon that is not at the atmospheric baseline. The ocean surface is an example: it contains 2.4% of the carbon in the exchange reservoir, but there is only about 95% as much
2654:{\displaystyle \delta {\ce {^{13}C}}=\left({\frac {\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{\text{sample}}}{\left({\frac {{\ce {^{13}C}}}{{\ce {^{12}C}}}}\right)_{\text{standard}}}}-1\right)\times 1000}
1944:
was able to use the tree-ring sequence to show that the dates derived from radiocarbon were consistent with the dates assigned by
Egyptologists. This was possible because although annual plants, such as corn, have a
4297:
7766:
Hogg, Alan G.; Heaton, Timothy J.; Hua, Quan; Palmer, Jonathan G.; Turney, Chris SM; Southon, John; Bayliss, Alex; Blackwell, Paul G.; Boswijk, Gretel; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Pearson, Charlotte (August 2020).
2186:
activity if the additional carbon from fossil fuels were distributed throughout the carbon exchange reservoir, but because of the long delay in mixing with the deep ocean, the actual effect is a 3% reduction.
9614:
5235:
The data on carbon percentages in each part of the reservoir is drawn from an estimate of reservoir carbon for the mid-1990s; estimates of carbon distribution during pre-industrial times are significantly
5064:
Korff's paper actually referred to slow neutrons, a term that since Korff's time has acquired a more specific meaning, referring to a range of neutron energies that does not overlap with thermal neutrons.
9619:
179:
in a sample from a dead plant or animal, such as a piece of wood or a fragment of bone, provides information that can be used to calculate when the animal or plant died. The older a sample is, the less
4033:
signal from the process blank measures the amount of contamination introduced during the preparation of the sample. These measurements are used in the subsequent calculation of the age of the sample.
3293:, will acquire carbonate ions. Similarly, groundwater can contain carbon derived from the rocks through which it has passed. These rocks are usually so old that they no longer contain any measurable
4418:
the way the curve is constructed: a point on the graph is derived from a sample of known age, such as a tree ring; when it is tested, the resulting radiocarbon age gives a data point for the graph.
3424:, causes an error in the other direction independent of age β a sample contaminated with 1% old carbon will appear to be about 80 years older than it truly is, regardless of the date of the sample.
1282:
4858:
The development of radiocarbon dating has had a profound impact on archaeology – often described as the "radiocarbon revolution". In the words of anthropologist R. E. Taylor, "
4205:
ratio is taken as the indicator of age. To avoid this, all radiocarbon measurements are converted to the measurement that would have been seen had the sample been made of wood, which has a known Ξ΄
4161:
Both beta counting and AMS results have to be corrected for fractionation. This is necessary because different materials of the same age, which because of fractionation have naturally different
4711:
use, or delayed deposition. For example, a wooden object that remains in use for a lengthy period will have an apparent age greater than the actual age of the context in which it is deposited.
5177:
1040:
During its life, a plant or animal is in equilibrium with its surroundings by exchanging carbon either with the atmosphere or through its diet. It will, therefore, have the same proportion of
9654:
3326:
ratio of the water it enters, which can lead to apparent ages of thousands of years for both the affected water and the plants and freshwater organisms that live in it. This is known as the
4690:
wood is used for multiple purposes, there may be a significant delay between the felling of the tree and the final use in the context in which it is found. This is often referred to as the
1967:
ratio that reflects the atmospheric ratio at the time they were growing, trees only add material to their outermost tree ring in any given year, while the inner tree rings do not get their
3150:
in the atmosphere transfers to the ocean by dissolving in the surface water as carbonate and bicarbonate ions; at the same time the carbonate ions in the water are returning to the air as
4678:
Contamination is of particular concern when dating very old material obtained from archaeological excavations and great care is needed in the specimen selection and preparation. In 2014,
1171:
3519:
Other materials that have been successfully dated include ivory, paper, textiles, individual seeds and grains, straw from within mud bricks, and charred food remains found in pottery.
239:, is now used to convert a given measurement of radiocarbon in a sample into an estimate of the sample's calendar age. Other corrections must be made to account for the proportion of
3780:
detectors are used; these record events outside the counter and any event recorded simultaneously both inside and outside the counter is regarded as an extraneous event and ignored.
3374:
ratio in the vicinity of the volcano is depressed relative to surrounding areas. Dormant volcanoes can also emit aged carbon. Plants that photosynthesize this carbon also have lower
4904:
Researchers have studied other isotopes created by cosmic rays to determine if they could also be used to assist in dating objects of archaeological interest; such isotopes include
3475:, one of the constituent amino acids in bone, was once thought to be a reliable indicator as it was not known to occur except in bone, but it has since been detected in groundwater.
8262:
Elder, Clayton D.; Xu, Xiaomei; Walker, Jennifer; Schnell, Jordan L.; Hinkel, Kenneth M.; Townsend-Small, Amy; Arp, Christopher D.; Pohlman, John W.; Gaglioti, Benjamin V. (2018).
1106:
decays at a known rate, the proportion of radiocarbon can be used to determine how long it has been since a given sample stopped exchanging carbon β the older the sample, the less
265:(reservoir effects). Additional complications come from the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil, and from the above-ground nuclear tests performed in the 1950s and 1960s.
3992:
signal from the machine background blank is likely to be caused either by beams of ions that have not followed the expected path inside the detector or by carbon hydrides such as
4855:
research laboratories. It quickly became apparent that the principles of radiocarbon dating were valid, despite certain discrepancies, the causes of which then remained unknown.
536:, independently dated to 2625 BC plus or minus 75 years, were dated by radiocarbon measurement to an average of 2800 BC plus or minus 250 years. These results were published in
395:
began experiments to determine if any of the elements common in organic matter had isotopes with half-lives long enough to be of value in biomedical research. They synthesized
6892:
Hogg, A.G.; Hua, Q.; Blackwell, P.G.; Niu, M.; Buck, C.E.; Guilderson, T.P.; Heaton, T.J.; Palmer, J.G.; Reimer, P.J.; Reimer, R.W.; Turney, C.S.M.; Zimmerman, S.R.H. (2013).
3130:
ratio in the exchange reservoir is constant all over the world, but it has since been discovered that there are several causes of variation in the ratio across the reservoir.
4570:
4521:
6354:
Reimer, Paula J.; Bard, Edouard; Bayliss, Alex; Beck, J. Warren; Blackwell, Paul G.; Ramsey, Christopher Bronk; Buck, Caitlin E.; Cheng, Hai; Edwards, R. Lawrence (2013).
4698:
at Withy Bed Copse, in England; the trackway was built from wood that had clearly been worked for other purposes before being re-used in the trackway. Another example is
2894:
values. The animal's own biochemical processes can also impact the results: for example, both bone minerals and bone collagen typically have a higher concentration of
7399:
Tuniz, C.; Zoppi, U.; Barbetti, M. (2004). "Radionuclide dating in archaeology by accelerator mass spectrometry". In Martini, M.; Milazzo, M.; Piacentini, M. (eds.).
3605:(0.35 ounces) is typically required. Accelerator mass spectrometry is much more sensitive, and samples containing as little as 0.5 milligrams of carbon can be used.
1802:
it contains will often give an incorrect result. There are several other possible sources of error that need to be considered. The errors are of four general types:
8667:
2260:
in the atmosphere, with the peak level occurring in 1964 for the northern hemisphere, and in 1966 for the southern hemisphere. The level has since dropped, as this
4053:
3806:
as they interact with a fluorescing agent added to the benzene. Like gas counters, liquid scintillation counters require shielding and anticoincidence counters.
1352:) is a more familiar concept than the mean-life, so although the equations above are expressed in terms of the mean-life, it is more usual to quote the value of
540:
in December 1949. Within 11 years of their announcement, more than 20 radiocarbon dating laboratories had been set up worldwide. In 1960, Libby was awarded the
4649:
For example, "cal 1220β1281 AD (1Ο)" means a calibrated date for which the true date lies between AD 1220 and AD 1281, with a confidence level of '1 sigma', or
5073:
Some of Libby's original samples have since been retested, and the results, published in 2018, were generally in good agreement with Libby's original results.
9322:
8998:
5779:
Marine radiocarbon reservoir effects (MRE) in archaeology: temporal and spatial changes through the Holocene within the UK coastal environment (PhD thesis)
4762:
3889:
ratio directly. The sample, often in the form of graphite, is made to emit C ions (carbon atoms with a single negative charge), which are injected into an
1652:
deep ocean takes about 1,000 years to circulate back through surface waters, and so the surface waters contain a combination of older water, with depleted
528:
proceeded to test the radiocarbon dating theory by analyzing samples with known ages. For example, two samples taken from the tombs of two Egyptian kings,
4818:
texts because many of them contain the earliest known version of books of the Hebrew bible. A sample of the linen wrapping from one of these scrolls, the
4476:
Several formats for citing radiocarbon results have been used since the first samples were dated. As of 2019, the standard format required by the journal
1710:
ratio, the radiocarbon age of marine life is typically about 400 years. Organisms on land are in closer equilibrium with the atmosphere and have the same
9624:
2190:
A much larger effect comes from above-ground nuclear testing, which released large numbers of neutrons into the atmosphere, resulting in the creation of
4702:, which may be used as construction material. It is not always possible to recognize re-use. Other materials can present the same problem: for example,
217:
will have decayed), although special preparation methods occasionally make an accurate analysis of older samples possible. In 1960, Libby received the
5196:
The term "conventional radiocarbon age" is also used. The definition of radiocarbon years is as follows: the age is calculated by using the following
4898:
3735:
sample and the wire. Any interposing material would have interfered with the detection of radioactivity, since the beta particles emitted by decaying
1308:
ratio as the ratio in the atmosphere, and since the size of the sample is known, the total number of atoms in the sample can be calculated, yielding
6963:
Pasquier-Cardin, Aline; Allard, Patrick; Ferreira, Teresa; Hatte, Christine; Coutinho, Rui; Fontugne, Michel; Jaudon, Michel (1999). "Magma-derived
2844:
available for the photosynthetic reactions. Under these conditions, fractionation is reduced, and at temperatures above 14 Β°C (57 Β°F) the
7316:
L'Annunziata, Michael F.; Kessler, Michael J. (2012). "Liquid scintillation analysis: principles and practice". In L'Annunziata, Michael F. (ed.).
3565:
Once contamination has been removed, samples must be converted to a form suitable for the measuring technology to be used. Where gas is required,
485:, where he began his work on radiocarbon dating. He published a paper in 1946 in which he proposed that the carbon in living matter might include
2118:
Coal and oil began to be burned in large quantities during the 19th century. Both are sufficiently old that they contain little or no detectable
1791:
ratio in different parts of the carbon exchange reservoir means that a straightforward calculation of the age of a sample based on the amount of
4844:, universities around the world began establishing radiocarbon-dating laboratories, and by the end of the 1950s, there were more than 20 active
5135:(which determines the mean-life) was thought to be 5568 Β± 30 years in 1952. The mean-life and half-life are related by the following equation:
521:
in 1947, in which the authors commented that their results implied it would be possible to date materials containing carbon of organic origin.
8680:
8656:
8628:
8605:
8527:
8495:
8429:
8397:
8311:"Ancient dissolved methane in inland waters revealed by a new collection method at low field concentrations for radiocarbon ( 14 C) analysis"
8086:
7574:
7508:
7483:
7408:
7333:
7275:
7250:
7186:
7098:
6858:
6818:
6781:
6546:
6491:
6466:
6426:
5820:
4246:
8769:
3454:
acid and carbonate contamination, but care has to be taken to avoid removing the part of the sample that contains the carbon to be tested.
515:. By contrast, methane created from petroleum showed no radiocarbon activity because of its age. The results were summarized in a paper in
3926:, needed for calibration) is too great for individual ion detection, counts are determined by measuring the electric current created in a
3255:
is removed from the southern atmosphere more quickly than in the north. The effect is strengthened by strong upwelling around Antarctica.
660:, and to a lesser degree by solar cosmic rays. These cosmic rays generate neutrons as they travel through the atmosphere which can strike
7089:Ε ilar, Jan (2004). "Application of environmental radionuclides in radiochronology: Radiocarbon". In Tykva, Richard; Berg, Dieter (eds.).
1562:
in the different reservoirs, and hence the radiocarbon ages of samples that originated in each reservoir. The atmosphere, which is where
320:
in the atmosphere, which reached a maximum in about 1965 of almost double the amount present in the atmosphere prior to nuclear testing.
5187:
Two experimentally determined values from the early 1950s were not included in the value Libby used: ~6,090 years, and 5900 Β± 250 years.
478:, who was then at Berkeley, learned of Korff's research and conceived the idea that it might be possible to use radiocarbon for dating.
8709:
6636:
Suess, H.E. (1970). "Bristlecone-pine calibration of the radiocarbon time-scale 5200 B.C. to the present". In Olsson, Ingrid U. (ed.).
3210:
systems that are sufficiently independent of each other that there is a noticeable time lag in mixing between the two. The atmospheric
9116:
7300:
5960:
4325:
Radiocarbon dating is generally limited to dating samples no more than 50,000 years old, as samples older than that have insufficient
5580:
Anderson, E.C.; Libby, W.F.; Weinhouse, S.; Reid, A.F.; Kirshenbaum, A.D.; Grosse, A.V. (1947). "Radiocarbon from cosmic radiation".
3764:
created by nuclear weapons testing). These counters record bursts of ionization caused by the beta particles emitted by the decaying
9317:
8913:
6283:
4986:
1764:
4822:, was included in a 1955 analysis by Libby, with an estimated age of 1,917 Β± 200 years. Based on an analysis of the writing style,
3837:
142:
by eating the plants. When the animal or plant dies, it stops exchanging carbon with its environment, and thereafter the amount of
8953:
7353:
5476:
5197:
5104:
migrates into the atmosphere. However, this pathway is estimated to be responsible for less than 0.1% of the total production of
4042:
3330:
effect because it is often associated with calcium ions, which are characteristic of hard water; other sources of carbon such as
2011:
ratio of the year it grew in. Carbon-dating the wood from the tree rings themselves provides the check needed on the atmospheric
7981:
2163:
ratio. Dating an object from the early 20th century hence gives an apparent date older than the true date. For the same reason,
4901:; the results pointed to 14th-century origins, raising doubts about the shroud's authenticity as an alleged 1st-century relic.
4658:
and any options or models used; and that the calibrated date should be given with the associated probabilities for each range.
4621:
dates are frequently reported as "cal BP", "cal BC", or "cal AD", again with 'BP' referring to the year 1950 as the zero date.
2272:
Photosynthesis is the primary process by which carbon moves from the atmosphere into living things. In photosynthetic pathways
4375:
The calculations given above produce dates in radiocarbon years: i.e. dates that represent the age the sample would be if the
4897:, a piece of linen cloth thought by some to bear an image of Jesus Christ after his crucifixion. Three separate laboratories
4371:
The stump of a very old bristlecone pine. Tree rings from these trees (among others) are used in building calibration curves.
1226:
1206:β i.e. the average or expected time a given atom will survive before undergoing radioactive decay. The mean-life, denoted by
9363:
7177:(1996). "Applications of accelerator mass spectrometry to soil science". In Boutton, Thomas W.; Yamasaki, Shin-ichi (eds.).
1479:
substantially from the best estimate of the actual calendar date, both because it uses the wrong value for the half-life of
5423:
Korff, S.A. (1940). "On the contribution to the ionization at sea-level produced by the neutrons in the cosmic radiation".
3263:
If the carbon in freshwater is partly acquired from aged carbon, such as rocks, then the result will be a reduction in the
9111:
4679:
3586:
3578:
637:) is about 5,730 years, so its concentration in the atmosphere might be expected to decrease over thousands of years, but
392:
339:
3952:
to interfere with the measurements, to dissociate, so they are not detected. Most AMS machines also measure the sample's
3795:
constructed dating laboratories. The counters work by detecting flashes of light caused by the beta particles emitted by
808:
Carbon dioxide produced in this way diffuses in the atmosphere, is dissolved in the ocean, and is taken up by plants via
9644:
9639:
9106:
7241:
Killick, David (2014). "Using evidence from natural sciences in archaeology". In Chapman, Robert; Alison, Wylie (eds.).
5138:
5018:
32:
9669:
9659:
9634:
9296:
9166:
8686:
4978:
3655:
atoms that are detected. In the late 1970s an alternative approach became available: directly counting the number of
6157:
Engelkemeir, Antoinette G.; Hamill, W.H.; Inghram, Mark G.; Libby, W.F. (1949). "The Half-Life of Radiocarbon (C)".
9506:
9486:
4672:
3841:
Simplified schematic layout of an accelerator mass spectrometer used for counting carbon isotopes for carbon dating
3777:
3478:
For burnt bone, testability depends on the conditions under which the bone was burnt. If the bone was heated under
3433:
8390:
From the Pleistocene to the Holocene: Human Organization and Cultural Transformations in Prehistoric North America
3077:
concentration almost exactly cancels out the decrease caused by the upwelling of water (containing old, and hence
1051:
as the atmosphere, or in the case of marine animals or plants, with the ocean. Once it dies, it ceases to acquire
9496:
9468:
9080:
7430:
4982:
4604:
4603:
yr BP" might be used to distinguish the uncalibrated date from a date derived from another dating method such as
2227:
had immediately been spread across the entire carbon exchange reservoir, it would have led to an increase in the
2349:
ratios in plants that differ from the ratios in the atmosphere. This effect is known as isotopic fractionation.
1513:
Simplified version of the carbon exchange reservoir, showing proportions of carbon and relative activity of the
9563:
8762:
5744:
4650:
1606:
in the atmosphere is taken as the baseline for the other reservoirs: if another reservoir has a lower ratio of
1125:
541:
218:
9451:
5854:: production and examples of its unique applications in studies of terrestrial and extraterrestrial processes"
7470:
Terasmae, J. (1984). "Radiocarbon dating: some problems and potential developments". In Mahaney, W.C. (ed.).
5093:, and in some circumstances (e.g. near the surface of snow accumulations, which are permeable to gases) this
305:
in the atmosphere as the carbon dioxide generated from burning fossil fuels began to accumulate. Conversely,
9501:
9238:
9085:
4990:
4362:
3207:
2202:
1884:
306:
7352:
Eriksson StenstrΓΆm, Kristina; Skog, GΓΆran; Georgiadou, Elisavet; Genberg, Johan; Johansson, Anette (2011).
4974:
9664:
9401:
9202:
8948:
8847:
4886:
the 1970s questions about the evolution of human behaviour were much more frequently seen in archaeology.
4478:
1868:
1199:
8102:
Higham, T.; et al. (2014). "The timing and spatiotemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance".
9003:
5335:
4758:
3632:
For decades after Libby performed the first radiocarbon dating experiments, the only way to measure the
3482:, it (and associated organic matter) may have been carbonized. In this case, the sample is often usable.
2693:
482:
78:
9436:
6760:
Maslin, Mark A.; Swann, George E.A. (2006). "Isotopes in marine sediments". In Leng, Melanie J. (ed.).
3677:
atoms in a given sample, via accelerator mass spectrometry, usually referred to as AMS. AMS counts the
3613:
323:
Measurement of radiocarbon was originally done with beta-counting devices, which counted the amount of
5326:
2974:
have been found by experiment for many plants, as well as for different parts of animals such as bone
9377:
9353:
9348:
8704:
8322:
8275:
8224:
8177:
8111:
8045:
7832:
7780:
7720:
7669:
7442:
6905:
6834:
6578:
6367:
6298:
6246:
6166:
5912:
5865:
5700:
5636:
5589:
5554:
5432:
5023:
4994:
4766:
3890:
3750:
3341:
eject large amounts of carbon into the air. The carbon is of geological origin and has no detectable
2905:
than is found in the animal's diet, though for different biochemical reasons. The enrichment of bone
2440:
because the former is much easier to measure, and the latter can be easily derived: the depletion of
56:
8168:
Godwin, Harry (1961). "The Croonian Lecture: Radiocarbon dating and Quaternary history in Britain".
3829:. In addition, a sample with a standard activity is measured, to provide a baseline for comparison.
2813:
For marine organisms, the details of the photosynthesis reactions are less well understood, and the
294:. As a result, beginning in the late 19th century, there was a noticeable drop in the proportion of
9463:
9358:
9301:
9276:
9266:
9041:
8938:
8928:
8755:
4819:
4542:
4493:
4345:
3485:
Shells from both marine and land organisms consist almost entirely of calcium carbonate, either as
3479:
423:
97:
5082:
The interaction of cosmic rays with nitrogen and oxygen below the earth's surface can also create
4302:
curves include a correction for this, so the accuracy of final reported calendar ages is assured.
4092:, which are used to calculate Fm, the "fraction modern". This is defined as the ratio between the
9588:
9568:
9431:
9416:
9338:
9137:
9101:
8903:
8291:
8193:
8135:
8074:
7922:
7906:
7748:
6933:
6314:
6264:
6215:
5928:
5726:
5652:
5046:
4893:
Occasionally, radiocarbon dating techniques date an object of popular interest, for example, the
4464:
4341:
3338:
2820:
values for marine photosynthetic organisms are dependent on temperature. At higher temperatures,
2764:
2754:
2665:
2462:
is proportional to the difference in the atomic masses of the two isotopes, so the depletion for
1891:
In the early years of using the technique, it was understood that it depended on the atmospheric
501:
415:
71:
5343:
2352:
To determine the degree of fractionation that takes place in a given plant, the amounts of both
1883:
for the northern and southern hemispheres, showing percentage excess above pre-bomb levels. The
1385:
will remain; a quarter will remain after 11,400 years; an eighth after 17,100 years; and so on.
496:
as well as non-radioactive carbon. Libby and several collaborators proceeded to experiment with
6838:
9396:
9192:
9187:
9031:
8867:
8676:
8652:
8624:
8601:
8523:
8491:
8425:
8393:
8350:
8127:
8082:
7914:
7570:
7504:
7479:
7404:
7329:
7296:
7271:
7246:
7182:
7094:
6854:
6814:
6777:
6542:
6487:
6462:
6422:
6010:
5956:
5816:
5804:
5660:
5605:
5380:
5260:
4421:
3746:
are so weak that half are stopped by a 0.01 mm (0.00039 in) thickness of aluminium.
3290:
2964:
1509:
1203:
634:
517:
236:
165:
5339:
1198:
is a constant that depends on the particular isotope; for a given isotope it is equal to the
9593:
9542:
9458:
9406:
9182:
9160:
9026:
8923:
8713:
8340:
8330:
8283:
8242:
8232:
8185:
8119:
8053:
7898:
7850:
7840:
7798:
7788:
7738:
7728:
7687:
7677:
7471:
7450:
7321:
7013:
6923:
6913:
6846:
6769:
6761:
6586:
6385:
6375:
6306:
6254:
6205:
6174:
6080:
6000:
5992:
5920:
5896:
Queiroz-Alves, Eduardo; Macario, Kita; Ascough, Philippa; Bronk Ramsey, Christopher (2018).
5873:
5808:
5716:
5708:
5644:
5597:
5562:
5440:
5388:
5370:
5002:
4998:
4808:
4796:
4691:
1937:
687:
235:
in the atmosphere has been over the past 50,000 years. The resulting data, in the form of a
60:
37:
9441:
5355:
4970:
1490:, and because no correction (calibration) has been applied for the historical variation of
9649:
9526:
9491:
9478:
9388:
9246:
9141:
9075:
9036:
8873:
8264:"Greenhouse gas emissions from diverse Arctic Alaskan lakes are dominated by young carbon"
5898:"The worldwide marine radiocarbon reservoir effect: Definitions, mechanisms and prospects"
5034:
5029:
4894:
4804:
4787:
4411:
4403:
3451:
3450:
have penetrated the sample since its burial. Alkali and acid washes can be used to remove
2697:
2249:
ratio of only a few per cent, but the immediate effect was to almost double the amount of
525:
8617:
8326:
8279:
8228:
8181:
8115:
8049:
7836:
7784:
7724:
7673:
7446:
6909:
6582:
6371:
6302:
6250:
6170:
5916:
5869:
5704:
5640:
5593:
5558:
5436:
4815:, a small Jewish sect. These scrolls are of great significance in the study of Biblical
3699:
ratio directly, instead of the activity of the sample, but measurements of activity and
2264:
or "bomb carbon" (as it is sometimes called) percolates into the rest of the reservoir.
1073:
within its biological material at that time will continue to decay, and so the ratio of
9426:
9224:
9212:
9156:
9151:
9145:
9070:
8993:
8918:
8418:
7325:
7174:
6703:"Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and Under Water"
6065:
6005:
5980:
4775:
4733:
4729:
4584:
3731:
3472:
3471:, the protein fraction that remains after washing away the bone's structural material.
1733:
3, and since this matter is no longer exchanging carbon with its environment, it has a
812:. Animals eat the plants, and ultimately the radiocarbon is distributed throughout the
809:
411:
324:
128:
124:
8486:
Taylor, R.E. (1997). "Radiocarbon dating". In Taylor, R.E.; Aitken, Martin J. (eds.).
7386:
Development of the Lund AMS System and the Evaluation of a New AMS Detection Technique
7017:
5545:
Libby, W.F. (1946). "Atmospheric helium three and radiocarbon from cosmic radiation".
5444:
4592:
example, "2.3 ka BP" means 2,300 radiocarbon years before present (i.e. 350 BC), and "
410:
was far longer than had been previously thought. This was followed by a prediction by
9608:
9343:
9261:
9256:
9207:
9197:
8958:
8837:
8516:
8197:
8139:
7992:
7926:
7752:
7563:
7472:
6762:
6318:
5730:
5041:
475:
359:
82:
8295:
8211:
Dean, Joshua F.; Garnett, Mark H.; Spyrakos, Evangelos; Billett, Michael F. (2019).
6937:
6268:
5932:
5777:
3497:, an organic protein found in shell, but it constitutes only 1β2% of shell material.
9421:
9219:
8933:
8908:
8893:
8859:
8819:
8705:
Almonds, pottery, wood help date famed Kyrenia shipwreck - Phys.org - June 26, 2024
8213:"The potential hidden age of dissolved organic carbon exported by peatland streams"
7658:"The IntCal20 Northern Hemisphere Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0β55 cal kBP)"
6417:
Post, Wilfred M. (2001). "Carbon cycle". In Goudie, Andrew; Cuff, David J. (eds.).
4944:
4918:
4823:
4771:
4452:
4448:
1363:'s half-life than its mean-life. The currently accepted value for the half-life of
973:
649:
419:
384:
269:
17:
6591:
6566:
4587:", referring to a reference date of 1950, so that "500 BP" means the year AD 1450.
4158:
ratio that would have been measured in 1950 had there been no fossil fuel effect.
1452:
The correction factor applied to radiocarbon years to produce the calibrated date.
8335:
8310:
7709:"Recent Developments in Calibration for Archaeological and Environmental Samples"
7091:
Man-made and Natural Radioactivity in Environmental Pollution and Radiochronology
6310:
5648:
5624:
5601:
3562:
ratio in old material and extends the maximum age that can be reliably reported.
3335:
radiocarbon age of deposited freshwater shells with associated organic material.
1989:
through radioactive decay. Hence each ring preserves a record of the atmospheric
1573:
is generated, contains about 1.9% of the total carbon in the reservoirs, and the
1374:
is 5,700 Β± 30 years. This means that after 5,700 years, only half of the initial
406:
using the laboratory's cyclotron accelerator and soon discovered that the atom's
9121:
9018:
8980:
8963:
8898:
8879:
8812:
8792:
6356:"IntCal13 and Marine13 Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curves 0β50,000 Years cal BP"
4957:
4750:
4683:
4574:
is the laboratory's determination of the age of the sample, in radiocarbon years
4440:
3927:
3509:
661:
653:
355:
68:
8309:
Dean, Joshua F.; Billett, Michael F.; Murray, Callum; Garnett, Mark H. (2017).
7527:
6918:
6893:
6850:
6419:
Encyclopedia of Global Change: Environmental Change and Human Society, Volume 1
6380:
6355:
6084:
5897:
5721:
4367:
3438:
Samples for dating need to be converted into a form suitable for measuring the
2048:
remaining in the sample), the carbon-dating equation allows the calculation of
8888:
8883:
8778:
8287:
7455:
6210:
6193:
5878:
5842:
4828:
4444:
3501:
3494:
3327:
2714:
value of about β13β°, which is much higher than for sheep that feed on grasses.
2261:
1941:
657:
367:
224:
Research has been ongoing since the 1960s to determine what the proportion of
101:
6773:
6702:
5625:"Age determinations by radiocarbon content: checks with samples of known age"
5566:
5384:
3930:. The large positive charge induced by the stripper forces molecules such as
9578:
9558:
9291:
9251:
8988:
8797:
8710:
Radiocarbon Dating and Chronological Modelling: Guidelines and Best Practice
8263:
7902:
6178:
5375:
5245:
For marine life, the age only appears to be 400 years once a correction for
4707:
4699:
3811:
3486:
3286:
2873:
value for animals depends on their diet. An animal that eats food with high
813:
597:
582:
567:
553:
407:
388:
363:
262:
192:
64:
8354:
8189:
8131:
7918:
7431:"Converting AMS data to radiocarbon values: considerations and conventions"
6014:
5664:
5609:
3404:
were found to have apparent ages that ranged from 250 years to 3320 years.
1540:
generated by cosmic rays to fully mix with them. This affects the ratio of
1448:
1388:
The above calculations make several assumptions, such as that the level of
250:
in different types of organisms (fractionation), and the varying levels of
5392:
4625:
gives two options for reporting calibrated dates. A common format is "cal
3581:, the carbon must be in liquid form; the sample is typically converted to
3000:
and carbonate at the ocean surface is also subject to fractionation, with
1628:, it indicates that the carbon is older and hence that either some of the
1456:
Calculating radiocarbon ages also requires the value of the half-life for
9573:
9411:
9055:
8968:
8237:
8212:
8030:
7821:"Marine20βThe Marine Radiocarbon Age Calibration Curve (0β55,000 cal BP)"
5996:
5985:
Journal of Research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology
5924:
4905:
4800:
4754:
4695:
3815:
3528:
Particularly for older samples, it may be useful to enrich the amount of
3468:
3233:
the atmosphere than in the north. Since the surface ocean is depleted in
2975:
1399:
in the atmosphere has remained constant over time. In fact, the level of
969:
460:
105:
8424:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. pp. 94β95.
8123:
7845:
7820:
7793:
7768:
7743:
7733:
7708:
7682:
7657:
6219:
5712:
5342:). The updated content was reintegrated into the Knowledge page under a
9583:
8807:
8802:
8718:
7910:
7886:
7855:
7692:
6442:
Aitken, Martin J. (2003). "Radiocarbon dating". In Ellis, Linda (ed.).
5656:
4997:, as well as techniques that depend on annual bands or layers, such as
4931:
4812:
4725:
4703:
4580:
is the laboratory's estimate of the error in the age, at 1Ο confidence.
4292:{\displaystyle {\text{Age}}=-\ln({\text{Fm}})\cdot 8033{\text{ years}}}
3582:
3490:
3088:-depleted, carbon) from the deep ocean, so that direct measurements of
2736:
2700:, Scotland. In the winter, these sheep eat seaweed, which has a higher
2496:
746:
563:
533:
497:
8345:
8247:
7803:
6928:
6390:
2033:
ratio: with a sample of known date, and a measurement of the value of
1182:
is the number of atoms of the isotope in the original sample (at time
860:. In addition, about 1% of the carbon atoms are of the stable isotope
8392:. College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University Press. p. 4.
8370:
8368:
8366:
8364:
8151:
8149:
8058:
6259:
6234:
5204:, based on a standard isotope ratio, and (e) the assumption that the
4686:
artifacts are too recent because of contamination by "young carbon".
4457:
3505:
3401:
3397:
2985:
value for that sample directly than to rely on the published values.
750:
559:
120:
8420:
Nature's Clocks: How Scientists Measure the Age of Almost Everything
7522:
7520:
7424:
7422:
7420:
7224:
7222:
6670:
6668:
6666:
6664:
6125:
6123:
6121:
5752:
2689:
2668:. Because the PDB standard contains an unusually high proportion of
7991:. University of Arizona. May 25, 2011. pp. 5β7. Archived from
7367:
7365:
6140:
6138:
6064:
Kondev, F. G.; Wang, M.; Huang, W. J.; Naimi, S.; Audi, G. (2021).
5406:
5404:
4536:
identifies the laboratory that tested the sample, and the sample ID
3022:
to dissolve in the ocean. The result is an overall increase in the
2863:
becomes more soluble and hence more available to marine organisms.
2201:. From about 1950 until 1963, when atmospheric nuclear testing was
2066:
in the sample at the time the tree ring was formed β and hence the
9008:
5006:
4786:
4753:
is a geological epoch that began about 2.6 million years ago. The
4436:
4432:
4420:
4366:
3836:
3612:
3331:
3173:
from the atmosphere into the surface waters of the ocean, but the
2688:
1867:
1508:
1447:
1186:= 0, when the organism from which the sample was taken died), and
529:
31:
8170:
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences
4639:
is the range of dates corresponding to the given confidence level
1688:
ratios as the water they live in, and as a result of the reduced
611:), also known as "radiocarbon", is radioactive. The half-life of
283:
to decay below detectable levels, fossil fuels contain almost no
8942:
8824:
7769:"SHCal20 Southern Hemisphere Calibration, 0β55,000 Years cal BP"
6894:"SHCal13 Southern Hemisphere Calibration, 0β50,000 Years cal BP"
4981:. Other dating techniques of interest to archaeologists include
3108:
Libby's original exchange reservoir hypothesis assumed that the
2851:
values are correspondingly higher, while at lower temperatures,
2305:. The differential uptake of the three carbon isotopes leads to
504:
their samples they were able to demonstrate that they contained
8751:
3628:
is now most commonly done with an accelerator mass spectrometer
3589:, solid graphite targets are the most common, although gaseous
2978:, but when dating a given sample it is better to determine the
9630:
Knowledge articles published in peer-reviewed literature (W2J)
8842:
7885:
Guilderson, Tom; Reimer, Paula; Brown, Tom (21 January 2005).
5981:"The remarkable metrological history of radiocarbon dating II"
4682:
and co-workers suggested that many of the dates published for
4340:
Radiocarbon dates are generally presented with a range of one
1936:
ratio had changed over time. The question was resolved by the
1120:
The equation governing the decay of a radioactive isotope is:
8747:
6839:"Diet reconstruction and ecology using stable isotope ratios"
5955:. Bristol, UK: Institute of Physics Publishing. p. 343.
2396:
ratio is then compared to a standard ratio known as PDB. The
268:
Because the time it takes to convert biological materials to
8651:(2nd ed.). Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press.
6539:
Paleoclimates: Understanding Climate Change Past and Present
5291:
A plateau in the calibration curve occurs when the ratio of
4791:
Part of the Great Isaiah Scroll, one of the Dead Sea Scrolls
4398:
to be applied to radiocarbon ages to obtain calendar dates.
1348:
The half-life of a radioactive isotope (usually denoted by t
8081:. Strasbourg: European Science Foundation. pp. 48β49.
7320:(3rd ed.). Oxford: Academic Press. pp. 423β573 .
6813:. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. p. 276.
1828:
ratio in the atmosphere, both geographically and over time;
1221:
is 8,267 years, so the equation above can be rewritten as:
8735:
4059:
The results from AMS testing are in the form of ratios of
3753:, which were less affected by bomb carbon (the additional
5785:. Glasgow, Scotland UK: University of Glasgow. p. 16
4811:, most of which are thought to have been produced by the
4745:
Pleistocene/Holocene boundary in Two Creeks Fossil Forest
4241:
ratio is known, a "radiocarbon age" is calculated using:
3467:
Unburnt bone can be tested; it is usual to date it using
1584:
it contains mixes in less than seven years. The ratio of
1529:
much carbon they store, and in how long it takes for the
1341:
atoms currently in the sample, allows the calculation of
36:
Radiocarbon dating helped verify the authenticity of the
9615:
Knowledge articles published in peer-reviewed literature
8729:
7243:
Material Evidence: Learning From Archaeological Practice
6565:
Hua, Quan; Barbetti, Mike; Rakowski, Andrzej Z. (2013).
5259:"PDB" stands for "Pee Dee Belemnite", a fossil from the
4645:
indicates the confidence level for the given date range.
4183:
ratios, will appear to be of different ages because the
4136:
ratio in modern carbon, which is in turn defined as the
3396:
ratios: for example, plants in the neighbourhood of the
2832:
has poor solubility in water, which means there is less
1021:
nucleus reverts to the stable (non-radioactive) isotope
8079:
Handbooks for Archaeologists: No. 3: Radiocarbon Dating
7976:
7974:
7972:
5348:
3285:
ratio in the water. For example, rivers that pass over
1277:{\displaystyle t=\ln(N_{0}/N)\cdot {\text{8267 years}}}
272:
is substantially longer than the time it takes for its
9620:
Knowledge articles published in WikiJournal of Science
8724:
8031:"Conventions for reporting radiocarbon determinations"
7295:. Singapore: World Scientific Publishing. p. 24.
7093:. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 166.
7004:
content of plants growing in Furnas caldera, Azores".
1286:
The sample is assumed to have originally had the same
8741:
6421:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 128β129.
5815:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 35.
5141:
4545:
4496:
4322:
to be measured with the same error term of 80 years.
4249:
2510:
1229:
1128:
4840:
Soon after the publication of Libby's 1949 paper in
2707:
content than grass; samples from these sheep have a
1677:
Creatures living at the ocean surface have the same
500:
collected from sewage works in Baltimore, and after
9551:
9535:
9519:
9477:
9387:
9376:
9331:
9323:
Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP)
9310:
9284:
9275:
9237:
9175:
9130:
9094:
9063:
9054:
9017:
8979:
8858:
8833:
8785:
6541:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 35.
4671:A key concept in interpreting radiocarbon dates is
2916:also implies that excreted material is depleted in
1345:, the age of the sample, using the equation above.
771:) in the atmosphere to form first carbon monoxide (
342:has become the method of choice; it counts all the
8616:
8515:
8417:
7562:
6567:"Atmospheric Radiocarbon for the Period 1950β2010"
5171:
4564:
4515:
4291:
2653:
1423:for radiocarbon years assume that the atmospheric
1276:
1165:
77:The method was developed in the late 1940s at the
9655:Conservation and restoration of cultural heritage
7429:McNichol, A.P.; Jull, A.T.S.; Burr, G.S. (2001).
6066:"The NUBASE2020 evaluation of nuclear properties"
5172:{\displaystyle T_{\frac {1}{2}}=0.693\cdot \tau }
2941:makes up about 1% of the carbon in a sample, the
2111:ratio. These curves are described in more detail
622:(the time it takes for half of a given amount of
85:, based on the constant creation of radiocarbon (
7136:
7134:
7132:
7130:
7128:
7126:
7124:
7122:
7072:
7070:
7068:
7066:
7064:
7062:
5477:"Radiocarbon Dating β American Chemical Society"
4761:, in Wisconsin, a fossil forest was discovered (
1095:in its remains will gradually decrease. Because
8217:Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences
6640:. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 303.
6198:Memoirs of the Society for American Archaeology
3783:The other common technology used for measuring
2141:released substantially diluted the atmospheric
7006:Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research
6811:Fundamentals of Contemporary Mass Spectrometry
6638:Radiocarbon Variations and Absolute Chronology
5974:
5972:
4899:dated samples of linen from the Shroud in 1988
4054:National Institute of Standards and Technology
8763:
8509:
8507:
7868:
7866:
7355:A guide to radiocarbon units and calculations
6651:
6649:
6647:
6631:
6629:
6627:
6532:
6530:
6528:
6515:
6513:
6511:
6509:
6507:
6505:
6503:
6108:
6106:
6104:
6102:
6100:
6098:
6096:
6094:
2294:, which in turn is more easily absorbed than
1326:atoms in the original sample. Measurement of
8:
8522:. London: Academic Press. pp. 143β146.
8445:
8443:
8441:
7612:
7610:
7569:. London: Academic Press. pp. 125β126.
7530:. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 2007
7268:A Consumer's Guide to Archaeological Science
7157:
7155:
7153:
7151:
7149:
7049:
7047:
7045:
7043:
7041:
7039:
6872:
6870:
6732:
6730:
6728:
6726:
6724:
6722:
6720:
6685:
6683:
6614:
6612:
6610:
6608:
6606:
6604:
6602:
6446:. New York: Garland Publishing. p. 506.
5891:
5889:
4431:based on new data gathered from tree rings,
3044:ratio in the ocean of 1.5%, relative to the
6887:
6885:
6755:
6753:
6751:
6749:
6747:
6745:
6560:
6558:
6349:
6347:
5528:
5526:
5524:
5522:
5520:
5518:
5516:
5456:
5454:
5246:
5201:
4763:Two Creeks Buried Forest State Natural Area
3206:The northern and southern hemispheres have
9384:
9281:
9060:
8855:
8770:
8756:
8748:
8490:. New York: Plenum Press. pp. 65β97.
5836:
5834:
5832:
5514:
5512:
5510:
5508:
5506:
5504:
5502:
5500:
5498:
5496:
5354:Mike Christie; et al. (1 June 2018).
5352:). The version of record as reviewed is:
4485:Uncalibrated dates should be reported as "
4056:(NIST) in 1977 from French beet harvests.
3749:Libby's method was soon superseded by gas
3577:is widely used. For samples to be used in
3066:ratio in the atmosphere. This increase in
1856:ratio in different parts of the reservoir;
1663:, and water recently at the surface, with
874:The equation for the radioactive decay of
648:is constantly being produced in the lower
8344:
8334:
8246:
8236:
8057:
7887:"The Boon and Bane of Radiocarbon Dating"
7854:
7844:
7802:
7792:
7742:
7732:
7691:
7681:
7454:
6927:
6917:
6590:
6389:
6379:
6258:
6209:
6004:
5953:Nuclear Methods in Science and Technology
5877:
5771:
5769:
5720:
5374:
5146:
5140:
4547:
4546:
4544:
4498:
4497:
4495:
4284:
4270:
4250:
4248:
2626:
2606:
2592:
2590:
2579:
2559:
2545:
2543:
2536:
2514:
2509:
2374:isotopes are measured, and the resulting
2205:, it is estimated that several tonnes of
1269:
1255:
1249:
1228:
1166:{\displaystyle N=N_{0}\,e^{-\lambda t}\,}
1162:
1150:
1145:
1139:
1127:
191:there is to be detected, and because the
9318:Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA)
8732:, indexing service for radiocarbon dates
8642:(2nd (1955) ed.). Chicago: Phoenix.
8411:
8409:
7245:. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. p. 166.
7181:. New York: Marcel Dekker. p. 318.
6764:Isotopes in Palaeoenvironmental Research
6482:Ferronsky, V.I.; Polyakov, V.A. (2012).
2988:The carbon exchange between atmospheric
2717:
1755:ratio lower than that of the biosphere.
801:
792:
27:Method of determining the age of objects
7707:van der Plicht, J; et al. (2020).
7528:"Radiocarbon Data Calculations: NOSAMS"
7501:Radioactivity: Introduction and History
7388:. Lund: University of Lund. p. 16.
6461:. London: Academic Press. p. 690.
5946:
5944:
5942:
5400:
5057:
3500:The three major components of peat are
1190:is the number of atoms left after time
127:, which is incorporated into plants by
8647:Taylor, R.E.; Bar-Yosef, Ofer (2014).
7982:"Radiocarbon: Information for authors"
6843:A Companion to Biological Anthropology
5813:Chemical Markers in Aquatic Ecosystems
2283:is absorbed slightly more easily than
459:would be more likely to be created by
448:. It had previously been thought that
153:it contains begins to decrease as the
8675:. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
7651:
7649:
7403:. Amsterdam: IOS Press. p. 395.
7347:
7345:
6282:van der Plicht, J.; Hogg, A. (2006).
5471:
5469:
3941:, which has a weight close enough to
437:in the upper atmosphere would create
7:
7503:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 528.
6768:. Dordrecht: Springer. p. 246.
2963:ratio can be accurately measured by
1887:went into effect on 10 October 1963.
1674:in equilibrium with the atmosphere.
1010:nucleus changes to a proton and the
474:. At some time during World War II,
8598:Science-based Dating in Archaeology
7358:. Lund: Lund University. p. 3.
6486:. New York: Springer. p. 372.
6484:Isotopes of the Earth's Hydrosphere
6459:Chemistry of the Natural Atmosphere
4706:is known to have been used by some
3867:in a given sample, determining the
3011:in the atmosphere more likely than
2887:than one that eats food with lower
9117:Adoption of the Gregorian calendar
8488:Chronometric Dating in Archaeology
7656:Reimer, P.J.; et al. (2020).
7478:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 5.
7318:Handbook of Radioactivity Analysis
7270:. New York: Springer. p. 96.
6845:. Oxford: Blackwell. p. 446.
6841:. In Larsen, Clark Spencer (ed.).
5623:Arnold, J.R.; Libby, W.F. (1949).
4803:that proved to contain writing in
4799:were discovered in caves near the
1978:replenished and instead only lose
775:), and ultimately carbon dioxide (
767:quickly combines with the oxygen (
338:atoms in a sample. More recently,
25:
9625:Externally peer reviewed articles
8721:, radiocarbon calibration program
7499:L'Annunziata, Michael F. (2007).
7293:Measurement of Weak Radioactivity
6284:"A note on reporting radiocarbon"
5425:Journal of the Franklin Institute
4987:optically stimulated luminescence
1765:Radiocarbon dating considerations
1445:ratio has not changed over time.
596:) are stable and nonradioactive;
8623:. London: British Museum Press.
7326:10.1016/b978-012436603-9/50010-7
6444:Archaeological Method and Theory
5325:
5226:ratio has not changed over time.
4694:. One example is the Bronze Age
4043:Calculation of radiocarbon dates
3904:stream, but since the volume of
2216:were created. If all this extra
2112:
968:By emitting a beta particle (an
393:Radiation Laboratory at Berkeley
8999:English and British regnal year
7939:
7616:
7401:Physics Methods in Archaeometry
7371:
7161:
7076:
7030:
6689:
6129:
6112:
6051:
5677:
4465:Bayesian statistical techniques
3162:. This exchange process brings
838:is approximately 1.25 parts of
5841:Lal, D.; Jull, A.J.T. (2001).
5330:This article was submitted to
4565:{\displaystyle {\ce {{}^14C}}}
4516:{\displaystyle {\ce {{}^14C}}}
4275:
4267:
3289:, which is mostly composed of
3244:because of the marine effect,
1263:
1242:
999:), one of the neutrons in the
168:. Measuring the proportion of
1:
9112:Old Style and New Style dates
8744:, global radiocarbon database
8738:, global radiocarbon database
8543:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
8474:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
8450:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
8375:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
8017:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
7964:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
7641:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
7629:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
7602:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
7202:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
7018:10.1016/S0377-0273(99)00076-1
6951:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
6797:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
6656:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
6592:10.2458/azu_js_rc.v55i2.16177
6405:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
6339:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
6028:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
5461:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
5445:10.1016/s0016-0032(40)90838-9
5411:Taylor & Bar-Yosef (2014)
3833:Accelerator mass spectrometry
3730:Libby's first detector was a
3587:accelerator mass spectrometry
3579:liquid scintillation counters
1501:in the atmosphere over time.
690:is the main pathway by which
548:Physical and chemical details
340:accelerator mass spectrometry
9064:Pre-Julian / Julian
8336:10.1016/j.watres.2017.03.009
6311:10.1016/j.quageo.2006.07.001
5649:10.1126/science.110.2869.678
5602:10.1126/science.105.2735.576
5026:, archaeological chronology
4114:ratio in the sample and the
3304:, so this carbon lowers the
2502:, is calculated as follows:
481:In 1945, Libby moved to the
9297:Geological history of Earth
9167:Astronomical year numbering
8638:Libby, Willard F. (1965) .
8578:
8566:
8554:
8155:
8029:Millard, Andrew R. (2014).
7951:
7872:
7589:
7548:
7228:
7213:
7140:
7113:
7053:
6736:
6674:
6618:
6519:
6192:Johnson, Frederick (1951).
6144:
5951:Tsipenyuk, Yuri M. (1997).
5532:
2664:where the β° sign indicates
675:) atoms and turn them into
362:, and the beginning of the
63:by using the properties of
9686:
8615:Bowman, Sheridan (1995) .
8461:
7291:TheodΓ³rsson, PΓ‘ll (1996).
7266:Malainey, Mary E. (2010).
7179:Mass Spectrometry of Soils
6919:10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16783
6876:
6851:10.1002/9781444320039.ch25
6537:Cronin, Thomas M. (2010).
6381:10.2458/azu_js_rc.55.16947
6235:"Half-life of Radiocarbon"
6039:
5272:The PDB value is 11.2372β°.
4673:archaeological association
4360:
4040:
3434:Radiocarbon dating samples
3431:
2880:values will have a higher
2473:is twice the depletion of
1762:
551:
422:, that the interaction of
119:combines with atmospheric
9469:Thermoluminescence dating
9364:Samariumβneodymium dating
8669:Quaternary Dating Methods
8416:Macdougall, Doug (2008).
8288:10.1038/s41558-017-0066-9
7474:Quaternary Dating Methods
7456:10.1017/S0033822200038169
6211:10.1017/S0081130000000873
5979:Currie, Lloyd A. (2004).
5879:10.1017/S0033822200041394
5481:American Chemical Society
4560:
4511:
2618:
2604:
2571:
2557:
2526:
2418:ratio is used instead of
2055:β the number of atoms of
1505:Carbon exchange reservoir
9183:Chinese sexagenary cycle
8542:
8473:
8449:
8374:
8016:
7963:
7640:
7628:
7601:
7384:Wiebert, Anders (1995).
7201:
6950:
6835:Schoeninger, Margaret J.
6796:
6774:10.1007/1-4020-2504-1_06
6705:. US Department of State
6655:
6404:
6338:
6291:Quaternary Geochronology
6085:10.1088/1674-1137/abddae
6027:
5776:Russell, Nicola (2011).
5567:10.1103/PhysRev.69.671.2
5460:
5410:
4555:
4549:
4506:
4500:
3845:AMS counts the atoms of
2613:
2607:
2599:
2593:
2566:
2560:
2552:
2546:
2521:
2515:
2037:(the number of atoms of
656:, primarily by galactic
542:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
309:increased the amount of
219:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
59:of an object containing
9397:Amino acid racemisation
7903:10.1126/science.1104164
6457:Warneck, Peter (2000).
6179:10.1103/PhysRev.75.1825
5019:774β775 carbon-14 spike
4991:electron spin resonance
4715:Use outside archaeology
4363:Radiocarbon calibration
3609:Measurement and results
3458:Material considerations
3208:atmospheric circulation
2484:. The fractionation of
1885:Partial Test Ban Treaty
1831:isotopic fractionation;
414:, then employed at the
131:; animals then acquire
9402:Archaeomagnetic dating
8914:Era of Caesar (Iberia)
8190:10.1098/rspb.1961.0001
6982:emissions recorded in
6809:Dass, Chhabil (2007).
5363:WikiJournal of Science
5332:WikiJournal of Science
5173:
4971:potassiumβargon dating
4792:
4732:, which are important
4566:
4517:
4427:
4372:
4306:Errors and reliability
4293:
3842:
3629:
2927:relative to the diet.
2715:
2655:
2268:Isotopic fractionation
2129:and, as a result, the
1888:
1525:
1453:
1278:
1167:
502:isotopically enriching
370:in different regions.
100:by the interaction of
41:
9302:Geological time units
8666:Walker, Mike (2005).
8596:Aitken, M.J. (1990).
8514:Taylor, R.E. (1987).
8268:Nature Climate Change
7561:Taylor, R.E. (1987).
5905:Reviews of Geophysics
5376:10.15347/WJS/2018.006
5174:
4979:uranium series dating
4790:
4567:
4518:
4424:
4370:
4294:
3840:
3810:carbon (cpm/g C), or
3751:proportional counters
3616:
2694:North Ronaldsay sheep
2692:
2686:values are negative.
2656:
1871:
1864:Atmospheric variation
1769:The variation in the
1759:Dating considerations
1512:
1451:
1279:
1168:
974:electron antineutrino
745:where n represents a
483:University of Chicago
79:University of Chicago
47:(also referred to as
35:
9354:Law of superposition
9349:Isotope geochemistry
8725:IntCal working group
8238:10.1029/2018JG004650
5997:10.6028/jres.109.013
5925:10.1002/2017RG000588
5843:"In-situ cosmogenic
5809:Canuel, Elizabeth A.
5356:"Radiocarbon dating"
5336:academic peer review
5139:
5024:Chronological dating
4995:fission track dating
4767:Wisconsin glaciation
4740:Notable applications
4543:
4494:
4247:
3814:per kg (Bq/kg C, in
3524:Preparation and size
2967:. Typical values of
2508:
1227:
1126:
327:emitted by decaying
123:to form radioactive
9645:American inventions
9640:1940s introductions
9487:Fluorine absorption
9464:Luminescence dating
9359:Luminescence dating
9267:Milankovitch cycles
9107:Proleptic Gregorian
8939:Hindu units of time
8692:on 13 October 2017.
8600:. London: Longman.
8327:2017WatRe.115..236D
8280:2018NatCC...8..166E
8229:2019JGRG..124..328D
8182:1961RSPSB.153..287G
8124:10.1038/nature13621
8116:2014Natur.512..306H
8050:2014Radcb..56..555M
7846:10.1017/RDC.2020.68
7837:2020Radcb..62..779H
7794:10.1017/RDC.2020.59
7785:2020Radcb..62..759H
7734:10.1017/RDC.2020.22
7725:2020Radcb..62.1095V
7683:10.1017/RDC.2020.41
7674:2020Radcb..62..725R
7447:2001Radcb..43..313M
6910:2013Radcb..55.1889H
6583:2013Radcb..55.2059H
6372:2013Radcb..55.1869R
6303:2006QuGeo...1..237V
6251:1962Natur.195..984G
6233:Godwin, H. (1962).
6171:1949PhRv...75.1825E
5917:2018RvGeo..56..278A
5870:2001Radcb..43..731L
5722:20.500.11850/263957
5713:10.1017/RDC.2018.18
5705:2018Radcb..60..535J
5641:1949Sci...110..678A
5594:1947Sci...105..576A
5559:1946PhRv...69..671L
5437:1940TeMAE..45..133K
4820:Great Isaiah Scroll
4346:normal distribution
4219:Once the corrected
3516:small sample sizes.
3480:reducing conditions
1938:study of tree rings
756:Once produced, the
749:and p represents a
57:determining the age
18:Radio-carbon dating
9670:Radiometric dating
9660:Isotopes of carbon
9635:Radiocarbon dating
9589:Terminus post quem
9569:Synchronoptic view
9536:Linguistic methods
9497:Obsidian hydration
9432:Radiometric dating
9417:Incremental dating
9339:Chronostratigraphy
8649:Radiocarbon Dating
8640:Radiocarbon Dating
8619:Radiocarbon Dating
8518:Radiocarbon Dating
7565:Radiocarbon Dating
7175:Trumbore, Susan E.
5805:Bianchi, Thomas S.
5553:(11β12): 671β672.
5263:in South Carolina.
5169:
5047:Radiometric dating
4983:thermoluminescence
4975:argonβargon dating
4793:
4662:Use in archaeology
4605:thermoluminescence
4562:
4513:
4428:
4373:
4342:standard deviation
4289:
3843:
3630:
3601:can also be used.
3339:Volcanic eruptions
2716:
2666:parts per thousand
2651:
1889:
1834:variations in the
1806:variations in the
1526:
1454:
1274:
1163:
416:Franklin Institute
98:Earth's atmosphere
55:) is a method for
45:Radiocarbon dating
42:
9602:
9601:
9515:
9514:
9372:
9371:
9233:
9232:
9188:Geologic Calendar
9050:
9049:
8682:978-0-470-86927-7
8658:978-1-59874-590-0
8630:978-0-7141-2047-8
8607:978-0-582-49309-4
8529:978-0-12-433663-6
8497:978-0-306-45715-9
8431:978-0-520-24975-2
8399:978-1-60344-760-7
8110:(7514): 306β309.
8088:978-2-903148-44-7
7998:on 10 August 2013
7576:978-0-12-433663-6
7551:, pp. 38β39.
7510:978-0-444-52715-8
7485:978-0-444-42392-4
7410:978-1-58603-424-5
7335:978-0-12-384873-4
7277:978-1-4419-5704-7
7252:978-0-415-83745-3
7188:978-0-8247-9699-0
7100:978-1-4020-1860-2
7056:, pp. 27β30.
6860:978-1-4051-8900-2
6820:978-0-471-68229-5
6783:978-1-4020-2503-7
6739:, pp. 20β23.
6692:, pp. 71β72.
6548:978-0-231-14494-0
6493:978-94-007-2855-4
6468:978-0-12-735632-7
6428:978-0-19-514518-2
6073:Chinese Physics C
5822:978-0-691-13414-7
5749:www.c14dating.com
5680:, pp. 60β61.
5635:(2869): 678β680.
5588:(2765): 576β577.
5261:Pee Dee formation
5154:
5124:The half-life of
4651:approximately 68%
4583:'BP' stands for "
4556:
4554:
4553:
4552:
4507:
4505:
4504:
4503:
4287:
4273:
4253:
3291:calcium carbonate
3202:Hemisphere effect
3104:Reservoir effects
2965:mass spectrometry
2811:
2810:
2632:
2629:
2620:
2614:
2612:
2611:
2610:
2600:
2598:
2597:
2596:
2582:
2573:
2567:
2565:
2564:
2563:
2553:
2551:
2550:
2549:
2522:
2520:
2519:
2518:
1524:in each reservoir
1272:
463:interacting with
237:calibration curve
166:radioactive decay
104:with atmospheric
72:isotope of carbon
16:(Redirected from
9677:
9594:ASPRO chronology
9543:Glottochronology
9459:Tephrochronology
9407:Dendrochronology
9385:
9282:
9081:Proleptic Julian
9071:Pre-Julian Roman
9061:
8856:
8772:
8765:
8758:
8749:
8714:Historic England
8693:
8691:
8685:. Archived from
8674:
8662:
8643:
8634:
8622:
8611:
8582:
8576:
8570:
8564:
8558:
8552:
8546:
8540:
8534:
8533:
8521:
8511:
8502:
8501:
8483:
8477:
8471:
8465:
8459:
8453:
8447:
8436:
8435:
8423:
8413:
8404:
8403:
8384:
8378:
8372:
8359:
8358:
8348:
8338:
8306:
8300:
8299:
8259:
8253:
8252:
8250:
8240:
8208:
8202:
8201:
8176:(952): 287β320.
8165:
8159:
8153:
8144:
8143:
8099:
8093:
8092:
8070:
8064:
8063:
8061:
8059:10.2458/56.17455
8035:
8026:
8020:
8014:
8008:
8007:
8005:
8003:
7997:
7986:
7978:
7967:
7961:
7955:
7949:
7943:
7937:
7931:
7930:
7882:
7876:
7870:
7861:
7860:
7858:
7848:
7815:
7809:
7808:
7806:
7796:
7763:
7757:
7756:
7746:
7736:
7704:
7698:
7697:
7695:
7685:
7653:
7644:
7638:
7632:
7626:
7620:
7619:, p. 66β67.
7614:
7605:
7599:
7593:
7587:
7581:
7580:
7568:
7558:
7552:
7546:
7540:
7539:
7537:
7535:
7524:
7515:
7514:
7496:
7490:
7489:
7477:
7467:
7461:
7460:
7458:
7426:
7415:
7414:
7396:
7390:
7389:
7381:
7375:
7369:
7360:
7359:
7349:
7340:
7339:
7313:
7307:
7306:
7288:
7282:
7281:
7263:
7257:
7256:
7238:
7232:
7226:
7217:
7211:
7205:
7199:
7193:
7192:
7171:
7165:
7159:
7144:
7138:
7117:
7111:
7105:
7104:
7086:
7080:
7074:
7057:
7051:
7034:
7028:
7022:
7021:
7012:(1β2): 200β201.
7003:
7001:
7000:
6992:
6990:
6989:
6981:
6980:
6979:
6971:
6970:
6960:
6954:
6948:
6942:
6941:
6931:
6921:
6904:(4): 1889β1903.
6889:
6880:
6874:
6865:
6864:
6831:
6825:
6824:
6806:
6800:
6794:
6788:
6787:
6767:
6757:
6740:
6734:
6715:
6714:
6712:
6710:
6699:
6693:
6687:
6678:
6672:
6659:
6653:
6642:
6641:
6633:
6622:
6616:
6597:
6596:
6594:
6577:(4): 2059β2072.
6562:
6553:
6552:
6534:
6523:
6517:
6498:
6497:
6479:
6473:
6472:
6454:
6448:
6447:
6439:
6433:
6432:
6414:
6408:
6402:
6396:
6395:
6393:
6383:
6366:(4): 1869β1887.
6351:
6342:
6336:
6330:
6329:
6327:
6325:
6288:
6279:
6273:
6272:
6262:
6260:10.1038/195984a0
6230:
6224:
6223:
6213:
6189:
6183:
6182:
6154:
6148:
6142:
6133:
6127:
6116:
6110:
6089:
6088:
6079:(3): 030001-22.
6070:
6061:
6055:
6049:
6043:
6037:
6031:
6025:
6019:
6018:
6008:
5976:
5967:
5966:
5948:
5937:
5936:
5902:
5893:
5884:
5883:
5881:
5853:
5851:
5850:
5838:
5827:
5826:
5801:
5795:
5794:
5792:
5790:
5784:
5773:
5764:
5763:
5761:
5760:
5751:. Archived from
5741:
5735:
5734:
5724:
5687:
5681:
5675:
5669:
5668:
5620:
5614:
5613:
5577:
5571:
5570:
5542:
5536:
5535:, pp. 9β15.
5530:
5491:
5490:
5488:
5487:
5473:
5464:
5458:
5449:
5448:
5420:
5414:
5408:
5396:
5378:
5360:
5351:
5340:reviewer reports
5329:
5315:
5312:
5310:
5309:
5301:
5299:
5298:
5289:
5283:
5279:
5273:
5270:
5264:
5257:
5251:
5243:
5237:
5233:
5227:
5225:
5223:
5222:
5214:
5212:
5211:
5194:
5188:
5185:
5179:
5178:
5176:
5175:
5170:
5156:
5155:
5147:
5134:
5132:
5131:
5122:
5116:
5114:
5112:
5111:
5103:
5101:
5100:
5092:
5090:
5089:
5080:
5074:
5071:
5065:
5062:
5003:tephrochronology
4999:dendrochronology
4967:
4965:
4964:
4954:
4952:
4951:
4941:
4939:
4938:
4928:
4926:
4925:
4915:
4913:
4912:
4884:
4882:
4881:
4868:
4866:
4865:
4854:
4852:
4851:
4783:Dead Sea Scrolls
4734:greenhouse gases
4692:old wood problem
4620:
4618:
4617:
4602:
4600:
4599:
4571:
4569:
4568:
4563:
4561:
4550:
4548:
4522:
4520:
4519:
4514:
4512:
4501:
4499:
4396:
4394:
4393:
4385:
4383:
4382:
4335:
4333:
4332:
4321:
4319:
4318:
4298:
4296:
4295:
4290:
4288:
4285:
4274:
4271:
4254:
4251:
4240:
4238:
4237:
4229:
4227:
4226:
4215:
4213:
4212:
4204:
4202:
4201:
4193:
4191:
4190:
4182:
4180:
4179:
4171:
4169:
4168:
4157:
4155:
4154:
4146:
4144:
4143:
4135:
4133:
4132:
4124:
4122:
4121:
4113:
4111:
4110:
4102:
4100:
4099:
4091:
4089:
4088:
4080:
4078:
4077:
4069:
4067:
4066:
4032:
4030:
4029:
4021:
4019:
4018:
4010:
4009:
4008:
4000:
3999:
3991:
3989:
3988:
3980:
3978:
3977:
3969:
3967:
3966:
3955:
3951:
3949:
3948:
3940:
3938:
3937:
3925:
3923:
3922:
3914:
3912:
3911:
3903:
3901:
3900:
3888:
3886:
3885:
3877:
3875:
3874:
3866:
3864:
3863:
3855:
3853:
3852:
3828:
3826:
3825:
3805:
3803:
3802:
3793:
3791:
3790:
3774:
3772:
3771:
3763:
3761:
3760:
3745:
3743:
3742:
3720:
3718:
3717:
3709:
3707:
3706:
3698:
3696:
3695:
3687:
3685:
3684:
3676:
3674:
3673:
3665:
3663:
3662:
3654:
3652:
3651:
3642:
3640:
3639:
3627:
3625:
3624:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3576:
3575:
3574:
3561:
3559:
3558:
3550:
3548:
3547:
3538:
3536:
3535:
3448:
3446:
3445:
3423:
3421:
3420:
3395:
3393:
3392:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3362:
3360:
3359:
3351:
3349:
3348:
3325:
3323:
3322:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3303:
3301:
3300:
3284:
3282:
3281:
3273:
3271:
3270:
3254:
3252:
3251:
3243:
3241:
3240:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3220:
3218:
3217:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3183:
3181:
3180:
3172:
3170:
3169:
3161:
3160:
3159:
3149:
3148:
3147:
3129:
3127:
3126:
3118:
3116:
3115:
3098:
3096:
3095:
3087:
3085:
3084:
3076:
3074:
3073:
3065:
3063:
3062:
3054:
3052:
3051:
3043:
3041:
3040:
3032:
3030:
3029:
3021:
3019:
3018:
3010:
3008:
3007:
2999:
2998:
2997:
2981:
2970:
2962:
2960:
2959:
2951:
2949:
2948:
2940:
2938:
2937:
2926:
2924:
2923:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2904:
2902:
2901:
2890:
2883:
2876:
2869:
2862:
2861:
2860:
2847:
2843:
2842:
2841:
2831:
2830:
2829:
2816:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2785:
2784:
2783:
2727:
2718:
2710:
2703:
2696:on the beach in
2682:
2679:, most measured
2678:
2676:
2675:
2660:
2658:
2657:
2652:
2644:
2640:
2633:
2631:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2621:
2619:
2608:
2605:
2594:
2591:
2584:
2583:
2580:
2578:
2574:
2572:
2561:
2558:
2547:
2544:
2537:
2527:
2516:
2499:
2494:
2492:
2491:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2472:
2470:
2469:
2461:
2459:
2458:
2450:
2448:
2447:
2439:
2437:
2436:
2428:
2426:
2425:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2406:
2404:
2403:
2395:
2393:
2392:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2373:
2371:
2370:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2326:
2324:
2323:
2315:
2313:
2312:
2304:
2302:
2301:
2293:
2291:
2290:
2282:
2280:
2279:
2259:
2257:
2256:
2248:
2246:
2245:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2226:
2224:
2223:
2215:
2213:
2212:
2200:
2198:
2197:
2185:
2183:
2182:
2173:
2171:
2170:
2162:
2160:
2159:
2151:
2149:
2148:
2140:
2139:
2138:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2110:
2108:
2107:
2099:
2097:
2096:
2087:
2085:
2084:
2076:
2074:
2073:
2065:
2063:
2062:
2047:
2045:
2044:
2032:
2030:
2029:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2010:
2008:
2007:
1999:
1997:
1996:
1988:
1986:
1985:
1977:
1975:
1974:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1935:
1933:
1932:
1924:
1922:
1921:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1901:
1899:
1898:
1882:
1880:
1879:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1844:
1842:
1841:
1827:
1825:
1824:
1816:
1814:
1813:
1801:
1799:
1798:
1790:
1788:
1787:
1779:
1777:
1776:
1754:
1752:
1751:
1743:
1741:
1740:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1720:
1718:
1717:
1709:
1707:
1706:
1698:
1696:
1695:
1687:
1685:
1684:
1673:
1671:
1670:
1662:
1660:
1659:
1650:
1648:
1647:
1638:
1636:
1635:
1627:
1625:
1624:
1616:
1614:
1613:
1605:
1603:
1602:
1594:
1592:
1591:
1583:
1581:
1580:
1572:
1570:
1569:
1561:
1559:
1558:
1550:
1548:
1547:
1539:
1537:
1536:
1523:
1521:
1520:
1500:
1498:
1497:
1489:
1487:
1486:
1477:
1475:
1474:
1466:
1464:
1463:
1444:
1442:
1441:
1433:
1431:
1430:
1421:
1419:
1418:
1409:
1407:
1406:
1398:
1396:
1395:
1384:
1382:
1381:
1373:
1371:
1370:
1362:
1360:
1359:
1340:
1338:
1337:
1330:, the number of
1325:
1323:
1322:
1315:, the number of
1307:
1305:
1304:
1296:
1294:
1293:
1283:
1281:
1280:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1259:
1254:
1253:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1172:
1170:
1169:
1164:
1161:
1160:
1144:
1143:
1116:
1114:
1113:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1083:
1081:
1080:
1072:
1070:
1069:
1061:
1059:
1058:
1050:
1048:
1047:
1031:
1029:
1028:
1020:
1018:
1017:
1009:
1007:
1006:
998:
997:
996:
995:
988:
985:
984:
965:
964:
963:
962:
955:
952:
951:
942:
941:
940:
933:
932:
924:
923:
922:
915:
914:
905:
904:
903:
896:
895:
884:
882:
881:
870:
868:
867:
859:
857:
856:
848:
846:
845:
837:
835:
834:
826:
824:
823:
805:
796:
786:
785:
784:
774:
770:
766:
764:
763:
741:
740:
739:
732:
731:
722:
721:
720:
713:
712:
700:
698:
697:
688:nuclear reaction
686:. The following
685:
683:
682:
674:
672:
671:
647:
645:
644:
632:
630:
629:
621:
619:
618:
610:
608:
607:
595:
593:
592:
580:
578:
577:
562:exists as three
514:
512:
511:
495:
493:
492:
473:
471:
470:
458:
456:
455:
447:
445:
444:
436:
434:
433:
424:thermal neutrons
405:
403:
402:
352:
350:
349:
337:
335:
334:
319:
317:
316:
304:
302:
301:
293:
291:
290:
282:
280:
279:
260:
258:
257:
249:
247:
246:
234:
232:
231:
216:
214:
213:
205:
203:
202:
190:
188:
187:
178:
176:
175:
163:
161:
160:
152:
150:
149:
141:
139:
138:
118:
116:
115:
108:. The resulting
95:
93:
92:
61:organic material
53:carbon-14 dating
38:Dead Sea scrolls
21:
9685:
9684:
9680:
9679:
9678:
9676:
9675:
9674:
9605:
9604:
9603:
9598:
9547:
9531:
9527:Molecular clock
9520:Genetic methods
9511:
9492:Nitrogen dating
9479:Relative dating
9473:
9442:Potassiumβargon
9389:Absolute dating
9379:
9368:
9327:
9306:
9271:
9247:Cosmic Calendar
9239:Astronomic time
9229:
9171:
9126:
9090:
9076:Original Julian
9046:
9013:
8975:
8874:Ab urbe condita
8852:
8829:
8781:
8776:
8701:
8696:
8689:
8683:
8672:
8665:
8659:
8646:
8637:
8631:
8614:
8608:
8595:
8591:
8586:
8585:
8577:
8573:
8565:
8561:
8553:
8549:
8541:
8537:
8530:
8513:
8512:
8505:
8498:
8485:
8484:
8480:
8472:
8468:
8460:
8456:
8448:
8439:
8432:
8415:
8414:
8407:
8400:
8386:
8385:
8381:
8373:
8362:
8308:
8307:
8303:
8261:
8260:
8256:
8210:
8209:
8205:
8167:
8166:
8162:
8154:
8147:
8101:
8100:
8096:
8089:
8075:Waterbolk, H.T.
8072:
8071:
8067:
8033:
8028:
8027:
8023:
8015:
8011:
8001:
7999:
7995:
7984:
7980:
7979:
7970:
7962:
7958:
7950:
7946:
7938:
7934:
7884:
7883:
7879:
7871:
7864:
7817:
7816:
7812:
7765:
7764:
7760:
7706:
7705:
7701:
7655:
7654:
7647:
7639:
7635:
7627:
7623:
7615:
7608:
7600:
7596:
7588:
7584:
7577:
7560:
7559:
7555:
7547:
7543:
7533:
7531:
7526:
7525:
7518:
7511:
7498:
7497:
7493:
7486:
7469:
7468:
7464:
7441:(2A): 313β320.
7428:
7427:
7418:
7411:
7398:
7397:
7393:
7383:
7382:
7378:
7370:
7363:
7351:
7350:
7343:
7336:
7315:
7314:
7310:
7303:
7290:
7289:
7285:
7278:
7265:
7264:
7260:
7253:
7240:
7239:
7235:
7227:
7220:
7212:
7208:
7200:
7196:
7189:
7173:
7172:
7168:
7160:
7147:
7139:
7120:
7112:
7108:
7101:
7088:
7087:
7083:
7075:
7060:
7052:
7037:
7029:
7025:
6999:
6997:
6996:
6995:
6994:
6988:
6986:
6985:
6984:
6983:
6978:
6975:
6974:
6973:
6969:
6967:
6966:
6965:
6964:
6962:
6961:
6957:
6949:
6945:
6891:
6890:
6883:
6875:
6868:
6861:
6833:
6832:
6828:
6821:
6808:
6807:
6803:
6795:
6791:
6784:
6759:
6758:
6743:
6735:
6718:
6708:
6706:
6701:
6700:
6696:
6688:
6681:
6673:
6662:
6654:
6645:
6635:
6634:
6625:
6617:
6600:
6564:
6563:
6556:
6549:
6536:
6535:
6526:
6518:
6501:
6494:
6481:
6480:
6476:
6469:
6456:
6455:
6451:
6441:
6440:
6436:
6429:
6416:
6415:
6411:
6403:
6399:
6353:
6352:
6345:
6337:
6333:
6323:
6321:
6286:
6281:
6280:
6276:
6232:
6231:
6227:
6191:
6190:
6186:
6159:Physical Review
6156:
6155:
6151:
6143:
6136:
6128:
6119:
6111:
6092:
6068:
6063:
6062:
6058:
6050:
6046:
6038:
6034:
6026:
6022:
5978:
5977:
5970:
5963:
5950:
5949:
5940:
5900:
5895:
5894:
5887:
5864:(2B): 731β742.
5849:
5847:
5846:
5845:
5844:
5840:
5839:
5830:
5823:
5803:
5802:
5798:
5788:
5786:
5782:
5775:
5774:
5767:
5758:
5756:
5743:
5742:
5738:
5689:
5688:
5684:
5676:
5672:
5622:
5621:
5617:
5579:
5578:
5574:
5547:Physical Review
5544:
5543:
5539:
5531:
5494:
5485:
5483:
5475:
5474:
5467:
5459:
5452:
5422:
5421:
5417:
5409:
5402:
5358:
5353:
5347:
5323:
5318:
5308:
5306:
5305:
5304:
5303:
5297:
5295:
5294:
5293:
5292:
5290:
5286:
5280:
5276:
5271:
5267:
5258:
5254:
5244:
5240:
5234:
5230:
5221:
5219:
5218:
5217:
5216:
5210:
5208:
5207:
5206:
5205:
5195:
5191:
5186:
5182:
5142:
5137:
5136:
5130:
5128:
5127:
5126:
5125:
5123:
5119:
5110:
5108:
5107:
5106:
5105:
5099:
5097:
5096:
5095:
5094:
5088:
5086:
5085:
5084:
5083:
5081:
5077:
5072:
5068:
5063:
5059:
5055:
5035:Relative dating
5030:Absolute dating
5015:
4963:
4961:
4960:
4959:
4958:
4950:
4948:
4947:
4946:
4945:
4937:
4935:
4934:
4933:
4932:
4924:
4922:
4921:
4920:
4919:
4911:
4909:
4908:
4907:
4906:
4895:Shroud of Turin
4880:
4878:
4877:
4876:
4875:
4864:
4862:
4861:
4860:
4859:
4850:
4848:
4847:
4846:
4845:
4838:
4785:
4747:
4742:
4717:
4669:
4664:
4644:
4638:
4631:
4628:
4616:
4614:
4613:
4612:
4611:
4598:
4596:
4595:
4594:
4593:
4579:
4573:
4541:
4540:
4535:
4528:
4524:
4492:
4491:
4488:
4482:is as follows.
4474:
4472:Reporting dates
4412:Hessel de Vries
4404:Wesley Ferguson
4392:
4390:
4389:
4388:
4387:
4381:
4379:
4378:
4377:
4376:
4365:
4359:
4331:
4329:
4328:
4327:
4326:
4317:
4315:
4314:
4313:
4312:
4308:
4245:
4244:
4236:
4234:
4233:
4232:
4231:
4225:
4223:
4222:
4221:
4220:
4216:value of β25β°.
4211:
4209:
4208:
4207:
4206:
4200:
4198:
4197:
4196:
4195:
4189:
4187:
4186:
4185:
4184:
4178:
4176:
4175:
4174:
4173:
4167:
4165:
4164:
4163:
4162:
4153:
4151:
4150:
4149:
4148:
4142:
4140:
4139:
4138:
4137:
4131:
4129:
4128:
4127:
4126:
4120:
4118:
4117:
4116:
4115:
4109:
4107:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4098:
4096:
4095:
4094:
4093:
4087:
4085:
4084:
4083:
4082:
4076:
4074:
4073:
4072:
4071:
4065:
4063:
4062:
4061:
4060:
4045:
4039:
4028:
4026:
4025:
4024:
4023:
4017:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4012:
4007:
4004:
4003:
4002:
3998:
3996:
3995:
3994:
3993:
3987:
3985:
3984:
3983:
3982:
3976:
3974:
3973:
3972:
3971:
3965:
3963:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3958:
3953:
3947:
3945:
3944:
3943:
3942:
3936:
3934:
3933:
3932:
3931:
3921:
3919:
3918:
3917:
3916:
3910:
3908:
3907:
3906:
3905:
3899:
3897:
3896:
3895:
3894:
3884:
3882:
3881:
3880:
3879:
3873:
3871:
3870:
3869:
3868:
3862:
3860:
3859:
3858:
3857:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3847:
3846:
3835:
3824:
3822:
3821:
3820:
3819:
3801:
3799:
3798:
3797:
3796:
3789:
3787:
3786:
3785:
3784:
3778:anticoincidence
3770:
3768:
3767:
3766:
3765:
3759:
3757:
3756:
3755:
3754:
3741:
3739:
3738:
3737:
3736:
3728:
3716:
3714:
3713:
3712:
3711:
3705:
3703:
3702:
3701:
3700:
3694:
3692:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3683:
3681:
3680:
3679:
3678:
3672:
3670:
3669:
3668:
3667:
3661:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3656:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3646:
3645:
3638:
3636:
3635:
3634:
3633:
3623:
3621:
3620:
3619:
3618:
3611:
3597:
3594:
3593:
3592:
3590:
3573:
3570:
3569:
3568:
3566:
3557:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3552:
3546:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3541:
3534:
3532:
3531:
3530:
3529:
3526:
3460:
3444:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3439:
3436:
3430:
3419:
3417:
3416:
3415:
3414:
3410:
3400:caldera in the
3391:
3389:
3388:
3387:
3386:
3380:
3378:
3377:
3376:
3375:
3369:
3367:
3366:
3365:
3364:
3358:
3356:
3355:
3354:
3353:
3347:
3345:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3321:
3319:
3318:
3317:
3316:
3310:
3308:
3307:
3306:
3305:
3299:
3297:
3296:
3295:
3294:
3280:
3278:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3269:
3267:
3266:
3265:
3264:
3261:
3250:
3248:
3247:
3246:
3245:
3239:
3237:
3236:
3235:
3234:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3216:
3214:
3213:
3212:
3211:
3204:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3188:
3186:
3179:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3174:
3168:
3166:
3165:
3164:
3163:
3158:
3155:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3146:
3143:
3142:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3125:
3123:
3122:
3121:
3120:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3110:
3109:
3106:
3094:
3092:
3091:
3090:
3089:
3083:
3081:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3072:
3070:
3069:
3068:
3067:
3061:
3059:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3050:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3045:
3039:
3037:
3036:
3035:
3034:
3028:
3026:
3025:
3024:
3023:
3017:
3015:
3014:
3013:
3012:
3006:
3004:
3003:
3002:
3001:
2996:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2973:
2968:
2958:
2956:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2947:
2945:
2944:
2943:
2942:
2936:
2934:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2922:
2920:
2919:
2918:
2917:
2911:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2906:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2896:
2895:
2893:
2888:
2886:
2881:
2879:
2874:
2872:
2867:
2859:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2852:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2837:
2836:
2835:
2833:
2828:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2814:
2801:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2794:
2782:
2779:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2746:Marine plankton
2730:
2725:
2713:
2708:
2706:
2701:
2698:North Ronaldsay
2685:
2680:
2674:
2672:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2586:
2585:
2539:
2538:
2535:
2531:
2506:
2505:
2497:
2490:
2488:
2487:
2486:
2485:
2479:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2474:
2468:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2457:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2452:
2446:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2435:
2433:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2424:
2422:
2421:
2420:
2419:
2413:
2411:
2410:
2409:
2408:
2402:
2400:
2399:
2398:
2397:
2391:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2386:
2380:
2378:
2377:
2376:
2375:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2365:
2364:
2358:
2356:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2340:
2339:
2333:
2331:
2330:
2329:
2328:
2322:
2320:
2319:
2318:
2317:
2311:
2309:
2308:
2307:
2306:
2300:
2298:
2297:
2296:
2295:
2289:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2284:
2278:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2270:
2255:
2253:
2252:
2251:
2250:
2244:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2233:
2231:
2230:
2229:
2228:
2222:
2220:
2219:
2218:
2217:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2207:
2206:
2196:
2194:
2193:
2192:
2191:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2177:
2176:
2169:
2167:
2166:
2165:
2164:
2158:
2156:
2155:
2154:
2153:
2147:
2145:
2144:
2143:
2142:
2137:
2134:
2133:
2132:
2130:
2124:
2122:
2121:
2120:
2119:
2106:
2104:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2095:
2093:
2092:
2091:
2090:
2083:
2081:
2080:
2079:
2078:
2072:
2070:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2061:
2059:
2058:
2057:
2056:
2054:
2043:
2041:
2040:
2039:
2038:
2028:
2026:
2025:
2024:
2023:
2017:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2012:
2006:
2004:
2003:
2002:
2001:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1990:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1980:
1979:
1973:
1971:
1970:
1969:
1968:
1962:
1960:
1959:
1958:
1957:
1951:
1949:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1931:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1916:
1915:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1904:
1903:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1893:
1892:
1878:
1876:
1875:
1874:
1873:
1866:
1851:
1849:
1848:
1847:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1836:
1835:
1823:
1821:
1820:
1819:
1818:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1808:
1807:
1797:
1795:
1794:
1793:
1792:
1786:
1784:
1783:
1782:
1781:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1771:
1770:
1767:
1761:
1750:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1745:
1739:
1737:
1736:
1735:
1734:
1727:
1725:
1724:
1723:
1722:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1712:
1711:
1705:
1703:
1702:
1701:
1700:
1694:
1692:
1691:
1690:
1689:
1683:
1681:
1680:
1679:
1678:
1669:
1667:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1658:
1656:
1655:
1654:
1653:
1646:
1644:
1643:
1642:
1641:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1623:
1621:
1620:
1619:
1618:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1601:
1599:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1590:
1588:
1587:
1586:
1585:
1579:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1574:
1568:
1566:
1565:
1564:
1563:
1557:
1555:
1554:
1553:
1552:
1546:
1544:
1543:
1542:
1541:
1535:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1519:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1514:
1507:
1496:
1494:
1493:
1492:
1491:
1485:
1483:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1473:
1471:
1470:
1469:
1468:
1462:
1460:
1459:
1458:
1457:
1440:
1438:
1437:
1436:
1435:
1429:
1427:
1426:
1425:
1424:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1413:
1412:
1405:
1403:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1394:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1389:
1380:
1378:
1377:
1376:
1375:
1369:
1367:
1366:
1365:
1364:
1358:
1356:
1355:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1336:
1334:
1333:
1332:
1331:
1321:
1319:
1318:
1317:
1316:
1314:
1303:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1292:
1290:
1289:
1288:
1287:
1245:
1225:
1224:
1216:
1214:
1213:
1212:
1211:
1181:
1146:
1135:
1124:
1123:
1112:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1101:
1099:
1098:
1097:
1096:
1090:
1088:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1079:
1077:
1076:
1075:
1074:
1068:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1057:
1055:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1046:
1044:
1043:
1042:
1041:
1038:
1027:
1025:
1024:
1023:
1022:
1016:
1014:
1013:
1012:
1011:
1005:
1003:
1002:
1001:
1000:
994:
991:
990:
989:
986:
983:
981:
980:
979:
978:
977:
961:
958:
957:
956:
953:
950:
948:
947:
946:
945:
944:
939:
937:
936:
935:
931:
929:
928:
927:
926:
921:
919:
918:
917:
913:
910:
909:
908:
907:
902:
900:
899:
898:
894:
891:
890:
889:
888:
880:
878:
877:
876:
875:
866:
864:
863:
862:
861:
855:
853:
852:
851:
850:
849:to 10 parts of
844:
842:
841:
840:
839:
833:
831:
830:
829:
828:
822:
820:
819:
818:
817:
816:. The ratio of
803:
799:
794:
790:
783:
780:
779:
778:
776:
772:
768:
762:
760:
759:
758:
757:
738:
736:
735:
734:
730:
727:
726:
725:
724:
719:
717:
716:
715:
711:
708:
707:
706:
705:
696:
694:
693:
692:
691:
681:
679:
678:
677:
676:
670:
668:
667:
666:
665:
643:
641:
640:
639:
638:
628:
626:
625:
624:
623:
617:
615:
614:
613:
612:
606:
604:
603:
602:
601:
591:
589:
588:
587:
586:
576:
574:
573:
572:
571:
556:
550:
544:for this work.
510:
508:
507:
506:
505:
491:
489:
488:
487:
486:
469:
467:
466:
465:
464:
454:
452:
451:
450:
449:
443:
441:
440:
439:
438:
432:
430:
429:
428:
427:
401:
399:
398:
397:
396:
381:
376:
348:
346:
345:
344:
343:
333:
331:
330:
329:
328:
315:
313:
312:
311:
310:
307:nuclear testing
300:
298:
297:
296:
295:
289:
287:
286:
285:
284:
278:
276:
275:
274:
273:
261:throughout the
256:
254:
253:
252:
251:
245:
243:
242:
241:
240:
230:
228:
227:
226:
225:
212:
210:
209:
208:
207:
201:
199:
198:
197:
196:
186:
184:
183:
182:
181:
174:
172:
171:
170:
169:
159:
157:
156:
155:
154:
148:
146:
145:
144:
143:
137:
135:
134:
133:
132:
114:
112:
111:
110:
109:
91:
89:
88:
87:
86:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9683:
9681:
9673:
9672:
9667:
9662:
9657:
9652:
9647:
9642:
9637:
9632:
9627:
9622:
9617:
9607:
9606:
9600:
9599:
9597:
9596:
9591:
9586:
9581:
9576:
9571:
9566:
9564:New Chronology
9561:
9555:
9553:
9552:Related topics
9549:
9548:
9546:
9545:
9539:
9537:
9533:
9532:
9530:
9529:
9523:
9521:
9517:
9516:
9513:
9512:
9510:
9509:
9504:
9499:
9494:
9489:
9483:
9481:
9475:
9474:
9472:
9471:
9466:
9461:
9456:
9455:
9454:
9449:
9444:
9439:
9429:
9427:Paleomagnetism
9424:
9419:
9414:
9409:
9404:
9399:
9393:
9391:
9382:
9374:
9373:
9370:
9369:
9367:
9366:
9361:
9356:
9351:
9346:
9341:
9335:
9333:
9329:
9328:
9326:
9325:
9320:
9314:
9312:
9308:
9307:
9305:
9304:
9299:
9294:
9288:
9286:
9279:
9273:
9272:
9270:
9269:
9264:
9259:
9254:
9249:
9243:
9241:
9235:
9234:
9231:
9230:
9228:
9227:
9225:New Earth Time
9222:
9217:
9216:
9215:
9210:
9200:
9195:
9190:
9185:
9179:
9177:
9173:
9172:
9170:
9169:
9164:
9154:
9149:
9134:
9132:
9128:
9127:
9125:
9124:
9119:
9114:
9109:
9104:
9098:
9096:
9092:
9091:
9089:
9088:
9086:Revised Julian
9083:
9078:
9073:
9067:
9065:
9058:
9052:
9051:
9048:
9047:
9045:
9044:
9039:
9034:
9029:
9023:
9021:
9015:
9014:
9012:
9011:
9006:
9004:Lists of kings
9001:
8996:
8994:Canon of Kings
8991:
8985:
8983:
8977:
8976:
8974:
8973:
8972:
8971:
8966:
8961:
8956:
8946:
8936:
8931:
8926:
8921:
8919:Before present
8916:
8911:
8906:
8901:
8896:
8891:
8886:
8877:
8870:
8864:
8862:
8853:
8851:
8850:
8845:
8840:
8834:
8831:
8830:
8828:
8827:
8822:
8817:
8816:
8815:
8805:
8800:
8795:
8789:
8787:
8783:
8782:
8777:
8775:
8774:
8767:
8760:
8752:
8746:
8745:
8739:
8733:
8727:
8722:
8716:
8707:
8700:
8699:External links
8697:
8695:
8694:
8681:
8663:
8657:
8644:
8635:
8629:
8612:
8606:
8592:
8590:
8587:
8584:
8583:
8571:
8559:
8547:
8535:
8528:
8503:
8496:
8478:
8466:
8454:
8437:
8430:
8405:
8398:
8379:
8360:
8315:Water Research
8301:
8274:(2): 166β171.
8254:
8223:(2): 328β341.
8203:
8160:
8145:
8094:
8087:
8065:
8044:(2): 555β559.
8021:
8009:
7968:
7966:, pp. 148β149.
7956:
7954:, pp. 207β209.
7944:
7942:, pp. 103β105.
7932:
7877:
7862:
7831:(4): 779β820.
7810:
7779:(4): 759β778.
7758:
7699:
7668:(4): 725β757.
7645:
7633:
7621:
7606:
7594:
7582:
7575:
7553:
7541:
7516:
7509:
7491:
7484:
7462:
7416:
7409:
7391:
7376:
7361:
7341:
7334:
7308:
7302:978-9810223151
7301:
7283:
7276:
7258:
7251:
7233:
7218:
7206:
7204:, pp. 103β104.
7194:
7187:
7166:
7145:
7118:
7106:
7099:
7081:
7058:
7035:
7023:
6998:
6987:
6976:
6968:
6955:
6943:
6881:
6866:
6859:
6826:
6819:
6801:
6789:
6782:
6741:
6716:
6694:
6679:
6660:
6643:
6623:
6598:
6554:
6547:
6524:
6499:
6492:
6474:
6467:
6449:
6434:
6427:
6409:
6397:
6343:
6331:
6297:(4): 237β240.
6274:
6225:
6194:"Introduction"
6184:
6149:
6134:
6117:
6090:
6056:
6044:
6032:
6020:
5991:(2): 185β217.
5968:
5962:978-0750304221
5961:
5938:
5911:(1): 278β305.
5885:
5848:
5828:
5821:
5796:
5765:
5736:
5699:(2): 535β548.
5682:
5670:
5615:
5572:
5537:
5492:
5465:
5450:
5431:(6): 777β779.
5415:
5399:
5398:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5316:
5307:
5296:
5284:
5274:
5265:
5252:
5238:
5228:
5220:
5209:
5189:
5180:
5168:
5165:
5162:
5159:
5153:
5150:
5145:
5129:
5117:
5109:
5098:
5087:
5075:
5066:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5050:
5049:
5044:
5039:
5038:
5037:
5032:
5021:
5014:
5011:
4962:
4949:
4936:
4923:
4910:
4879:
4872:
4863:
4849:
4837:
4834:
4784:
4781:
4776:palaeobotanist
4746:
4743:
4741:
4738:
4730:carbon dioxide
4716:
4713:
4668:
4667:Interpretation
4665:
4663:
4660:
4647:
4646:
4642:
4640:
4636:
4629:
4626:
4615:
4597:
4589:
4588:
4585:before present
4581:
4577:
4575:
4559:
4539:
4537:
4533:
4526:
4510:
4490:
4486:
4473:
4470:
4391:
4380:
4361:Main article:
4358:
4355:
4330:
4316:
4307:
4304:
4283:
4280:
4277:
4269:
4266:
4263:
4260:
4257:
4235:
4224:
4210:
4199:
4188:
4177:
4166:
4152:
4141:
4130:
4119:
4108:
4097:
4086:
4075:
4064:
4041:Main article:
4038:
4035:
4027:
4016:
4005:
3997:
3986:
3975:
3964:
3957:
3946:
3935:
3920:
3909:
3898:
3883:
3872:
3861:
3850:
3834:
3831:
3823:
3800:
3788:
3769:
3758:
3740:
3732:Geiger counter
3727:
3724:
3715:
3704:
3693:
3682:
3671:
3660:
3649:
3637:
3622:
3610:
3607:
3595:
3571:
3556:
3545:
3533:
3525:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3517:
3513:
3498:
3483:
3476:
3473:Hydroxyproline
3465:
3459:
3456:
3443:
3432:Main article:
3429:
3426:
3418:
3409:
3406:
3390:
3379:
3368:
3357:
3346:
3320:
3309:
3298:
3279:
3268:
3260:
3257:
3249:
3238:
3226:
3215:
3203:
3200:
3191:
3178:
3167:
3156:
3144:
3135:
3132:
3124:
3113:
3105:
3102:
3093:
3082:
3071:
3060:
3049:
3038:
3027:
3016:
3005:
2994:
2983:
2972:
2957:
2946:
2935:
2921:
2910:
2899:
2892:
2885:
2878:
2871:
2857:
2849:
2838:
2826:
2818:
2809:
2808:
2805:
2799:
2790:
2789:
2786:
2780:
2771:
2770:
2767:
2761:
2760:
2757:
2751:
2750:
2747:
2743:
2742:
2739:
2733:
2732:
2729:
2722:
2712:
2705:
2684:
2673:
2650:
2647:
2643:
2639:
2636:
2624:
2617:
2603:
2589:
2577:
2570:
2556:
2542:
2534:
2530:
2525:
2513:
2489:
2478:
2467:
2456:
2445:
2434:
2423:
2412:
2401:
2390:
2379:
2368:
2357:
2343:
2332:
2321:
2310:
2299:
2288:
2277:
2269:
2266:
2254:
2243:
2232:
2221:
2210:
2195:
2180:
2168:
2157:
2146:
2135:
2123:
2105:
2094:
2082:
2071:
2060:
2052:
2042:
2027:
2016:
2005:
1994:
1983:
1972:
1961:
1950:
1930:
1919:
1907:
1896:
1877:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1859:contamination.
1857:
1850:
1839:
1832:
1829:
1822:
1811:
1796:
1785:
1774:
1763:Main article:
1760:
1757:
1749:
1738:
1726:
1715:
1704:
1693:
1682:
1668:
1657:
1645:
1633:
1622:
1611:
1600:
1589:
1578:
1567:
1556:
1545:
1534:
1518:
1506:
1503:
1495:
1484:
1472:
1461:
1439:
1428:
1416:
1404:
1393:
1379:
1368:
1357:
1349:
1335:
1320:
1312:
1302:
1291:
1268:
1265:
1262:
1258:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1215:
1179:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1138:
1134:
1131:
1117:will be left.
1111:
1100:
1089:
1078:
1067:
1056:
1045:
1037:
1034:
1026:
1015:
1004:
992:
982:
959:
949:
938:
930:
920:
911:
901:
892:
879:
865:
854:
843:
832:
821:
810:photosynthesis
800:CO + OH β CO
781:
761:
737:
728:
718:
709:
695:
680:
669:
642:
627:
616:
605:
590:
575:
552:Main article:
549:
546:
509:
490:
468:
453:
442:
431:
412:Serge A. Korff
400:
380:
377:
375:
372:
347:
332:
325:beta radiation
314:
299:
288:
277:
255:
244:
229:
221:for his work.
211:
200:
185:
173:
158:
147:
136:
129:photosynthesis
125:carbon dioxide
113:
90:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
9682:
9671:
9668:
9666:
9665:Radioactivity
9663:
9661:
9658:
9656:
9653:
9651:
9648:
9646:
9643:
9641:
9638:
9636:
9633:
9631:
9628:
9626:
9623:
9621:
9618:
9616:
9613:
9612:
9610:
9595:
9592:
9590:
9587:
9585:
9582:
9580:
9577:
9575:
9572:
9570:
9567:
9565:
9562:
9560:
9557:
9556:
9554:
9550:
9544:
9541:
9540:
9538:
9534:
9528:
9525:
9524:
9522:
9518:
9508:
9505:
9503:
9500:
9498:
9495:
9493:
9490:
9488:
9485:
9484:
9482:
9480:
9476:
9470:
9467:
9465:
9462:
9460:
9457:
9453:
9450:
9448:
9445:
9443:
9440:
9438:
9435:
9434:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9425:
9423:
9420:
9418:
9415:
9413:
9410:
9408:
9405:
9403:
9400:
9398:
9395:
9394:
9392:
9390:
9386:
9383:
9381:
9378:Chronological
9375:
9365:
9362:
9360:
9357:
9355:
9352:
9350:
9347:
9345:
9344:Geochronology
9342:
9340:
9337:
9336:
9334:
9330:
9324:
9321:
9319:
9316:
9315:
9313:
9309:
9303:
9300:
9298:
9295:
9293:
9290:
9289:
9287:
9283:
9280:
9278:
9277:Geologic time
9274:
9268:
9265:
9263:
9262:Metonic cycle
9260:
9258:
9257:Galactic year
9255:
9253:
9250:
9248:
9245:
9244:
9242:
9240:
9236:
9226:
9223:
9221:
9218:
9214:
9211:
9209:
9206:
9205:
9204:
9201:
9199:
9198:ISO week date
9196:
9194:
9191:
9189:
9186:
9184:
9181:
9180:
9178:
9174:
9168:
9165:
9162:
9158:
9155:
9153:
9150:
9147:
9143:
9139:
9136:
9135:
9133:
9129:
9123:
9120:
9118:
9115:
9113:
9110:
9108:
9105:
9103:
9100:
9099:
9097:
9093:
9087:
9084:
9082:
9079:
9077:
9074:
9072:
9069:
9068:
9066:
9062:
9059:
9057:
9053:
9043:
9040:
9038:
9035:
9033:
9030:
9028:
9025:
9024:
9022:
9020:
9016:
9010:
9007:
9005:
9002:
9000:
8997:
8995:
8992:
8990:
8987:
8986:
8984:
8982:
8978:
8970:
8967:
8965:
8962:
8960:
8957:
8955:
8952:
8951:
8950:
8947:
8944:
8940:
8937:
8935:
8932:
8930:
8927:
8925:
8922:
8920:
8917:
8915:
8912:
8910:
8907:
8905:
8904:Byzantine era
8902:
8900:
8897:
8895:
8892:
8890:
8887:
8885:
8881:
8878:
8876:
8875:
8871:
8869:
8866:
8865:
8863:
8861:
8860:Calendar eras
8857:
8854:
8849:
8846:
8844:
8841:
8839:
8836:
8835:
8832:
8826:
8823:
8821:
8818:
8814:
8811:
8810:
8809:
8806:
8804:
8801:
8799:
8796:
8794:
8791:
8790:
8788:
8784:
8780:
8773:
8768:
8766:
8761:
8759:
8754:
8753:
8750:
8743:
8740:
8737:
8734:
8731:
8728:
8726:
8723:
8720:
8717:
8715:
8711:
8708:
8706:
8703:
8702:
8698:
8688:
8684:
8678:
8671:
8670:
8664:
8660:
8654:
8650:
8645:
8641:
8636:
8632:
8626:
8621:
8620:
8613:
8609:
8603:
8599:
8594:
8593:
8588:
8581:, pp. 93β162.
8580:
8579:Walker (2005)
8575:
8572:
8568:
8567:Walker (2005)
8563:
8560:
8556:
8555:Walker (2005)
8551:
8548:
8544:
8539:
8536:
8531:
8525:
8520:
8519:
8510:
8508:
8504:
8499:
8493:
8489:
8482:
8479:
8475:
8470:
8467:
8463:
8458:
8455:
8451:
8446:
8444:
8442:
8438:
8433:
8427:
8422:
8421:
8412:
8410:
8406:
8401:
8395:
8391:
8383:
8380:
8376:
8371:
8369:
8367:
8365:
8361:
8356:
8352:
8347:
8342:
8337:
8332:
8328:
8324:
8320:
8316:
8312:
8305:
8302:
8297:
8293:
8289:
8285:
8281:
8277:
8273:
8269:
8265:
8258:
8255:
8249:
8244:
8239:
8234:
8230:
8226:
8222:
8218:
8214:
8207:
8204:
8199:
8195:
8191:
8187:
8183:
8179:
8175:
8171:
8164:
8161:
8157:
8156:Bowman (1995)
8152:
8150:
8146:
8141:
8137:
8133:
8129:
8125:
8121:
8117:
8113:
8109:
8105:
8098:
8095:
8090:
8084:
8080:
8076:
8069:
8066:
8060:
8055:
8051:
8047:
8043:
8039:
8032:
8025:
8022:
8018:
8013:
8010:
7994:
7990:
7983:
7977:
7975:
7973:
7969:
7965:
7960:
7957:
7953:
7952:Walker (2005)
7948:
7945:
7941:
7940:Aitken (1990)
7936:
7933:
7928:
7924:
7920:
7916:
7912:
7908:
7904:
7900:
7897:(5708): 363.
7896:
7892:
7888:
7881:
7878:
7874:
7873:Walker (2005)
7869:
7867:
7863:
7857:
7852:
7847:
7842:
7838:
7834:
7830:
7826:
7822:
7814:
7811:
7805:
7800:
7795:
7790:
7786:
7782:
7778:
7774:
7770:
7762:
7759:
7754:
7750:
7745:
7740:
7735:
7730:
7726:
7722:
7718:
7714:
7710:
7703:
7700:
7694:
7689:
7684:
7679:
7675:
7671:
7667:
7663:
7659:
7652:
7650:
7646:
7642:
7637:
7634:
7630:
7625:
7622:
7618:
7617:Aitken (1990)
7613:
7611:
7607:
7603:
7598:
7595:
7591:
7590:Bowman (1995)
7586:
7583:
7578:
7572:
7567:
7566:
7557:
7554:
7550:
7549:Bowman (1995)
7545:
7542:
7529:
7523:
7521:
7517:
7512:
7506:
7502:
7495:
7492:
7487:
7481:
7476:
7475:
7466:
7463:
7457:
7452:
7448:
7444:
7440:
7436:
7432:
7425:
7423:
7421:
7417:
7412:
7406:
7402:
7395:
7392:
7387:
7380:
7377:
7373:
7372:Aitken (1990)
7368:
7366:
7362:
7357:
7356:
7348:
7346:
7342:
7337:
7331:
7327:
7323:
7319:
7312:
7309:
7304:
7298:
7294:
7287:
7284:
7279:
7273:
7269:
7262:
7259:
7254:
7248:
7244:
7237:
7234:
7230:
7229:Walker (2005)
7225:
7223:
7219:
7215:
7214:Walker (2005)
7210:
7207:
7203:
7198:
7195:
7190:
7184:
7180:
7176:
7170:
7167:
7163:
7162:Aitken (1990)
7158:
7156:
7154:
7152:
7150:
7146:
7142:
7141:Bowman (1995)
7137:
7135:
7133:
7131:
7129:
7127:
7125:
7123:
7119:
7115:
7114:Bowman (1995)
7110:
7107:
7102:
7096:
7092:
7085:
7082:
7078:
7077:Aitken (1990)
7073:
7071:
7069:
7067:
7065:
7063:
7059:
7055:
7054:Bowman (1995)
7050:
7048:
7046:
7044:
7042:
7040:
7036:
7032:
7031:Aitken (1990)
7027:
7024:
7019:
7015:
7011:
7007:
6959:
6956:
6952:
6947:
6944:
6939:
6935:
6930:
6925:
6920:
6915:
6911:
6907:
6903:
6899:
6895:
6888:
6886:
6882:
6878:
6873:
6871:
6867:
6862:
6856:
6852:
6848:
6844:
6840:
6836:
6830:
6827:
6822:
6816:
6812:
6805:
6802:
6798:
6793:
6790:
6785:
6779:
6775:
6771:
6766:
6765:
6756:
6754:
6752:
6750:
6748:
6746:
6742:
6738:
6737:Bowman (1995)
6733:
6731:
6729:
6727:
6725:
6723:
6721:
6717:
6704:
6698:
6695:
6691:
6690:Aitken (1990)
6686:
6684:
6680:
6676:
6675:Bowman (1995)
6671:
6669:
6667:
6665:
6661:
6657:
6652:
6650:
6648:
6644:
6639:
6632:
6630:
6628:
6624:
6620:
6619:Bowman (1995)
6615:
6613:
6611:
6609:
6607:
6605:
6603:
6599:
6593:
6588:
6584:
6580:
6576:
6572:
6568:
6561:
6559:
6555:
6550:
6544:
6540:
6533:
6531:
6529:
6525:
6521:
6520:Bowman (1995)
6516:
6514:
6512:
6510:
6508:
6506:
6504:
6500:
6495:
6489:
6485:
6478:
6475:
6470:
6464:
6460:
6453:
6450:
6445:
6438:
6435:
6430:
6424:
6420:
6413:
6410:
6406:
6401:
6398:
6392:
6387:
6382:
6377:
6373:
6369:
6365:
6361:
6357:
6350:
6348:
6344:
6340:
6335:
6332:
6320:
6316:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6285:
6278:
6275:
6270:
6266:
6261:
6256:
6252:
6248:
6245:(4845): 984.
6244:
6240:
6236:
6229:
6226:
6221:
6217:
6212:
6207:
6203:
6199:
6195:
6188:
6185:
6180:
6176:
6172:
6168:
6164:
6160:
6153:
6150:
6146:
6145:Bowman (1995)
6141:
6139:
6135:
6131:
6130:Aitken (1990)
6126:
6124:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6113:Aitken (1990)
6109:
6107:
6105:
6103:
6101:
6099:
6097:
6095:
6091:
6086:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6067:
6060:
6057:
6053:
6052:Aitken (1990)
6048:
6045:
6041:
6036:
6033:
6029:
6024:
6021:
6016:
6012:
6007:
6002:
5998:
5994:
5990:
5986:
5982:
5975:
5973:
5969:
5964:
5958:
5954:
5947:
5945:
5943:
5939:
5934:
5930:
5926:
5922:
5918:
5914:
5910:
5906:
5899:
5892:
5890:
5886:
5880:
5875:
5871:
5867:
5863:
5859:
5855:
5837:
5835:
5833:
5829:
5824:
5818:
5814:
5810:
5806:
5800:
5797:
5781:
5780:
5772:
5770:
5766:
5755:on 2018-10-12
5754:
5750:
5746:
5740:
5737:
5732:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5698:
5694:
5686:
5683:
5679:
5678:Aitken (1990)
5674:
5671:
5666:
5662:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5646:
5642:
5638:
5634:
5630:
5626:
5619:
5616:
5611:
5607:
5603:
5599:
5595:
5591:
5587:
5583:
5576:
5573:
5568:
5564:
5560:
5556:
5552:
5548:
5541:
5538:
5534:
5533:Bowman (1995)
5529:
5527:
5525:
5523:
5521:
5519:
5517:
5515:
5513:
5511:
5509:
5507:
5505:
5503:
5501:
5499:
5497:
5493:
5482:
5478:
5472:
5470:
5466:
5462:
5457:
5455:
5451:
5446:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5419:
5416:
5412:
5407:
5405:
5401:
5397:
5394:
5390:
5386:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5368:
5364:
5357:
5350:
5345:
5341:
5337:
5334:for external
5333:
5328:
5320:
5288:
5285:
5278:
5275:
5269:
5266:
5262:
5256:
5253:
5248:
5247:fractionation
5242:
5239:
5232:
5229:
5203:
5202:fractionation
5199:
5193:
5190:
5184:
5181:
5166:
5163:
5160:
5157:
5151:
5148:
5143:
5121:
5118:
5079:
5076:
5070:
5067:
5061:
5058:
5052:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5042:Geochronology
5040:
5036:
5033:
5031:
5028:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5016:
5012:
5010:
5008:
5004:
5000:
4996:
4992:
4988:
4984:
4980:
4976:
4972:
4968:
4955:
4942:
4929:
4916:
4902:
4900:
4896:
4891:
4887:
4870:
4856:
4843:
4835:
4833:
4830:
4825:
4824:palaeographic
4821:
4816:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4789:
4782:
4780:
4777:
4773:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4744:
4739:
4737:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4721:
4714:
4712:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4687:
4685:
4681:
4680:Thomas Higham
4676:
4674:
4666:
4661:
4659:
4656:
4652:
4641:
4635:
4634:
4633:
4624:
4608:
4606:
4586:
4582:
4576:
4557:
4538:
4532:
4531:
4530:
4508:
4483:
4481:
4480:
4471:
4469:
4466:
4462:
4459:
4454:
4453:Miyake events
4450:
4446:
4442:
4438:
4434:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4413:
4409:
4405:
4399:
4369:
4364:
4356:
4354:
4350:
4347:
4343:
4338:
4323:
4305:
4303:
4299:
4281:
4278:
4264:
4261:
4258:
4255:
4242:
4217:
4159:
4057:
4055:
4049:
4044:
4036:
4034:
3929:
3892:
3839:
3832:
3830:
3817:
3813:
3807:
3781:
3779:
3752:
3747:
3733:
3726:Beta counting
3725:
3723:
3615:
3608:
3606:
3602:
3588:
3584:
3580:
3563:
3523:
3518:
3514:
3511:
3507:
3503:
3499:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3481:
3477:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3464:contaminants.
3462:
3461:
3457:
3455:
3453:
3435:
3427:
3425:
3408:Contamination
3407:
3405:
3403:
3399:
3340:
3336:
3333:
3329:
3292:
3288:
3259:Other effects
3258:
3256:
3209:
3201:
3199:
3134:Marine effect
3133:
3131:
3103:
3101:
2986:
2977:
2966:
2928:
2864:
2807:β32β° to β13β°
2806:
2792:
2791:
2787:
2773:
2772:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2759:β30β° to β22β°
2758:
2756:
2753:
2752:
2749:β22β° to β17β°
2748:
2745:
2744:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2734:
2723:
2720:
2719:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2667:
2662:
2648:
2645:
2641:
2637:
2634:
2622:
2615:
2601:
2587:
2575:
2568:
2554:
2540:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2511:
2503:
2501:
2350:
2267:
2265:
2263:
2204:
2188:
2116:
2114:
2051:
2036:
1943:
1939:
1886:
1870:
1863:
1858:
1833:
1830:
1805:
1804:
1803:
1766:
1758:
1756:
1675:
1511:
1504:
1502:
1450:
1446:
1386:
1346:
1344:
1329:
1311:
1284:
1266:
1260:
1256:
1250:
1246:
1239:
1236:
1233:
1230:
1222:
1209:
1205:
1201:
1197:
1193:
1189:
1185:
1178:
1173:
1157:
1154:
1151:
1147:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1129:
1121:
1118:
1035:
1033:
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971:
966:
886:
872:
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788:
754:
752:
748:
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659:
655:
651:
636:
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569:
565:
561:
555:
547:
545:
543:
539:
535:
531:
527:
522:
520:
519:
503:
499:
484:
479:
477:
476:Willard Libby
462:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
394:
390:
386:
378:
373:
371:
369:
365:
361:
357:
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271:
266:
264:
238:
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220:
194:
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122:
107:
103:
99:
84:
83:Willard Libby
80:
75:
73:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
49:carbon dating
46:
39:
34:
30:
19:
9507:Stratigraphy
9452:Uraniumβlead
9446:
9422:Lichenometry
9220:Winter count
9203:Mesoamerican
9131:Astronomical
8949:Mesoamerican
8934:Sothic cycle
8909:Seleucid era
8894:Bosporan era
8882: /
8872:
8820:Paleontology
8687:the original
8668:
8648:
8639:
8618:
8597:
8574:
8569:, pp. 57β77.
8562:
8557:, pp. 77β79.
8550:
8538:
8517:
8487:
8481:
8469:
8462:Libby (1965)
8457:
8452:, pp. 38β42.
8419:
8389:
8382:
8377:, pp. 34β37.
8318:
8314:
8304:
8271:
8267:
8257:
8220:
8216:
8206:
8173:
8169:
8163:
8158:, pp. 53β54.
8107:
8103:
8097:
8078:
8073:Mook, W.G.;
8068:
8041:
8037:
8024:
8012:
8000:. Retrieved
7993:the original
7988:
7959:
7947:
7935:
7894:
7890:
7880:
7875:, pp. 35β37.
7828:
7824:
7813:
7776:
7772:
7761:
7744:11585/770537
7716:
7712:
7702:
7665:
7661:
7643:, pp. 53β54.
7636:
7624:
7597:
7592:, pp. 40β41.
7585:
7564:
7556:
7544:
7532:. Retrieved
7500:
7494:
7473:
7465:
7438:
7434:
7400:
7394:
7385:
7379:
7374:, pp. 82β85.
7354:
7317:
7311:
7292:
7286:
7267:
7261:
7242:
7236:
7209:
7197:
7178:
7169:
7164:, pp. 76β78.
7143:, pp. 31β37.
7116:, pp. 37β42.
7109:
7090:
7084:
7079:, pp. 86β89.
7033:, pp. 85β86.
7026:
7009:
7005:
6958:
6953:, pp. 74β75.
6946:
6901:
6897:
6877:Libby (1965)
6842:
6829:
6810:
6804:
6792:
6763:
6707:. Retrieved
6697:
6677:, pp. 43β49.
6658:, pp. 50β52.
6637:
6621:, pp. 16β20.
6574:
6570:
6538:
6522:, pp. 24β27.
6483:
6477:
6458:
6452:
6443:
6437:
6418:
6412:
6407:, pp. 26β27.
6400:
6363:
6359:
6334:
6322:. Retrieved
6294:
6290:
6277:
6242:
6238:
6228:
6201:
6197:
6187:
6165:(12): 1825.
6162:
6158:
6152:
6132:, pp. 92β95.
6115:, pp. 61β66.
6076:
6072:
6059:
6047:
6040:Libby (1965)
6035:
6023:
5988:
5984:
5952:
5908:
5904:
5861:
5857:
5812:
5799:
5787:. Retrieved
5778:
5757:. Retrieved
5753:the original
5748:
5745:"The method"
5739:
5696:
5692:
5685:
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5581:
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5480:
5428:
5424:
5418:
5366:
5362:
5344:CC-BY-SA-3.0
5331:
5324:
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5277:
5268:
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5241:
5231:
5192:
5183:
5120:
5078:
5069:
5060:
5009:chronology.
4903:
4892:
4888:
4869:data made a
4857:
4841:
4839:
4817:
4794:
4772:Ernst Antevs
4748:
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4529:BP", where:
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4441:macrofossils
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4037:Calculations
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1872:Atmospheric
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701:is created:
650:stratosphere
557:
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526:James Arnold
523:
516:
480:
420:Philadelphia
389:Samuel Ruben
385:Martin Kamen
382:
360:last ice age
322:
270:fossil fuels
267:
223:
76:
52:
48:
44:
43:
29:
9447:Radiocarbon
9122:Dual dating
8981:Regnal year
8959:Short Count
8899:Bostran era
8880:Anno Domini
8813:Big History
8793:Archaeology
8321:: 236β244.
8038:Radiocarbon
7989:Radiocarbon
7856:10023/20464
7825:Radiocarbon
7773:Radiocarbon
7719:(4): 1095.
7713:Radiocarbon
7693:10023/20465
7662:Radiocarbon
7435:Radiocarbon
6898:Radiocarbon
6571:Radiocarbon
6360:Radiocarbon
6204:(8): 1β19.
5858:Radiocarbon
5789:11 December
5693:Radiocarbon
4751:Pleistocene
4684:Neanderthal
4655:Radiocarbon
4623:Radiocarbon
4610:Calibrated
4479:Radiocarbon
4445:speleothems
4357:Calibration
4286: years
3928:Faraday cup
3891:accelerator
3510:fulvic acid
2495:, known as
662:nitrogen-14
658:cosmic rays
654:troposphere
558:In nature,
356:archaeology
102:cosmic rays
69:radioactive
65:radiocarbon
9609:Categories
9042:Vietnamese
8954:Long Count
8889:Anno Mundi
8884:Common Era
8786:Key topics
8779:Chronology
8346:1893/25135
8248:1893/28684
7804:1893/31560
6929:10289/7799
6709:2 February
6391:10289/8955
6324:9 December
5759:2016-10-09
5486:2016-10-09
5321:References
5282:estimated.
5236:different.
4829:castor oil
4759:Two Creeks
4643:confidence
4637:date-range
4632:", where:
4630:confidence
4627:date-range
4534:laboratory
4487:laboratory
3812:becquerels
3776:addition,
3617:Measuring
3502:humic acid
3495:conchiolin
3328:hard water
2262:bomb pulse
1942:Hans Suess
1271:8267 years
1200:reciprocal
1062:, but the
1036:Principles
652:and upper
524:Libby and
374:Background
368:Bronze Age
164:undergoes
9579:Year zero
9559:Chronicle
9502:Seriation
9437:Leadβlead
9311:Standards
9292:Deep time
9252:Ephemeris
9138:Lunisolar
9102:Gregorian
9095:Gregorian
9056:Calendars
9019:Era names
8989:Anka year
8868:Human Era
8798:Astronomy
8476:, p. 288.
8198:140692260
8140:205239973
8002:1 January
7927:128466798
7753:219087775
7604:, p. 155.
7534:27 August
6799:, p. 125.
6341:, p. 287.
6319:128628228
5731:134723966
5463:, p. 269.
5413:, p. 268.
5393:Q55120317
5385:2470-6345
5346:license (
5338:in 2017 (
5198:standards
5167:τ
5164:⋅
4795:In 1947,
4708:Neolithic
4700:driftwood
4279:⋅
4265:
4259:−
3644:decaying
3487:aragonite
3352:, so the
3287:limestone
2765:C4 plants
2755:C3 plants
2646:×
2635:−
2512:δ
1267:⋅
1240:
1204:mean-life
1155:λ
1152:−
814:biosphere
795:β CO + O
598:carbon-14
583:carbon-13
568:Carbon-12
554:Carbon-14
461:deuterons
408:half-life
383:In 1939,
364:Neolithic
263:biosphere
193:half-life
96:) in the
9574:Timeline
9412:Ice core
9285:Concepts
9032:Japanese
8964:Tzolk'in
8929:Egyptian
8730:IntChron
8545:, p. 13.
8464:, p. 84.
8355:28284090
8296:90232027
8132:25143113
8077:(1985).
8019:, p. 29.
7919:15661996
7631:, p. 59.
7231:, p. 23.
7216:, p. 20.
6938:59269731
6837:(2010).
6269:27534222
6220:25146610
6147:, p. 42.
6054:, p. 59.
6042:, p. 42.
6030:, p. 33.
6015:27366605
5933:59153548
5811:(2011).
5665:15407879
5610:17746224
5389:Wikidata
5369:(1): 6.
5250:account.
5013:See also
4801:Dead Sea
4755:Holocene
4696:trackway
4439:, plant
3816:SI units
3469:collagen
2976:collagen
2724:Typical
2721:Material
2628:standard
970:electron
564:isotopes
106:nitrogen
9584:Floruit
9332:Methods
9193:Iranian
9161:Islamic
9027:Chinese
8838:Periods
8808:History
8803:Geology
8589:Sources
8323:Bibcode
8276:Bibcode
8225:Bibcode
8178:Bibcode
8112:Bibcode
8046:Bibcode
7911:3840039
7891:Science
7833:Bibcode
7781:Bibcode
7721:Bibcode
7670:Bibcode
7443:Bibcode
6906:Bibcode
6879:, p. 6.
6579:Bibcode
6368:Bibcode
6299:Bibcode
6247:Bibcode
6167:Bibcode
6006:4853109
5913:Bibcode
5866:Bibcode
5701:Bibcode
5657:1677049
5637:Bibcode
5629:Science
5590:Bibcode
5582:Science
5555:Bibcode
5433:Bibcode
4842:Science
4813:Essenes
4809:Aramaic
4797:scrolls
4726:methane
4704:bitumen
4408:schwung
3583:benzene
3491:calcite
3428:Samples
2793:Marine
1202:of the
747:neutron
538:Science
534:Sneferu
518:Science
498:methane
391:of the
379:History
9650:Carbon
9380:dating
9176:Others
9142:Hebrew
9037:Korean
8848:Epochs
8742:XRONOS
8736:p3k14c
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4433:varves
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3954:δ
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3508:, and
3506:humins
3489:or as
3402:Azores
3398:Furnas
2980:δ
2969:δ
2930:Since
2889:δ
2882:δ
2875:δ
2868:δ
2846:δ
2815:δ
2731:range
2726:δ
2709:δ
2702:δ
2681:δ
2581:sample
2498:δ
2203:banned
1175:where
987:ν
954:ν
751:proton
581:) and
560:carbon
121:oxygen
9213:Aztec
9157:Lunar
9152:Solar
9146:Hindu
9009:Limmu
8969:Haab'
8924:Hijri
8719:OxCal
8690:(PDF)
8673:(PDF)
8292:S2CID
8194:S2CID
8136:S2CID
8034:(PDF)
7996:(PDF)
7985:(PDF)
7923:S2CID
7907:JSTOR
7749:S2CID
6934:S2CID
6315:S2CID
6287:(PDF)
6265:S2CID
6216:JSTOR
6069:(PDF)
5929:S2CID
5901:(PDF)
5783:(PDF)
5727:S2CID
5653:JSTOR
5359:(PDF)
5161:0.693
5053:Notes
5007:varve
4871:world
4578:range
4527:range
4437:coral
4426:same.
3915:(and
3452:humic
3332:humus
2113:below
1210:, of
791:C + O
635:decay
530:Zoser
426:with
9208:Maya
8943:Yuga
8843:Eras
8825:Time
8677:ISBN
8653:ISBN
8625:ISBN
8602:ISBN
8524:ISBN
8492:ISBN
8426:ISBN
8394:ISBN
8351:PMID
8128:PMID
8083:ISBN
8004:2014
7915:PMID
7571:ISBN
7536:2013
7505:ISBN
7480:ISBN
7405:ISBN
7330:ISBN
7297:ISBN
7272:ISBN
7247:ISBN
7183:ISBN
7095:ISBN
6993:and
6855:ISBN
6815:ISBN
6778:ISBN
6711:2015
6543:ISBN
6488:ISBN
6463:ISBN
6423:ISBN
6326:2017
6011:PMID
5957:ISBN
5817:ISBN
5791:2017
5661:PMID
5606:PMID
5381:ISSN
5349:2018
4807:and
4749:The
4728:and
4572:year
4523:year
4282:8033
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3970:and
3856:and
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8054:doi
7899:doi
7895:307
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7799:hdl
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7739:hdl
7729:doi
7688:hdl
7678:doi
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6924:hdl
6914:doi
6847:doi
6770:doi
6587:doi
6386:hdl
6376:doi
6307:doi
6255:doi
6243:195
6206:doi
6175:doi
6081:doi
6001:PMC
5993:doi
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5921:doi
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5717:hdl
5709:doi
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5633:110
5598:doi
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