Radioisotope thermoelectric generator

1935:, but has limited use because of its very short half-life of 138 days. A half-gram sample of Po reaches temperatures of over 500 °C (900 °F). As Po is a pure alpha-emitter and does not emit significant gamma or X-ray radiation, the shielding requirements are as low as those for Pu. While the short half-life also reduces the time during which accidental release to the environment is a concern, polonium-210 is extremely radiotoxic if ingested and can cause significant harm even in chemically inert forms, which pass through the digestive tract as a "foreign object". A common route of production (whether accidental or deliberate) is neutron irradiation of 499:(2003–current) proposal from NASA. An RTG using Am was proposed for this type of mission in 2002. This could support mission extensions up to 1000 years on the interstellar probe, because the power output would decline more slowly over the long term than plutonium. Other isotopes for RTG were also examined in the study, looking at traits such as watt/gram, half-life, and decay products. An interstellar probe proposal from 1999 suggested using three advanced radioisotope power sources (ARPS). The RTG electricity can be used for powering scientific instruments and communication to Earth on the probes. One mission proposed using the electricity to power 2383:. The absence of plutonium-238 contamination in atmospheric and seawater sampling confirmed the assumption that the cask is intact on the seabed. The cask is expected to contain the fuel for at least 10 half-lives (870 years). The US Department of Energy has conducted seawater tests and determined that the graphite casing, which was designed to withstand reentry, is stable and no release of plutonium should occur. Subsequent investigations have found no increase in the natural background radiation in the area. The Apollo 13 accident represents an extreme scenario because of the high re-entry velocities of the craft returning from 131: 2189:) during the first 3.5 minutes following launch was estimated at 1 in 1,400; the chances of a release later in the ascent into orbit were 1 in 476; after that the likelihood of an accidental release fell off sharply to less than 1 in a million. If an accident which had the potential to cause contamination occurred during the launch phases (such as the spacecraft failing to reach orbit), the probability of contamination actually being caused by the RTGs was estimated at 1 in 10. The launch was successful and 454:

auxiliary power supplies (such as rechargeable batteries) may be needed to meet peak demand, and adequate cooling must be provided at all times including the pre-launch and early flight phases of a space mission. While spectacular failures like a nuclear meltdown or explosion are impossible with an RTG, there is still a risk of radioactive contamination if the rocket explodes, the device reenters the atmosphere and disintegrates, terrestrial RTGs are damaged by storms or seasonal ice, or are vandalized.

1371: 31: 7002: 6065: 2300: 7026: 2056:. In the year 2000, 23 years after production, the radioactive material inside the RTG had decreased in power by 16.6%, i.e. providing 83.4% of its initial output; starting with a capacity of 470 W, after this length of time it would have a capacity of only 392 W. A related loss of power in the Voyager RTGs is the degrading properties of the bi-metallic thermocouples used to convert 2156:

their designed operational lives of ten years. Most of these RTGs likely no longer function, and may need to be dismantled. Some of their metal casings have been stripped by metal hunters, despite the risk of radioactive contamination. Transforming the radioactive material into an inert form reduces the danger of theft by people unaware of the radiation hazard (such as happened in the

1386: 7038: 6053: 7014: 6077: 2111: 1031: 2035: 2334:-9a RTG was ejected into the atmosphere over the Southern Hemisphere where it burned up, and traces of plutonium-238 were detected in the area a few months later. This incident resulted in the NASA Safety Committee requiring intact reentry in future RTG launches, which in turn impacted the design of RTGs in the pipeline. 1974:

density of Am is only one-fourth that of Pu, and Am produces more penetrating radiation through decay chain products than Pu and needs more shielding. Its shielding requirements in a RTG are the third lowest: only Pu and Po require less. With a current global shortage of Pu, Am is being studied as RTG fuel by

2375:. It carried a SNAP-27 RTG containing 44,500 Ci (1,650 TBq) of plutonium dioxide in a graphite cask on the lander leg which survived reentry into the Earth's atmosphere intact, as it was designed to do, the trajectory being arranged so that it would plunge into 6–9 kilometers of water in the 2184:

However, this event is not considered likely with current RTG cask designs. For instance, the environmental impact study for the Cassini–Huygens probe launched in 1997 estimated the probability of contamination accidents at various stages in the mission. The probability of an accident occurring which

1809:

has been used by the Soviet Union in terrestrial RTGs. Sr decays by β emission, with minor γ emission. While its half life of 28.8 years is much shorter than that of Pu, it also has a lower decay energy with a power density of 0.46 watts per gram. Because the energy output is lower it reaches lower

1973:

is a candidate isotope with much greater availability than Pu. Although Am has a half-life of 432 years, which is about five times longer than that of Pu and could hypothetically power a device for centuries, missions with more than 10 years were not the subject of the research until 2019. The power

1798:

2018. The US agencies involved desire to begin the production of the material at a rate of 300 to 400 grams (11 to 14 oz) per year. If this plan is funded, the goal would be to set up automation and scale-up processes in order to produce an average of 1.5 kg (3.3 lb) per year by 2025.

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The difference in the emission rates of the metal and the oxide is due mainly to the alpha, neutron reaction with the oxygen-18 and oxygen-17 present in the oxide. The normal amount of oxygen-18 present in the natural form is 0.204% while that of oxygen-17 is 0.037%. The reduction of the oxygen-17

2009:

is the isotope with the lowest atomic number that primarily decays by spontaneous fission, a process that releases many times more energy than alpha decay. Compared to plutonium-238, curium-250 provides about a quarter of the power density, but 95 times the half-life (~8300 years vs. ~87 years). As

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containing normal oxygen by a factor of five was discovered during the cardiac pacemaker research at Mound Laboratory in 1966, due in part to the Mound Laboratory's experience with production of stable isotopes beginning in 1960. For production of the large heat sources the shielding required would

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compared to 6 MeV), up to a 10% energy gain is attainable, which translates into a reduction of the Pu needed per mission. The idea was proposed to NASA in 2012 for the yearly NASA NSPIRE competition, which translated to Idaho National Laboratory at the Center for Space Nuclear Research (CSNR)

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Unlike the other three isotopes discussed in this section, Pu must be specifically synthesized and is not abundant as a nuclear waste product. At present only Russia has maintained high-volume production, while in the US, no more than 50 g (1.8 oz) were produced in total between 2013 and

534:

Known spacecraft/nuclear power systems and their fate. Systems face a variety of fates, for example, Apollo's SNAP-27 were left on the Moon. Some other spacecraft also have small radioisotope heaters, for example each of the Mars Exploration Rovers have a 1 watt radioisotope heater. Spacecraft use

453:

at a non-adjustable and steadily decreasing rate that depends only on the amount of fuel isotope and its half-life. In an RTG, heat generation cannot be varied with demand or shut off when not needed and it is not possible to save more energy for later by reducing the power consumption. Therefore,

386:

to ensure a very long "battery life". As of 2004, about ninety were still in use. By the end of 2007, the number was reported to be down to just nine. The Mound Laboratory Cardiac Pacemaker program began on 1 June 1966, in conjunction with NUMEC. When it was recognized that the heat source would

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blocks. These two materials are corrosion- and heat-resistant. Surrounding the graphite blocks is an aeroshell, designed to protect the entire assembly against the heat of reentering the Earth's atmosphere. The plutonium fuel is also stored in a ceramic form that is heat-resistant, minimising the

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that had been stripped of their shielding; two of the woodsmen were later hospitalized with severe radiation burns after carrying the sources on their backs. The units were eventually recovered and isolated. There are approximately 1,000 such RTGs in Russia, all of which have long since exceeded

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mountain in India in 1965 when it was stored in a rock formation near the top of the mountain in the face of a snowstorm before it could be installed to power a CIA remote automated station collecting telemetry from the Chinese rocket testing facility. The seven capsules were carried down the

482:

is achieved which increases the neutron background and produces energy from fission reactions. Although the number of fissions produced in the RTG is very small (making their gamma radiation negligible), because each fission reaction releases over 30 times more energy than each alpha decay

2143:(Sr). They are very reliable and provide a steady source of power. Most have no protection, not even fences or warning signs, and the locations of some of these facilities are no longer known due to poor record keeping. In one instance, the radioactive compartments were opened by a thief. 2393:

was launched by Russia in 1996, but failed to leave Earth orbit, and re-entered the atmosphere a few hours later. The two RTGs onboard carried in total 200 g of plutonium and are assumed to have survived reentry as they were designed to do. They are thought to now lie somewhere in a

2252:

of plutonium-238 undergoes the same number of radioactive decays per second as 1 tonne of plutonium-239. Since the morbidity of the two isotopes in terms of absorbed radioactivity is almost exactly the same, plutonium-238 is around 275 times more toxic by weight than plutonium-239.

1037:*** not really an RTG, the SNAP-10A used enriched uranium fuel, zirconium hydride as a moderator, liquid sodium potassium alloy coolant, and was activated or deactivated with beryllium reflectors Reactor heat fed a thermoelectric conversion system for electrical production. 2180:

For spacecraft, the main concern is that if an accident were to occur during launch or a subsequent passage of a spacecraft close to Earth, harmful material could be released into the atmosphere; therefore their use in spacecraft and elsewhere has attracted controversy.

174:

in 2013. Jordan and Birden worked on an Army Signal Corps contract (R-65-8- 998 11-SC-03-91) beginning on 1 January 1957, to conduct research on radioactive materials and thermocouples suitable for the direct conversion of heat to electrical energy using

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during passage. Mechanical degradation of "pebbles" or larger objects into fine dust is more likely and could disperse the material over a wider area, however this would also reduce the risk of any single exposure event resulting in a high dose.

462:

Due to the shortage of plutonium-238, a new kind of RTG assisted by subcritical reactions has been proposed. In this kind of RTG, the alpha decay from the radioisotope is also used in alpha-neutron reactions with a suitable element such as

2415:

mountain onto a glacier by an avalanche and never recovered. It is most likely that they melted through the glacier and were pulverized, whereupon the Pu–Zr alloy fuel oxidized soil particles that are moving in a plume under the glacier.

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of 0.57 watts per gram, and exceptionally low gamma and neutron radiation levels. Pu has the lowest shielding requirements. Only three candidate isotopes meet the last criterion (not all are listed above) and need less than 25 mm of

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to block the radiation. Pu (the best of these three) needs less than 2.5 mm, and in many cases, no shielding is needed in a Pu RTG, as the casing itself is adequate. Pu has become the most widely used fuel for RTGs, in the form of

2164:

form). However, a sufficiently chemically skilled malicious actor could extract a volatile species from inert material and/or achieve a similar effect of dispersion by physically grinding the inert matrix into a fine dust.

1573:

under any circumstances, RTGs of arbitrary size and power could be assembled from them if enough material can be produced. In general, however, potential applications for such large-scale RTGs are more the domain of

1557:, a costly and time-consuming process, is to be avoided, this has to be factored in, too. While historically RTGs have been rather small, there is in theory nothing preventing RTGs from reaching into the Megawatt 4828: 3387: 2098:-based designs. This would mean that an otherwise similar RTG would generate 25% more power at the beginning of a mission and at least 50% more after seventeen years. NASA hopes to use the design on the next 2814: 515:

A typical RTG is powered by radioactive decay and features electricity from thermoelectric conversion, but for the sake of knowledge, some systems with some variations on that concept are included here.

506:

A power enhancement for radioisotope heat sources based on a self-induced electrostatic field has been proposed. According to the authors, enhancements of 5-10% could be attainable using beta sources.

2064:; the RTGs were working at about 67% of their total original capacity instead of the expected 83.4%. By the beginning of 2001, the power generated by the Voyager RTGs had dropped to 315 W for 1753: n/sec/g of plutonium-238. This emission rate is relatively high compared to the neutron emission rate of plutonium-238 metal. The metal containing no light element impurities emits roughly 445:, so power can be varied with demand or shut off (almost) entirely for maintenance. However, care is needed to avoid uncontrolled operation at dangerously high power levels, or even explosion or 1982:

announced the generation of usable electricity. An advantage over Pu is that it is produced as nuclear waste and is nearly isotopically pure. Prototype designs of Am RTGs expect 2–2.2 W

3285: 1441:

can be calculated if the energy of radioactive radiation or the mass loss before and after radioactive decay is known. Energy release per decay is proportional to power production per

2045:

Most RTGs use Pu, which decays with a half-life of 87.7 years. RTGs using this material will therefore diminish in power output by a factor of 1 – (1/2), which is 0.787%, per year.

2458:

passes through the digestive tract of humans or other animals unchanged, but the animal or human who ingested it would still receive a significant radiation dose to the sensitive

1994:

can be achieved. Americium-241 is currently used in small quantities in household smoke detectors and thus its handling and properties are well-established. However, it decays to

387:

not remain intact during cremation, the program was cancelled in 1972 because there was no way to completely ensure that the units would not be cremated with their users' bodies.

5016: 2256:

The alpha radiation emitted by either isotope will not penetrate the skin, but it can irradiate internal organs if plutonium is inhaled or ingested. Particularly at risk is the

2200:

To minimize the risk of the radioactive material being released, the fuel is stored in individual modular units with their own heat shielding. They are surrounded by a layer of

7135: 4543: 2076: 595: 3820:"Report by Minister of Atomic Energy Alexander Rumyantsev at the IAEA conference "Security of Radioactive Sources," Vienna, Austria. March 11th 2003 (Internet Archive copy)" 2836: 4838: 407:. Radioactive decay of the fuel produces heat. It is the temperature difference between the fuel and the heat sink that allows the thermocouples to generate electricity. 355:

also used RTGs to power remotely-located Arctic equipment, and the US government has used hundreds of such units to power remote stations globally. Sensing stations for

3525: 1410:) of a given quantity is inversely proportional to half-life. An isotope with twice the half-life and the same energy per decay will release power at half the rate per 5719: 2337:

The Nimbus B-1 weather satellite, whose launch vehicle was deliberately destroyed shortly after launch on 21 May 1968 because of erratic trajectory. Launched from the

2934: 3384: 4181: 2806: 2749: 4523: 2868: 1879:, it is of sufficient hardness to withstand some forms of accidental release from its shielding without too fine dispersal of dust. The downside to using SrTiO 4845: 4276: 2493: 84:

has no moving parts and is ideal for deployment in remote and harsh environments for extended periods with no risk of parts wearing out or malfunctioning.

3564: 1406:

must be long enough so that it will release energy at a relatively constant rate for a reasonable amount of time. The amount of energy released per time (

426:. It is made of two kinds of metal or semiconductor material. If they are connected to each other in a closed loop and the two junctions are at different 4611: 3334: 2472: 1765:

and oxygen-18 present in the plutonium dioxide will result in a much lower neutron emission rate for the oxide; this can be accomplished by a gas phase O

87:

RTGs are usually the most desirable power source for unmaintained situations that need a few hundred watts (or less) of power for durations too long for

7076: 5114: 2450:. However, the Strontium titanate perovskite used is resistant to all likely forms of environmental degradation and cannot melt or dissolve in water. 1529:

like caesium or strontium respectively, relatively complex (and heavy) chemical compounds have to be used. For example, strontium is commonly used as

3692: 3495: 437:

use very different nuclear reactions. Nuclear power reactors (including the miniaturized ones used in space) perform controlled nuclear fission in a

3819: 3215: 992: 3154: 6115: 2896: 2331: 2304: 1954:

as a coolant in liquid metal reactors. However, if a sufficient demand for polonium-210 exists, its extraction could be worthwhile similar to how

744: 6735: 529: 188: 2387:(the region between Earth's atmosphere and the Moon). This accident has served to validate the design of later-generation RTGs as highly safe. 122:

long after the productive life of the unit. The expense of RTGs tends to limit their use to niche applications in rare or special situations.

7151: 6454: 4090: 3293: 3069: 430:, an electric current will flow in the loop. Typically a large number of thermocouples are connected in series to generate a higher voltage. 2985: 1506:

are the most often cited candidate isotopes, but 43 more isotopes out of approximately 1,300 were considered at the beginning in the 1950s.

5360: 5277: 2686: 6921: 5353: 4823: 4788: 2778: 778: 214: 195: 4219: 5975: 5559: 4199: 4061: 2679: 2288: 1553:

is almost equal parts Cs-135 and Cs-137, plus significant amounts of stable Cs-133 and, in "young" spent fuel, short lived Cs-134. If

4169: 4158: 4132: 3921: 3891: 2127:

Radioactive materials contained in RTGs are dangerous and can even be used for malicious purposes. They are not useful for a genuine

4639: 4518: 4144: 4009: 3794: 3742: 3180: 4234: 4225: 3928:, Appendix D, Summary of tables of safety analysis results, Table D-1 on page D-4, see conditional probability column for GPHS-RTG 3902: 2864:"Advanced Subcritical Assistance Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator: An Imperative Solution for the Future of NASA Exploration" 2845: 336:

type) were built in the Soviet Union for a wide variety of purposes. The lighthouses were not maintained for many years after the

130: 6862: 5869: 5734: 4269: 2236:. A consequence of the shorter half-life is that plutonium-238 is about 275 times more radioactive than plutonium-239 (i.e. 17.3 1887:

part of the material does not produce any decay heat. Starting from the oxide or the native metal, one pathway to obtaining SrTiO

496: 1565:

is orders of magnitude below the mass needed to produce such amounts of power. As Sr-90, Cs-137 and other lighter radionuclides

7449: 5812: 5646: 5484: 5248: 5126: 4783: 4644: 3612:"European Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs) and Radioisotope Heater Units (RHUs) for Space Science and Exploration" 2523: 2434:

of radiation. Several of these units have been illegally dismantled for scrap metal (resulting in the complete exposure of the

1562: 1468:

secondary radiation production and therefore requires heavy shielding. Isotopes must not produce significant amounts of gamma,

1045: 337: 171: 7042: 4118: 1537:

by about a factor of 2. Furthermore, depending on the source, isotopic purity may not be obtainable. Plutonium extracted from

7459: 6872: 5802: 5651: 5109: 3093: 2794: 702: 306: 3953: 2943: 7069: 5576: 5409: 4833: 4761: 3969: 3184: 6081: 3581: 6402: 5919: 5656: 5365: 5119: 4616: 4178: 2621: 2595: 2502: 1034:) reactor was a fast reactor which used thermocouples based on semiconductors to convert heat directly into electricity 6220: 7454: 6961: 6108: 6069: 5982: 5954: 5911: 5876: 5714: 5541: 5479: 5304: 5208: 5094: 4562: 4262: 3697: 3541: 2115: 1979: 4214: 4127: 5762: 5441: 4959: 4916: 4768: 2964: 2026:

most of them), a different shielding material would have to be added in applications where neutrons are a concern.

5414: 348:

and international supporters to decommission the RTGs in the lighthouses, and by 2021, all RTGs had been removed.

7464: 7175: 6867: 6725: 6387: 6332: 6312: 6307: 6057: 5739: 5348: 5131: 4025: 2338: 2268: 2174: 2144: 1484:

The first two criteria limit the number of possible fuels to fewer than thirty atomic isotopes within the entire

1785:-exchanged showing that an exchange will take place regardless of the previous heat treatment history of the PuO 7062: 6796: 6140: 5987: 5829: 5729: 5641: 4850: 4736: 4696: 4508: 3561: 2508: 2439: 2186: 1745:). However, plutonium(IV) oxide containing a natural abundance of oxygen emits neutrons at the rate of roughly 3357: 5608: 2442:

cooperative threat reduction program has expressed concern that material from the Beta-M RTGs can be used by

1883:

instead of the native metal is that its production requires energy. It also reduces power density, as the TiO

1561:

range of power. However, for such applications actinides are less suitable than lighter radioisotopes as the

7272: 7249: 6956: 6941: 6337: 6317: 5859: 5834: 5448: 5225: 5031: 4954: 4911: 4894: 4855: 4778: 2291:

led recovery operations and organized medical care. Two remaining RTG cores are yet to be found as of 2022.

1773:

particles precipitated as a hydroxide were used to show that large production batches could be effectively O

600: 479: 352: 329: 270: 1863:, a rapidly dividing tissue), it is usually not employed in pure form in RTGs. The most common form is the 7394: 7301: 6469: 6365: 6292: 6282: 6163: 6101: 5724: 5011: 4555: 3506: 2287:

were unknowingly exposed to it and injured; one of them died in May 2004 from the injuries sustained. The

1864: 1761: n/sec/g of plutonium-238. These neutrons are produced by the spontaneous fission of plutonium-238. 1570: 1342: 525: 472: 423: 81: 3826: 3219: 2394:

northeast–southwest running oval 320 km long by 80 km wide which is centred 32 km east of

7375: 7343: 7147: 7141: 6409: 6200: 6018: 5754: 5709: 5171: 5099: 5026: 5021: 4986: 4773: 4741: 4528: 4455: 3863: 3345: 3158: 2346: 2099: 1951: 1811: 1575: 1437:). Density and weight are not as important for terrestrial use, unless there are size restrictions. The 170:

scientists Kenneth (Ken) C. Jordan (1921-2008) and John Birden (1918-2011). They were inducted into the

3242: 2900: 2438:

source), fallen into the ocean, or have defective shielding due to poor design or physical damage. The

17: 7326: 7129: 6857: 6830: 6808: 6715: 6648: 6397: 6327: 6272: 5929: 5903: 5704: 5689: 5006: 4964: 4800: 4706: 4634: 4193:"Assessment of Plutonium-238 Production Alternatives: Briefing for Nuclear Energy Advisory Committee" 3623: 3405:"Assessment of Plutonium-238 Production Alternatives: Briefing for Nuclear Energy Advisory Committee" 2877: 2532: 2526: – Radioisotope generator based on a Stirling engine powered by a large radioisotope heater unit 2177:: if the container holding the fuel leaks, the radioactive material may contaminate the environment. 1852: 1526: 659: 608: 383: 376: 345: 6936: 6879: 6801: 6774: 6459: 6322: 6297: 6028: 5864: 5839: 5624: 5218: 5086: 4889: 4746: 4513: 4475: 4308: 2514: 2323: 2157: 1900: 1892: 1738: 1542: 783: 749: 356: 302: 218: 203: 7025: 4192: 3659: 3496:"RTG: A Source of Power; A History of the Radioisotopic Thermoelectric Generators Fueled at Mound" 3404: 1911:. If desired, the strontium titanate product can then be formed into a ceramic-like aggregate via 7363: 7262: 7193: 7018: 6916: 6894: 6884: 6720: 6008: 5744: 5581: 5508: 5319: 4969: 4939: 4923: 4906: 4550: 4440: 4388: 4338: 4285: 3641: 2989: 2753: 2715: 1837: 1554: 1538: 1530: 1273: 492: 403:

are placed in the walls of the container, with the outer end of each thermocouple connected to a

396: 180: 167: 162:

because of the heat generated by radioactive decay (primarily α). The initial output is 62 watts.

149: 143: 4049: 1855:

and a so-called "bone seeker" that accumulates in bone-tissue due to its chemical similarity to

1517:

this is of little concern as their oxides are usually inert enough (and can be transformed into

360: 3719: 1448:

Radiation must be of a type easily absorbed and transformed into thermal radiation, preferably

7358: 7310: 6818: 6643: 6504: 6464: 6434: 6419: 6392: 6302: 6205: 6145: 6135: 5076: 4869: 4756: 4731: 4669: 4626: 4470: 4465: 4460: 4303: 4096: 4086: 4005: 3676: 3475: 3318: 3075: 3065: 3034: 2459: 2342: 2272: 2148: 2061: 2023: 2015: 1932: 1485: 1469: 999: 540: 450: 419: 411: 4166:, Agency for Toxic substances and Disease Registry, U.S. Public Health Service, December 1990 471:

is produced. Because the system is working with a criticality close to but less than 1, i.e.

7316: 7267: 6977: 6951: 6946: 6926: 6911: 6752: 6742: 6522: 6449: 6185: 5924: 4979: 4944: 4701: 4691: 4579: 4567: 4408: 4403: 4393: 4383: 4378: 4078: 3631: 3467: 3455: 3434: 3324:. Washington, DC: U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. June 1994. OTA-BP-ETI-129. 3057: 3024: 2659: 2161: 2087: 2018:. As lead, which is an excellent shielding material against gamma rays and beta ray induced 1904: 1876: 1510: 446: 184: 5564: 5404: 5343: 1370: 379:

documents suggesting that the US had deployed at least 100–150 during the 1970s and 1980s.

309:

satellites. By comparison, only a few space vehicles have been launched using full-fledged

30: 7384: 7218: 7213: 7203: 7085: 7006: 6987: 6901: 6668: 6583: 6439: 6429: 6414: 6372: 6277: 6227: 6178: 5892: 5822: 5782: 5309: 5236: 5064: 5050: 4974: 4949: 4795: 4588: 4480: 4445: 4323: 4313: 4191:

Miotla, Dennis (Deputy Assistant Secretary for Nuclear Power Deployment) (21 April 2008).

4185: 4148: 3957: 3925: 3918: 3906: 3895: 3888: 3679: 3568: 3391: 2690: 2451: 2279:

RTG cores were dumped behind, unlabeled and improperly dismanteled, near the Soviet-built

2233: 2229: 2011: 1550: 1509:

The table below does not necessarily give power densities for the pure material but for a

1457: 1407: 1375: 1041: 645: 434: 310: 259: 57: 5314: 4141: 3243:"Use of nuclear space technology of direct energy conversion for terrestrial application" 382:

In the past, small "plutonium cells" (very small Pu-powered RTGs) were used in implanted

3627: 3188: 2881: 7331: 7321: 7239: 7223: 6982: 6931: 6906: 6710: 6675: 6608: 6598: 6514: 6494: 6489: 6474: 6444: 6424: 6382: 6360: 6342: 6242: 6232: 6168: 5797: 5777: 5772: 5767: 5517: 5424: 5393: 5375: 4899: 4805: 4751: 4716: 4649: 4596: 4450: 4343: 4328: 4318: 4249: 3899: 3850: 2478: 2128: 2057: 2053: 2019: 1923:

Some prototype RTGs, first built in 1958 by the US Atomic Energy Commission, have used

1908: 1896: 1733: 1541:

has a low share of Pu-238, so plutonium-238 for use in RTGs is usually purpose-made by

1465: 1449: 893: 862: 815: 468: 438: 415: 298: 274: 77: 1836:

and is thus available in large quantities at a relatively low price if extracted from

206:. One of the first terrestrial uses of RTGs was in 1966 by the US Navy at uninhabited 7443: 7403: 7198: 7169: 7030: 6889: 6849: 6813: 6769: 6695: 6658: 6576: 6499: 6267: 6262: 6215: 6195: 5962: 5253: 4659: 4500: 3768: 3693:"UK scientists generate electricity from rare element to power future space missions" 3645: 2431: 2380: 2225: 2217: 2152: 1995: 1970: 1872: 1728: 1724: 1546: 1503: 1491: 1453: 1415: 1010: 666: 371:, and a larger number of such units have been deployed both on the ground and on the 290: 253: 247: 199: 159: 135: 119: 112: 69: 35: 2553: 2160:

in an abandoned Cs-137 source where the caesium was present in easily water-soluble

7424: 6786: 6730: 6680: 6663: 6484: 6257: 6190: 5528: 4664: 4606: 4533: 4485: 4355: 2960: 2484: 2376: 2368: 2357: 2299: 2284: 2276: 2237: 2140: 2139:

constructed many uncrewed lighthouses and navigation beacons powered by RTGs using

2136: 2080: 2038: 2014:

but not entirely negligible) some applications require a further shielding against

1950:. It is this accidental production that is cited as an argument against the use of 1928: 1924: 1806: 1522: 1499: 1438: 1390: 1105: 652: 400: 368: 325: 294: 265: 207: 176: 108: 61: 4163: 3029: 3012: 3949: 2863: 399:: the main component is a sturdy container of a radioactive material (the fuel). 7277: 6791: 6757: 6631: 6621: 6564: 6547: 6532: 6479: 6377: 5939: 5586: 5176: 4683: 4654: 4239: 2326:

navigation satellite failed to achieve orbit and burned up on re-entry north of

1860: 1477: 1442: 1411: 500: 491:

RTG have been proposed for use on realistic interstellar precursor missions and

442: 427: 372: 100: 73: 3973: 2574: 2185:

caused radioactive release from one or more of its three RTGs (or from its 129

7282: 7257: 6825: 6747: 6685: 6653: 6593: 6287: 3636: 3611: 3588: 3079: 3061: 2447: 2423: 2411: 2327: 2280: 2210: 2132: 2006: 1534: 1473: 828: 819: 229: 223: 104: 92: 65: 3937: 3138: 3038: 2774: 2625: 2599: 2094:), which can function with a smaller temperature difference than the current 449:. Chain reactions do not occur in RTGs. Heat is produced through spontaneous 328:

built 1,007 RTGs to power uncrewed lighthouses and navigation beacons on the

7352: 7208: 7107: 7100: 6835: 6762: 6636: 6616: 6588: 6527: 5934: 5297: 5287: 4415: 4368: 4333: 4100: 2443: 2364: 2312: 2308: 2241: 2221: 2095: 1912: 1403: 1385: 713: 706: 612: 464: 404: 286: 282: 278: 277:

landers and for the scientific experiments left on the Moon by the crews of

241: 235: 96: 88: 56:), sometimes referred to as a radioisotope power system (RPS), is a type of 5792: 3264: 1810:

temperatures than Pu, which results in lower RTG efficiency. Sr has a high

488:

in 2013 for studies of feasibility. However the essentials are unmodified.

344:

or by the natural forces of ice/storm/sea. In 1996, a project was begun by

217:(SNAP) units were used for probes that traveled far from the Sun rendering 179:

as the heat source. RTGs were developed in the US during the late 1950s by

3241:

Chitaykin, V.I; Meleta, Ye.A.; Yarygin, V.I.; Mikheyev, A.S.; Tulin, S.M.

2318:

There have been several known accidents involving RTG-powered spacecraft:

6571: 6552: 6537: 6237: 6023: 5817: 5666: 5661: 5601: 5270: 5198: 5181: 5166: 5141: 4884: 4373: 2384: 2353: 2257: 2249: 2205: 1871:) which is chemically nigh-inert and has a high melting point. While its 1518: 1514: 1419: 1398:

The radioactive material used in RTGs must have several characteristics:

964: 640: 318: 158:

blanket for several minutes and then removing the blanket. The pellet is

155: 4153: 4082: 3245:. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna (Austria). pp. 178–185 2790: 91:, batteries, or generators to provide economically, and in places where 7124: 6705: 6247: 5992: 5944: 5807: 5787: 5186: 5161: 4601: 4490: 4432: 4420: 4398: 4363: 3439: 3422: 2407: 2395: 2390: 2201: 2049: 2034: 1955: 1947: 1856: 1434: 1425:

For spaceflight use, the fuel must produce a large amount of power per

697: 341: 4220:

NASA JPL briefing, Expanding Frontiers with Radioisotope Power Systems

3795:"IAEA Bulletin Volume 48, No.1 – Remote Control: Decommissioning RTGs" 3743:"NASA Celebrates 45 Years of Voyager 1, Enabled by Radioisotope Power" 3479: 2942:. Applied Physics Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University. Archived from 2110: 6252: 6173: 6124: 5596: 5591: 5571: 5551: 5536: 5419: 5156: 5136: 5104: 4254: 3769:"Spacecraft 'Nuclear Batteries' Could Get a Boost from New Materials" 2427: 2419: 2194: 2084: 1495: 1461: 1430: 1089: 364: 333: 4250:

Idaho National Laboratory MMRTG page with photo-based "virtual tour"

3950:

Mortality and Morbidity Risk Coefficients for Selected Radionuclides

3471: 2664: 2653: 2209:

risk of vaporization and aerosolization. The ceramic is also highly

5146: 2652:

Blanke, B. C.; Birden, J. H.; Jordan, K. C.; Murphy, E. L. (1960).

2496: – NASA project aimed at producing a nuclear reactor for space 2248:

compared to 0.063 curies (2.3 GBq)/g). For instance, 3.6

1422:

with shorter half-lives could be used for specialized applications.

154:

missions. This photo was taken after insulating the pellet under a

7054: 6013: 5970: 5633: 5489: 5292: 5282: 3423:"A Review on Thermoelectric Generators: Progress and Applications" 2435: 2399: 2349:

five months later and no environmental contamination was detected.

2298: 2261: 2109: 2033: 1959: 1384: 1369: 926: 896: 29: 3526:

NASA Doesn't Have Enough Nuclear Fuel For Its Deep Space Missions

3492:

See the Pu-238 heat sources fabricated at Mound, revised table:

3421:

Zoui, M. A.; Bentouba, S.; Stocholm, J. G.; Bourouis, M. (2020).

2844:. Miamisburg, Ohio: Monsanto Research Corporation. Archived from 1907:

at high temperature produces the desired strontium titanate plus

6626: 6559: 6542: 6210: 5494: 5383: 5193: 5151: 3056:. New York: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 269. 2487: – Type of nuclear battery which generates electric current 2372: 2330:. The 17,000 Ci (630 TBq) plutonium metal fuel in its 2260:, the surface of which is likely to absorb the isotope, and the 2245: 1990:

RTGs design but practical testing shows that only 1.3–1.9 W

1927:. This isotope provides phenomenal power density (pure Po emits 1426: 932: 584: 314: 7058: 6097: 5889: 5061: 5048: 4258: 2517: – Atom that has excess nuclear energy, making it unstable 340:. Some of the RTG units disappeared during this time—either by 5467: 5331: 3663: 3013:"Self-induced electrostatic-boosted radioisotope heat sources" 2723: 2481: – Devices generating electricity from radioisotope decay 1975: 503:, calling this method radioisotope electric propulsion (REP). 484: 3542:

Plutonium supply for NASA missions faces long-term challenges

2716:"The nuclear lighthouses built by the Soviets in the Arctic" 2371:

reentered the atmosphere carrying an RTG and burned up over

2224:

of 87.74 years, in contrast to the 24,110 year half-life of

1958:

is economically recovered from the heavy water moderator in

4222:– gives RTG information and a link to a longer presentation 4075:

Spies in the Himalayas: Secret Missions and Perilous Climbs

3994:

The RTGs were returned to Mound for disassembly and the PuO

2511: – Device that provides heat through radioactive decay 2072:. By 2022, these numbers had dropped to around 220 W. 332:

by the late 1980s. Many different types of RTGs (including

194:

The first RTG launched into space by the United States was

95:

are not practical. RTGs have been used as power sources in

2894:

Design of a high power (1 kWe), subcritical, power source

2264:, where the isotope will collect and become concentrated. 27:

Electrical generator that uses heat from radioactive decay

6093: 4179:

Expanding Frontiers with Radioisotope Power Systems (PDF)

3919:

Cassini Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement

3889:

Cassini Final Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement

3938:

Physical, Nuclear, and Chemical, Properties of Plutonium

2622:"National Inventors Hall of Fame entry for John Birden" 2528:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2519:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2498:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2489:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

3851:

Nuclear-powered NASA craft to zoom by Earth on Tuesday

2596:"National Inventors Hall of Fame entry for Ken Jordan" 3454:

Chadwell, C. B.; Elswick, T. C. (24 September 1971).

1418:

used in RTGs are therefore several decades, although

213:

A common RTG application is spacecraft power supply.

103:, and uncrewed remote facilities such as a series of 2322:

A launch failure on 21 April 1964 in which the U.S.

2079:(MMRTG) in which the thermocouples would be made of 7416: 7393: 7374: 7342: 7300: 7291: 7232: 7186: 7161: 7136:

Infrared interferometer spectrometer and radiometer

7117: 7092: 6970: 6846: 6694: 6607: 6513: 6353: 6154: 6001: 5953: 5910: 5852: 5753: 5683: 5632: 5623: 5550: 5516: 5507: 5466: 5459: 5439: 5392: 5374: 5330: 5235: 5217: 5085: 4999: 4932: 4877: 4868: 4816: 4724: 4715: 4682: 4625: 4587: 4578: 4499: 4431: 4354: 4296: 2077:

multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator

1859:(once in the bones it can significantly damage the 1789:. This lowering of the neutron emission rate of PuO 1769:

exchange method. Regular production batches of PuO

395:The design of an RTG is simple by the standards of 210:in Alaska. RTGs were used at that site until 1995. 5017:Blue Ribbon Commission on America's Nuclear Future 4215:NASA Radioisotope Power Systems website – RTG page 3605: 3603: 3601: 3521: 3519: 3286:"Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators - Bellona" 2807:"Nuclear pacemaker still energized after 34 years" 1998:, the most chemically mobile among the actinides. 1472:or penetrating radiation in general through other 441:. The rate of the reaction can be controlled with 4077:. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. 3900:Links to other chapters and associated documents 3660:Plutonium Shortage Could Stall Space Exploration 2655:Nuclear Battery-Thermocouple Type Summary Report 2647: 2645: 2643: 191:. The project was led by Dr. Bertram C. Blanke. 3358:"The Actinide Research Quarterly: winter 94-95" 3094:"Mars Science Laboratory Launch Nuclear Safety" 535:different amounts of material, for example MSL 375:than have been used on spacecraft, with public 289:Moon landing was aborted, its RTG rests in the 3682:, 9 February 2012, retrieved 13 November 2014. 3666:, 28 September 2009, retrieved 2 November 2010 3571:, 1 September 1996, Retrieved 20 January 2012. 3319:"Power Sources for Remote Arctic Applications" 2475: – Electrochemical device to convert heat 2341:, its SNAP-19 RTG containing relatively inert 2041:-powered Soviet RTGs in dilapidated condition. 1777:-exchanged on a routine basis. High-fired PuO 1578:, microreactors or non-nuclear power sources. 7070: 6109: 5720:Small sealed transportable autonomous (SSTAR) 4270: 3587:. Argonne National Laboratory. Archived from 2869:Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 2709: 2707: 2705: 2703: 2505: – Electric battery using nuclear energy 2283:. Three villagers from the nearby village of 1521:further increasing their stability), but for 118:Safe use of RTGs requires containment of the 8: 4245:Idaho National Laboratory – Producer of RTGs 3775:. Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 13 October 2016 3011:Arias, F. J.; Parks, G. T. (November 2015). 2345:was recovered intact from the seabed in the 2311:identical to the one lost in the reentry of 1794:have been prohibitive without this process. 1044:power device that runs on radioisotope (see 3972:. Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from 3720:"Voyager Mission Operations Status Reports" 3503:Mound Laboratory Document MLM-MU-82-72-0006 3385:NPE chapter 3 Radioisotope Power Generation 2988:. NASA/JPL. 5 February 2002. Archived from 2494:Kilopower Reactor Using Stirling Technology 2422:RTGs produced by the Soviet Union to power 7297: 7077: 7063: 7055: 6116: 6102: 6094: 5886: 5697: 5629: 5513: 5463: 5456: 5232: 5058: 5045: 4874: 4721: 4584: 4293: 4277: 4263: 4255: 4119:Safety discussion of the RTGs used on the 2781:, 16 October 1992, accessed 15 March 2021. 2658:. United States Atomic Energy Commission. 2473:Alkali-metal thermal to electric converter 1946:, the only naturally occurring isotope of 1727:has a half-life of 87.7 years, reasonable 1055: 545: 221:impractical. As such, they were used with 3635: 3438: 3185:Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum 3155:"Totse.com | Nuclear Power in Space" 3028: 2933:McNutt, R. L.; et al. (7 May 2002). 2744: 2742: 2740: 2689:. Spring 2000. p. 21. Archived from 2663: 2267:A case of RTG-related irradiation is the 3556: 3554: 2750:"Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators" 2022:, is not a good neutron shield (instead 1580: 1040:**** not really an RTG, the ASRG uses a 363:radar systems, predominantly located in 129: 3998:microsphere fuel recovered and reused. 3456:"Neutron Emission Rate Reduction in PuO 3380: 3378: 3210: 3208: 3206: 3149: 3147: 3134: 2545: 1903:. Reaction of strontium carbonate with 338:dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 6736:Integrated gasification combined cycle 5647:Liquid-fluoride thorium reactor (LFTR) 3864:"Top 10 Space Age Radiation Incidents" 3562:RTG Heat Sources: Two Proven Materials 3313: 3311: 3132: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3124: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3114: 2356:lunar rover mission failed, spreading 2307:-27 RTG deployed by the astronauts of 530:List of nuclear power systems in space 189:United States Atomic Energy Commission 18:Radioisotope thermoelectric generators 7245:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator 6780:Radioisotope thermoelectric generator 6455:Quantum chromodynamics binding energy 5652:Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment (MSRE) 4026:"Energy Resources for Space Missions" 2928: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2920: 2918: 2817:from the original on 27 February 2023 2775:Alaska fire threatens air force nukes 2367:mission in April 1970 meant that the 2010:it is a neutron emitter (weaker than 1030:** not really an RTG, the BES-5 Buk ( 46:radioisotope thermoelectric generator 7: 7013: 6076: 4073:Kohli, M. S.; Conboy, K. J. (2002). 1549:, further raising costs. Caesium in 7037: 6922:World energy supply and consumption 5657:Integral Molten Salt Reactor (IMSR) 4154:Detailed chart of all radioisotopes 4142:Detailed lecture on RTG fuels (PDF) 4000:A. Angelo Jr. and D. Buden (1985). 3898:, Chapter 4, NASA, September 1997 ( 2204:metal and encased in high-strength 1895:in aqueous solution, which absorbs 1875:of 5.5 has made it ill-suited as a 1265:Remote U.S. arctic monitoring sites 215:Systems for Nuclear Auxiliary Power 4617:Positron-emission tomography (PET) 4200:United States Department of Energy 4062:File:SNAP-19C Mound Data Sheet.pdf 3464:Mound Laboratory Document MLM-1844 3054:Apollo 12 – On the Ocean of Storms 2791:Nuclear-Powered Cardiac Pacemakers 2714:Sudunova, Irina (5 January 2021). 2289:International Atomic Energy Agency 273:. RTGs were used to power the two 25: 4640:Neutron capture therapy of cancer 4539:Radioisotope thermoelectric (RTG) 3853:, CNN news report, 16 August 1999 2554:"NIHF Inductee Kenneth C. Jordan" 998:prototype design (not launched), 7036: 7024: 7012: 7001: 7000: 6075: 6064: 6063: 6051: 5740:Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR) 4159:Stirling Thermoelectic Generator 3403:Miotla, Dennis (21 April 2008). 2352:In 1969 the launch of the first 1899:from air to become less soluble 1781:microspheres were successfully O 497:Innovative Interstellar Explorer 166:The RTG was invented in 1954 by 4829:Historical stockpiles and tests 4240:DOE contributions – good links 4235:Stirling Radioisotope Generator 2961:"Innovative Interstellar Probe" 2687:University of Wisconsin–Madison 2685:. Fusion Technology Institute, 2680:"General Safety Considerations" 2535: – Power generation device 2524:Stirling Radioisotope Generator 1046:Stirling radioisotope generator 863:Viking 1 (2), Viking 2 (2) 324:In addition to spacecraft, the 198:in 1961 powered by 96 grams of 172:National Inventors Hall of Fame 5730:Energy Multiplier Module (EM2) 4612:Single-photon emission (SPECT) 4164:Toxicity profile for plutonium 4004:. Krieger Publishing Company. 3952:, Argonne National Laboratory 443:neutron absorbing control rods 297:. RTGs were also used for the 34:Diagram of an RTG used on the 1: 6058:Nuclear technology portal 3346:Irish Lights- Rathlin O'Birne 3335:RIPPLE I – X and Large Source 3030:10.1016/j.pnucene.2015.06.016 2149:Tsalendzhikha Region, Georgia 961:(fission reactor) SNAP-10A*** 552:Used on (# of RTGs per user) 5920:Field-reversed configuration 5530:Uranium Naturel Graphite Gaz 4128:Nuclear Power in Space (PDF) 3265:"Nuclear Reactors for Space" 3218:. USDOE ETEC. Archived from 3099:. NASA/JPL/DoE. 2 March 2011 2503:Optoelectric nuclear battery 2360:over a large area of Russia. 2131:, but still can serve in a " 495:. An example of this is the 7250:Specific orbital energy of 5877:Aircraft Reactor Experiment 4824:States with nuclear weapons 3698:National Nuclear Laboratory 2575:"NIHF Inductee John Birden" 2410:, was lost near the top of 2116:general purpose heat source 1980:National Nuclear Laboratory 367:, use RTGs. The units use 142:as used in the RTG for the 7481: 5715:Liquid-metal-cooled (LMFR) 4839:Tests in the United States 3722:. Voyager.jpl.nasa.gov web 3610:Ambrosi; Williams (2019). 3017:Progress in Nuclear Energy 1891:is to let it transform to 1707: 1696: 1677: 1666: 1647: 1636: 1617: 1606: 523: 480:subcritical multiplication 187:, under contract with the 66:heat released by the decay 6996: 6726:Fossil fuel power station 6388:Electric potential energy 6333:Thermodynamic temperature 6313:Thermodynamic free energy 6308:Thermodynamic equilibrium 6131: 6045: 5900: 5840:Stable Salt Reactor (SSR) 5735:Reduced-moderation (RMWR) 5700: 5542:Advanced gas-cooled (AGR) 5072: 5057: 5044: 4292: 4184:30 September 2006 at the 3924:29 September 2006 at the 3894:29 September 2006 at the 3637:10.1007/s11214-019-0623-9 3062:10.1007/978-1-4419-7607-9 2339:Vandenberg Air Force Base 2269:Lia radiological accident 2220:used in these RTGs has a 2187:radioisotope heater units 2175:radioactive contamination 2169:Radioactive contamination 1867:strontium titanate (SrTiO 1592: 1589: 1533:in RTGs, which increases 1414:. Typical half-lives for 1264: 1094:Obsolete Soviet uncrewed 1093: 1075: 1070: 1067: 1064: 1061: 1058: 575: 570: 567: 562: 557: 554: 551: 548: 293:, in the vicinity of the 6797:Concentrated solar power 5745:Dual fluid reactor (DFR) 5361:Steam-generating (SGHWR) 4697:Electron-beam processing 4170:Environmental Impact of 4147:15 February 2013 at the 3905:7 September 2006 at the 3390:18 December 2012 at the 2509:Radioisotope heater unit 2440:US Department of Defense 1931:/g) because of its high 467:. This way a long-lived 414:device that can convert 317:series and the American 285:(SNAP 27s). Because the 7428:(2017 documentary film) 7273:NASA Deep Space Network 6338:Volume (thermodynamics) 6318:Thermodynamic potential 6221:Mass–energy equivalence 5860:Organic nuclear reactor 5032:Nuclear power phase-out 4955:Nuclear decommissioning 4895:Reactor-grade plutonium 4645:Targeted alpha-particle 4524:Accidents and incidents 3658:Nell Greenfield-Boyce, 3567:7 February 2012 at the 3052:Harland, D. M. (2011). 2118:modules as used in RTGs 1814:in the fission of both 1096:lighthouses and beacons 353:United States Air Force 271:Mars Science Laboratory 202:metal, aboard the Navy 7450:Nuclear power in space 7395:Exploration of Neptune 7302:Exploration of Jupiter 6293:Quantum thermodynamics 6283:Laws of thermodynamics 6164:Conservation of energy 2315: 2151:found two ceramic RTG 2119: 2114:Diagram of a stack of 2068:and to 319 W for 2042: 1576:small modular reactors 1571:nuclear chain reaction 1456:can emit considerable 1395: 1382: 1343:Permissive Action Link 526:Nuclear power in space 163: 60:that uses an array of 41: 7460:Electrical generators 7376:Exploration of Uranus 7344:Exploration of Saturn 7148:Voyager Golden Record 7142:Plasma Wave Subsystem 6410:Interatomic potential 6201:Energy transformation 5022:Anti-nuclear movement 4030:Space Safety Magazine 3800:. Malgorzata K. Sneve 3616:Space Science Reviews 3139:"Space Nuclear Power" 2936:Interstellar Explorer 2862:Arias, F. J. (2011). 2347:Santa Barbara Channel 2302: 2113: 2075:NASA has developed a 2037: 1952:lead-bismuth eutectic 1812:fission product yield 1587:Shielding requirement 1527:alkaline earth metals 1388: 1373: 541:plutonium-238 dioxide 204:Transit 4A spacecraft 133: 33: 7130:Cosmic Ray Subsystem 6858:Efficient energy use 6831:Airborne wind energy 6809:Solar thermal energy 6716:Electricity delivery 6328:Thermodynamic system 6273:Irreversible process 5930:Reversed field pinch 5725:Traveling-wave (TWR) 5209:Supercritical (SCWR) 4707:Gemstone irradiation 3956:10 July 2007 at the 3675:Dr Major S. Chahal, 2986:"Interstellar Probe" 2813:. 19 December 2007. 2696:on 19 February 2007. 2628:on 17 September 2016 2602:on 17 September 2016 2533:Thermionic converter 2454:is unlikely as SrTiO 2173:RTGs pose a risk of 2147:, three woodsmen in 1853:alkaline earth metal 1502:, and most recently 410:A thermocouple is a 6880:Energy conservation 6802:Photovoltaic system 6775:Nuclear power plant 6460:Quantum fluctuation 6323:Thermodynamic state 6298:Thermal equilibrium 5095:Aqueous homogeneous 4890:Reprocessed uranium 4563:Safety and security 4133:Detailed report on 4083:10.2307/j.ctvj7wp9g 4002:Space Nuclear Power 3628:2019SSRv..215...55A 3532:. 13 December 2018. 3460:by Oxygen Exchange" 3296:on 20 December 2010 2897:"Areas of Research" 2882:2011JBIS...64..314A 2515:Radioactive isotope 2363:The failure of the 2048:One example is the 1986:/kg for 5–50 W 1901:strontium carbonate 1893:strontium hydroxide 1851:is a very reactive 1739:plutonium(IV) oxide 1590:Power density (W/g) 1543:neutron irradiation 539:has 4.8 kg of 493:interstellar probes 330:Soviet Arctic coast 291:South Pacific Ocean 7455:Nuclear technology 7263:Grand Tour program 7194:Stamatios Krimigis 6917:Sustainable energy 6895:Energy development 6885:Energy consumption 6721:Energy engineering 6009:Dense plasma focus 4924:Actinide chemistry 4389:Isotope separation 4286:Nuclear technology 3548:, 10 October 2017. 3512:on 16 August 2016. 3440:10.3390/en13143606 3191:on 24 January 2012 2851:on 16 August 2016. 2316: 2120: 2043: 1978:and in 2019, UK's 1838:spent nuclear fuel 1593:Half-life (years) 1555:isotope separation 1539:spent nuclear fuel 1531:strontium titanate 1396: 1383: 1381:RTGs before launch 1318:Buoys, Lighthouses 925:(fission reactor) 397:nuclear technology 181:Mound Laboratories 168:Mound Laboratories 164: 42: 7435: 7434: 7412: 7411: 7052: 7051: 6819:Solar power tower 6465:Quantum potential 6303:Thermal reservoir 6206:Energy transition 6091: 6090: 6041: 6040: 6037: 6036: 5988:Magnetized-target 5885: 5884: 5848: 5847: 5679: 5678: 5675: 5674: 5619: 5618: 5503: 5502: 5435: 5434: 5040: 5039: 4995: 4994: 4864: 4863: 4851:Weapon-free zones 4678: 4677: 4670:Radiopharmacology 4092:978-0-7006-1223-9 3870:. 20 January 2012 3741:Jansen, Kristin. 3594:on 10 March 2012. 3071:978-1-4419-7607-9 2903:on 6 October 2014 2838:Cardiac Pacemaker 2460:intestinal lining 2343:plutonium dioxide 2275:, December 2001. 2062:electrical energy 2016:neutron radiation 1717: 1716: 1486:table of nuclides 1470:neutron radiation 1363: 1362: 1028: 1027: 1000:Discovery Program 976:highly enriched U 944:highly enriched U 451:radioactive decay 420:electrical energy 16:(Redirected from 7472: 7465:Electric battery 7298: 7268:Rings of Jupiter 7079: 7072: 7065: 7056: 7040: 7039: 7028: 7016: 7015: 7004: 7003: 6978:Carbon footprint 6912:Renewable energy 6753:Hydroelectricity 6743:Geothermal power 6186:Energy condition 6118: 6111: 6104: 6095: 6079: 6078: 6067: 6066: 6056: 6055: 6054: 5966: 5925:Levitated dipole 5895: 5887: 5835:Helium gas (GFR) 5698: 5693: 5630: 5514: 5464: 5457: 5452: 5451: 5233: 5229: 5228: 5067: 5059: 5051:Nuclear reactors 5046: 4945:High-level (HLW) 4875: 4722: 4702:Food irradiation 4692:Atomic gardening 4585: 4568:Nuclear meltdown 4394:Nuclear material 4384:Fissile material 4379:Fertile material 4294: 4279: 4272: 4265: 4256: 4226:SpaceViews: The 4203: 4197: 4105: 4104: 4070: 4064: 4059: 4053: 4050:Mars 96 timeline 4047: 4041: 4040: 4038: 4036: 4022: 4016: 4015: 3992: 3986: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3966: 3960: 3947: 3941: 3940:, IEER Factsheet 3935: 3929: 3916: 3910: 3886: 3880: 3879: 3877: 3875: 3860: 3854: 3848: 3842: 3841: 3839: 3837: 3832:on 6 August 2003 3831: 3825:. Archived from 3824: 3816: 3810: 3809: 3807: 3805: 3799: 3791: 3785: 3784: 3782: 3780: 3765: 3759: 3758: 3756: 3754: 3738: 3732: 3731: 3729: 3727: 3716: 3710: 3709: 3707: 3705: 3689: 3683: 3673: 3667: 3656: 3650: 3649: 3639: 3607: 3596: 3595: 3593: 3586: 3578: 3572: 3558: 3549: 3539: 3533: 3528:. Ethan Siegel, 3523: 3514: 3513: 3511: 3505:. Archived from 3500: 3490: 3484: 3483: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3442: 3418: 3412: 3411: 3409: 3400: 3394: 3382: 3373: 3372: 3370: 3368: 3354: 3348: 3343: 3337: 3332: 3326: 3325: 3323: 3315: 3306: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3292:. Archived from 3282: 3276: 3275: 3273: 3271: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3252: 3250: 3238: 3232: 3231: 3229: 3227: 3212: 3201: 3200: 3198: 3196: 3187:. Archived from 3177: 3171: 3170: 3168: 3166: 3157:. Archived from 3151: 3142: 3141:G.L.Bennett 2006 3136: 3109: 3108: 3106: 3104: 3098: 3090: 3084: 3083: 3049: 3043: 3042: 3032: 3008: 3002: 3001: 2999: 2997: 2982: 2976: 2975: 2973: 2971: 2957: 2951: 2950: 2948: 2941: 2930: 2913: 2912: 2910: 2908: 2899:. Archived from 2892: 2886: 2885: 2859: 2853: 2852: 2850: 2843: 2833: 2827: 2826: 2824: 2822: 2803: 2797: 2788: 2782: 2772: 2766: 2765: 2763: 2761: 2746: 2735: 2734: 2732: 2730: 2711: 2698: 2697: 2695: 2684: 2676: 2670: 2669: 2667: 2649: 2638: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2624:. Archived from 2618: 2612: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2598:. Archived from 2592: 2586: 2585: 2583: 2581: 2571: 2565: 2564: 2562: 2560: 2550: 2529: 2520: 2499: 2490: 2432:orphaned sources 2162:caesium chloride 2158:Goiânia accident 1945: 1943: 1942: 1905:titanium dioxide 1877:diamond simulant 1850: 1848: 1847: 1835: 1833: 1832: 1824: 1822: 1821: 1760: 1758: 1752: 1750: 1710: 1699: 1680: 1669: 1650: 1639: 1620: 1609: 1581: 1551:fission products 1511:chemically inert 1394:in assembly hall 1056: 859:modified SNAP-19 546: 447:nuclear meltdown 435:fission reactors 384:heart pacemakers 351:As of 1992, the 311:nuclear reactors 185:Miamisburg, Ohio 21: 7480: 7479: 7475: 7474: 7473: 7471: 7470: 7469: 7440: 7439: 7436: 7431: 7417:Popular culture 7408: 7389: 7370: 7338: 7293: 7287: 7228: 7219:Edward C. Stone 7214:Larry Soderblom 7204:Raymond Heacock 7182: 7177:Family Portrait 7157: 7113: 7088: 7086:Voyager program 7083: 7053: 7048: 6992: 6988:Waste-to-energy 6966: 6902:Energy security 6848: 6842: 6698: 6690: 6669:Natural uranium 6603: 6584:Mechanical wave 6515:Energy carriers 6509: 6349: 6278:Isolated system 6156: 6150: 6127: 6122: 6092: 6087: 6052: 6050: 6033: 5997: 5964: 5949: 5906: 5896: 5891: 5881: 5844: 5749: 5694: 5687: 5686: 5671: 5615: 5546: 5521: 5499: 5471: 5453: 5446: 5445: 5444: 5431: 5397: 5388: 5370: 5335: 5326: 5240: 5223: 5222: 5221: 5213: 5127:Natural fission 5081: 5080: 5068: 5063: 5053: 5036: 5012:Nuclear weapons 4991: 4950:Low-level (LLW) 4928: 4860: 4812: 4711: 4674: 4621: 4574: 4495: 4427: 4350: 4288: 4283: 4211: 4206: 4195: 4190: 4186:Wayback Machine 4172:Cassini-Huygens 4149:Wayback Machine 4121:Cassini-Huygens 4114: 4109: 4108: 4093: 4072: 4071: 4067: 4060: 4056: 4048: 4044: 4034: 4032: 4024: 4023: 4019: 4012: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3989: 3979: 3977: 3976:on 24 June 2002 3968: 3967: 3963: 3958:Wayback Machine 3948: 3944: 3936: 3932: 3926:Wayback Machine 3917: 3913: 3907:Wayback Machine 3896:Wayback Machine 3887: 3883: 3873: 3871: 3862: 3861: 3857: 3849: 3845: 3835: 3833: 3829: 3822: 3818: 3817: 3813: 3803: 3801: 3797: 3793: 3792: 3788: 3778: 3776: 3767: 3766: 3762: 3752: 3750: 3740: 3739: 3735: 3725: 3723: 3718: 3717: 3713: 3703: 3701: 3691: 3690: 3686: 3680:UK Space Agency 3674: 3670: 3657: 3653: 3609: 3608: 3599: 3591: 3584: 3580: 3579: 3575: 3569:Wayback Machine 3559: 3552: 3540: 3536: 3524: 3517: 3509: 3498: 3493: 3491: 3487: 3472:10.2172/4747800 3459: 3453: 3452: 3448: 3420: 3419: 3415: 3407: 3402: 3401: 3397: 3392:Wayback Machine 3383: 3376: 3366: 3364: 3356: 3355: 3351: 3344: 3340: 3333: 3329: 3321: 3317: 3316: 3309: 3299: 3297: 3284: 3283: 3279: 3269: 3267: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3248: 3246: 3240: 3239: 3235: 3225: 3223: 3216:"SNAP Overview" 3214: 3213: 3204: 3194: 3192: 3179: 3178: 3174: 3164: 3162: 3161:on 19 June 2008 3153: 3152: 3145: 3137: 3112: 3102: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3091: 3087: 3072: 3051: 3050: 3046: 3010: 3009: 3005: 2995: 2993: 2992:on 6 April 2003 2984: 2983: 2979: 2969: 2967: 2959: 2958: 2954: 2949:on 3 June 2013. 2946: 2939: 2932: 2931: 2916: 2906: 2904: 2895: 2893: 2889: 2861: 2860: 2856: 2848: 2841: 2835: 2834: 2830: 2820: 2818: 2805: 2804: 2800: 2789: 2785: 2773: 2769: 2759: 2757: 2748: 2747: 2738: 2728: 2726: 2713: 2712: 2701: 2694:(lecture notes) 2693: 2682: 2678: 2677: 2673: 2665:10.2172/4807049 2651: 2650: 2641: 2631: 2629: 2620: 2619: 2615: 2605: 2603: 2594: 2593: 2589: 2579: 2577: 2573: 2572: 2568: 2558: 2556: 2552: 2551: 2547: 2542: 2527: 2518: 2497: 2488: 2469: 2457: 2452:Bioaccumulation 2446:to construct a 2385:cis-lunar space 2297: 2230:nuclear weapons 2191:Cassini–Huygens 2171: 2145:In another case 2125: 2108: 2093: 2032: 2012:californium-252 2004: 1993: 1989: 1985: 1968: 1941: 1939: 1938: 1937: 1936: 1921: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1870: 1846: 1844: 1843: 1842: 1841: 1831: 1829: 1828: 1827: 1826: 1820: 1818: 1817: 1816: 1815: 1804: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1756: 1754: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1722: 1713: 1708: 1702: 1697: 1683: 1678: 1672: 1667: 1653: 1648: 1642: 1637: 1623: 1618: 1612: 1607: 1560: 1462:X-ray radiation 1450:alpha radiation 1368: 1329: 1304: 1300: 1277: 1111: 1095: 1072: 1065:Maximum output 1059:Name and model 1054: 830:Pioneer 11 821:Pioneer 10 613:Mars 2020 rover 577: 572: 564: 559: 555:Maximum output 549:Name and model 532: 524:Main articles: 522: 513: 476: 460: 393: 160:glowing red hot 141: 128: 80:. This type of 64:to convert the 58:nuclear battery 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7478: 7476: 7468: 7467: 7462: 7457: 7452: 7442: 7441: 7433: 7432: 7430: 7429: 7420: 7418: 7414: 7413: 7410: 7409: 7407: 7406: 7399: 7397: 7391: 7390: 7388: 7387: 7380: 7378: 7372: 7371: 7369: 7368: 7367: 7366: 7361: 7348: 7346: 7340: 7339: 7337: 7336: 7335: 7334: 7329: 7324: 7319: 7315:with volcanos 7306: 7304: 7295: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7285: 7280: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7255: 7247: 7242: 7240:Gravity assist 7236: 7234: 7230: 7229: 7227: 7226: 7224:Timothy Ferris 7221: 7216: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7190: 7188: 7184: 7183: 7181: 7180: 7173: 7165: 7163: 7159: 7158: 7156: 7155: 7145: 7139: 7133: 7127: 7121: 7119: 7115: 7114: 7112: 7111: 7104: 7096: 7094: 7090: 7089: 7084: 7082: 7081: 7074: 7067: 7059: 7050: 7049: 7047: 7046: 7034: 7022: 7010: 6997: 6994: 6993: 6991: 6990: 6985: 6983:Jevons paradox 6980: 6974: 6972: 6968: 6967: 6965: 6964: 6959: 6954: 6949: 6944: 6939: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6914: 6909: 6907:Energy storage 6904: 6899: 6898: 6897: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6876: 6875: 6870: 6865: 6854: 6852: 6844: 6843: 6841: 6840: 6839: 6838: 6833: 6823: 6822: 6821: 6816: 6806: 6805: 6804: 6799: 6789: 6784: 6783: 6782: 6777: 6767: 6766: 6765: 6760: 6755: 6745: 6740: 6739: 6738: 6733: 6723: 6718: 6713: 6711:Electric power 6708: 6702: 6700: 6692: 6691: 6689: 6688: 6683: 6678: 6673: 6672: 6671: 6661: 6656: 6651: 6646: 6641: 6640: 6639: 6634: 6629: 6619: 6613: 6611: 6609:Primary energy 6605: 6604: 6602: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6580: 6579: 6569: 6568: 6567: 6557: 6556: 6555: 6550: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6519: 6517: 6511: 6510: 6508: 6507: 6502: 6497: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6406: 6405: 6395: 6390: 6385: 6380: 6375: 6370: 6369: 6368: 6357: 6355: 6351: 6350: 6348: 6347: 6346: 6345: 6340: 6335: 6330: 6325: 6320: 6315: 6310: 6305: 6300: 6295: 6290: 6285: 6280: 6275: 6270: 6265: 6260: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6243:Entropic force 6240: 6233:Thermodynamics 6230: 6225: 6224: 6223: 6218: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6182: 6181: 6171: 6166: 6160: 6158: 6152: 6151: 6149: 6148: 6143: 6138: 6132: 6129: 6128: 6123: 6121: 6120: 6113: 6106: 6098: 6089: 6088: 6086: 6085: 6073: 6061: 6046: 6043: 6042: 6039: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6032: 6031: 6026: 6021: 6019:Muon-catalyzed 6016: 6011: 6005: 6003: 5999: 5998: 5996: 5995: 5990: 5985: 5980: 5979: 5978: 5968: 5959: 5957: 5951: 5950: 5948: 5947: 5942: 5937: 5932: 5927: 5922: 5916: 5914: 5908: 5907: 5901: 5898: 5897: 5890: 5883: 5882: 5880: 5879: 5874: 5873: 5872: 5867: 5856: 5854: 5850: 5849: 5846: 5845: 5843: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5826: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5795: 5790: 5785: 5780: 5775: 5770: 5759: 5757: 5751: 5750: 5748: 5747: 5742: 5737: 5732: 5727: 5722: 5717: 5712: 5710:Integral (IFR) 5707: 5701: 5695: 5684: 5681: 5680: 5677: 5676: 5673: 5672: 5670: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5654: 5649: 5644: 5638: 5636: 5627: 5621: 5620: 5617: 5616: 5614: 5613: 5612: 5611: 5606: 5605: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5589: 5574: 5569: 5568: 5567: 5556: 5554: 5548: 5547: 5545: 5544: 5539: 5534: 5525: 5523: 5519: 5511: 5505: 5504: 5501: 5500: 5498: 5497: 5492: 5487: 5482: 5476: 5474: 5469: 5461: 5454: 5440: 5437: 5436: 5433: 5432: 5430: 5429: 5428: 5427: 5422: 5417: 5412: 5401: 5399: 5395: 5390: 5389: 5387: 5386: 5380: 5378: 5372: 5371: 5369: 5368: 5363: 5358: 5357: 5356: 5351: 5340: 5338: 5333: 5328: 5327: 5325: 5324: 5323: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5307: 5302: 5301: 5300: 5295: 5290: 5280: 5275: 5274: 5273: 5268: 5265: 5262: 5259: 5245: 5243: 5238: 5230: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5211: 5206: 5205: 5204: 5201: 5196: 5191: 5190: 5189: 5184: 5174: 5169: 5164: 5159: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5129: 5124: 5123: 5122: 5117: 5112: 5107: 5097: 5091: 5089: 5083: 5082: 5074: 5073: 5070: 5069: 5062: 5055: 5054: 5049: 5042: 5041: 5038: 5037: 5035: 5034: 5029: 5027:Uranium mining 5024: 5019: 5014: 5009: 5003: 5001: 4997: 4996: 4993: 4992: 4990: 4989: 4984: 4983: 4982: 4977: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4947: 4942: 4936: 4934: 4930: 4929: 4927: 4926: 4921: 4920: 4919: 4909: 4904: 4903: 4902: 4900:Minor actinide 4897: 4892: 4881: 4879: 4872: 4866: 4865: 4862: 4861: 4859: 4858: 4853: 4848: 4843: 4842: 4841: 4836: 4826: 4820: 4818: 4814: 4813: 4811: 4810: 4809: 4808: 4798: 4793: 4792: 4791: 4786: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4765: 4764: 4754: 4749: 4744: 4739: 4734: 4728: 4726: 4719: 4713: 4712: 4710: 4709: 4704: 4699: 4694: 4688: 4686: 4680: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4673: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4631: 4629: 4623: 4622: 4620: 4619: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4599: 4597:Autoradiograph 4593: 4591: 4582: 4576: 4575: 4573: 4572: 4571: 4570: 4560: 4559: 4558: 4548: 4547: 4546: 4536: 4531: 4526: 4521: 4516: 4511: 4505: 4503: 4497: 4496: 4494: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4478: 4473: 4468: 4463: 4458: 4453: 4448: 4443: 4437: 4435: 4429: 4428: 4426: 4425: 4424: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4412: 4411: 4406: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4371: 4366: 4360: 4358: 4352: 4351: 4349: 4348: 4347: 4346: 4341: 4331: 4326: 4321: 4319:Atomic nucleus 4316: 4311: 4306: 4300: 4298: 4290: 4289: 4284: 4282: 4281: 4274: 4267: 4259: 4253: 4252: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4223: 4217: 4210: 4209:External links 4207: 4205: 4204: 4188: 4176: 4167: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4139: 4130: 4125: 4115: 4113: 4110: 4107: 4106: 4091: 4065: 4054: 4042: 4017: 4010: 3995: 3987: 3961: 3942: 3930: 3911: 3881: 3855: 3843: 3811: 3786: 3760: 3733: 3711: 3684: 3668: 3651: 3597: 3573: 3550: 3544:. Jeff Foust. 3534: 3515: 3494:Craig, Carol. 3485: 3457: 3446: 3413: 3395: 3374: 3349: 3338: 3327: 3307: 3277: 3256: 3233: 3202: 3172: 3143: 3110: 3085: 3070: 3044: 3003: 2977: 2952: 2914: 2887: 2854: 2828: 2798: 2783: 2767: 2756:. 2 April 2005 2736: 2699: 2671: 2639: 2613: 2587: 2566: 2544: 2543: 2541: 2538: 2537: 2536: 2530: 2521: 2512: 2506: 2500: 2491: 2482: 2479:Atomic battery 2476: 2468: 2465: 2455: 2404: 2403: 2388: 2361: 2350: 2335: 2296: 2293: 2170: 2167: 2153:orphan sources 2129:nuclear weapon 2124: 2121: 2107: 2104: 2091: 2058:thermal energy 2054:Voyager probes 2031: 2028: 2020:Bremsstrahlung 2003: 2000: 1991: 1987: 1983: 1967: 1964: 1940: 1920: 1917: 1909:carbon dioxide 1897:carbon dioxide 1888: 1884: 1880: 1868: 1845: 1830: 1819: 1803: 1800: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1742: 1734:lead shielding 1721: 1718: 1715: 1714: 1711: 1706: 1703: 1700: 1695: 1692: 1689: 1685: 1684: 1681: 1676: 1673: 1670: 1665: 1662: 1659: 1655: 1654: 1651: 1646: 1643: 1640: 1635: 1632: 1629: 1625: 1624: 1621: 1616: 1613: 1610: 1605: 1602: 1599: 1595: 1594: 1591: 1588: 1585: 1558: 1482: 1481: 1466:bremsstrahlung 1454:Beta radiation 1446: 1423: 1374:Inspection of 1367: 1364: 1361: 1360: 1357: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1340: 1339:Milliwatt RTG 1336: 1335: 1332: 1330: 1327: 1324: 1322: 1319: 1316: 1312: 1311: 1308: 1305: 1302: 1298: 1295: 1293: 1290: 1286: 1285: 1282: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1263: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1252: 1249: 1246: 1243: 1239: 1238: 1235: 1232: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1219: 1218: 1215: 1212: 1209: 1206: 1203: 1199: 1198: 1195: 1192: 1189: 1186: 1183: 1179: 1178: 1175: 1172: 1169: 1166: 1163: 1159: 1158: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1146: 1143: 1139: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1129: 1126: 1123: 1119: 1118: 1115: 1112: 1109: 1103: 1100: 1097: 1092: 1086: 1085: 1082: 1081:Electrical (W) 1078: 1077: 1074: 1069: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1053: 1050: 1026: 1025: 1022: 1019: 1016: 1013: 1008: 1005: 1002: 996: 989: 988: 985: 982: 979: 977: 974: 971: 968: 962: 958: 957: 954: 951: 948: 945: 942: 939: 936: 930: 922: 921: 918: 915: 912: 909: 906: 903: 900: 891: 887: 886: 883: 880: 877: 874: 871: 868: 865: 860: 856: 855: 852: 849: 846: 843: 840: 837: 834: 813: 809: 808: 805: 802: 799: 796: 793: 790: 787: 784:Transit 5BN1/2 781: 775: 774: 771: 768: 765: 762: 759: 756: 753: 747: 741: 740: 737: 734: 731: 728: 725: 722: 719: 715:Voyager 2 708:Voyager 1 700: 694: 693: 690: 687: 684: 681: 678: 675: 672: 643: 637: 636: 633: 630: 627: 624: 621: 618: 615: 598: 592: 591: 588: 580: 579: 574: 569: 566: 561: 556: 553: 550: 521: 518: 512: 509: 474: 469:neutron source 459: 456: 439:chain reaction 424:Seebeck effect 418:directly into 416:thermal energy 412:thermoelectric 392: 389: 139: 127: 124: 78:Seebeck effect 72:material into 68:of a suitable 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7477: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7447: 7445: 7438: 7427: 7426: 7422: 7421: 7419: 7415: 7405: 7402:and its moon 7401: 7400: 7398: 7396: 7392: 7386: 7382: 7381: 7379: 7377: 7373: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357:with craters 7356: 7355: 7354: 7351:and its moon 7350: 7349: 7347: 7345: 7341: 7333: 7330: 7328: 7325: 7323: 7320: 7318: 7314: 7313: 7312: 7309:and its moon 7308: 7307: 7305: 7303: 7299: 7296: 7290: 7284: 7281: 7279: 7276: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7259: 7256: 7254: 7253: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7237: 7235: 7231: 7225: 7222: 7220: 7217: 7215: 7212: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7199:Carolyn Porco 7197: 7195: 7192: 7191: 7189: 7185: 7179: 7178: 7174: 7172: 7171: 7170:Pale Blue Dot 7167: 7166: 7164: 7160: 7153: 7149: 7146: 7143: 7140: 7137: 7134: 7131: 7128: 7126: 7123: 7122: 7120: 7116: 7110: 7109: 7105: 7103: 7102: 7098: 7097: 7095: 7091: 7087: 7080: 7075: 7073: 7068: 7066: 7061: 7060: 7057: 7045: 7044: 7035: 7033: 7032: 7027: 7023: 7021: 7020: 7011: 7009: 7008: 6999: 6998: 6995: 6989: 6986: 6984: 6981: 6979: 6976: 6975: 6973: 6969: 6963: 6962:United States 6960: 6958: 6957:South America 6955: 6953: 6950: 6948: 6945: 6943: 6940: 6938: 6935: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6913: 6910: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6896: 6893: 6892: 6891: 6890:Energy policy 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6874: 6871: 6869: 6866: 6864: 6861: 6860: 6859: 6856: 6855: 6853: 6851: 6845: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6828: 6827: 6824: 6820: 6817: 6815: 6814:Solar furnace 6812: 6811: 6810: 6807: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6794: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6785: 6781: 6778: 6776: 6773: 6772: 6771: 6770:Nuclear power 6768: 6764: 6761: 6759: 6756: 6754: 6751: 6750: 6749: 6746: 6744: 6741: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6728: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6717: 6714: 6712: 6709: 6707: 6704: 6703: 6701: 6697: 6696:Energy system 6693: 6687: 6684: 6682: 6679: 6677: 6674: 6670: 6667: 6666: 6665: 6662: 6660: 6657: 6655: 6652: 6650: 6649:Gravitational 6647: 6645: 6642: 6638: 6635: 6633: 6630: 6628: 6625: 6624: 6623: 6620: 6618: 6615: 6614: 6612: 6610: 6606: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6578: 6577:Hydrogen fuel 6575: 6574: 6573: 6570: 6566: 6563: 6562: 6561: 6558: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6545: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6520: 6518: 6516: 6512: 6506: 6503: 6501: 6498: 6496: 6493: 6491: 6488: 6486: 6483: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6404: 6401: 6400: 6399: 6398:Gravitational 6396: 6394: 6391: 6389: 6386: 6384: 6381: 6379: 6376: 6374: 6371: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6362: 6359: 6358: 6356: 6352: 6344: 6341: 6339: 6336: 6334: 6331: 6329: 6326: 6324: 6321: 6319: 6316: 6314: 6311: 6309: 6306: 6304: 6301: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6291: 6289: 6286: 6284: 6281: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6268:Heat transfer 6266: 6264: 6263:Heat capacity 6261: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6235: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6216:Negative mass 6214: 6213: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6196:Energy system 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6180: 6177: 6176: 6175: 6172: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6161: 6159: 6153: 6147: 6144: 6142: 6139: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6130: 6126: 6119: 6114: 6112: 6107: 6105: 6100: 6099: 6096: 6084: 6083: 6074: 6072: 6071: 6062: 6060: 6059: 6048: 6047: 6044: 6030: 6027: 6025: 6022: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6012: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6000: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5977: 5976:electrostatic 5974: 5973: 5972: 5969: 5967: 5961: 5960: 5958: 5956: 5952: 5946: 5943: 5941: 5938: 5936: 5933: 5931: 5928: 5926: 5923: 5921: 5918: 5917: 5915: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5899: 5894: 5888: 5878: 5875: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5862: 5861: 5858: 5857: 5855: 5851: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5824: 5821: 5819: 5816: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5806: 5804: 5801: 5799: 5796: 5794: 5791: 5789: 5786: 5784: 5781: 5779: 5776: 5774: 5771: 5769: 5766: 5765: 5764: 5761: 5760: 5758: 5756: 5755:Generation IV 5752: 5746: 5743: 5741: 5738: 5736: 5733: 5731: 5728: 5726: 5723: 5721: 5718: 5716: 5713: 5711: 5708: 5706: 5705:Breeder (FBR) 5703: 5702: 5699: 5696: 5691: 5682: 5668: 5665: 5663: 5660: 5658: 5655: 5653: 5650: 5648: 5645: 5643: 5640: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5631: 5628: 5626: 5622: 5610: 5607: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5590: 5588: 5585: 5584: 5583: 5580: 5579: 5578: 5575: 5573: 5570: 5566: 5563: 5562: 5561: 5558: 5557: 5555: 5553: 5549: 5543: 5540: 5538: 5535: 5533: 5531: 5527: 5526: 5524: 5522: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5506: 5496: 5493: 5491: 5488: 5486: 5483: 5481: 5478: 5477: 5475: 5473: 5465: 5462: 5458: 5455: 5450: 5443: 5438: 5426: 5423: 5421: 5418: 5416: 5413: 5411: 5408: 5407: 5406: 5403: 5402: 5400: 5398: 5391: 5385: 5382: 5381: 5379: 5377: 5373: 5367: 5364: 5362: 5359: 5355: 5352: 5350: 5347: 5346: 5345: 5342: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5329: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5306: 5303: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5285: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5272: 5269: 5266: 5263: 5260: 5257: 5256: 5255: 5252: 5251: 5250: 5247: 5246: 5244: 5242: 5234: 5231: 5227: 5220: 5216: 5210: 5207: 5202: 5200: 5197: 5195: 5192: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5178: 5175: 5173: 5170: 5168: 5165: 5163: 5160: 5158: 5155: 5153: 5150: 5148: 5145: 5143: 5140: 5138: 5135: 5134: 5133: 5130: 5128: 5125: 5121: 5118: 5116: 5113: 5111: 5108: 5106: 5103: 5102: 5101: 5098: 5096: 5093: 5092: 5090: 5088: 5084: 5079: 5078: 5071: 5066: 5060: 5056: 5052: 5047: 5043: 5033: 5030: 5028: 5025: 5023: 5020: 5018: 5015: 5013: 5010: 5008: 5007:Nuclear power 5005: 5004: 5002: 4998: 4988: 4987:Transmutation 4985: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4972: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4943: 4941: 4938: 4937: 4935: 4931: 4925: 4922: 4918: 4915: 4914: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4887: 4886: 4883: 4882: 4880: 4876: 4873: 4871: 4867: 4857: 4854: 4852: 4849: 4847: 4844: 4840: 4837: 4835: 4832: 4831: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4807: 4804: 4803: 4802: 4799: 4797: 4794: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4784:high-altitude 4782: 4781: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4774:Proliferation 4772: 4770: 4767: 4763: 4760: 4759: 4758: 4755: 4753: 4750: 4748: 4745: 4743: 4740: 4738: 4735: 4733: 4730: 4729: 4727: 4723: 4720: 4718: 4714: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4698: 4695: 4693: 4690: 4689: 4687: 4685: 4681: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4660:Brachytherapy 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4633: 4632: 4630: 4628: 4624: 4618: 4615: 4613: 4610: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4598: 4595: 4594: 4592: 4590: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4577: 4569: 4566: 4565: 4564: 4561: 4557: 4554: 4553: 4552: 4549: 4545: 4542: 4541: 4540: 4537: 4535: 4532: 4530: 4527: 4525: 4522: 4520: 4517: 4515: 4512: 4510: 4507: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4498: 4492: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4482: 4479: 4477: 4474: 4472: 4469: 4467: 4464: 4462: 4459: 4457: 4456:Cross section 4454: 4452: 4449: 4447: 4444: 4442: 4439: 4438: 4436: 4434: 4430: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4401: 4400: 4397: 4396: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4377: 4375: 4372: 4370: 4367: 4365: 4362: 4361: 4359: 4357: 4353: 4345: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4335: 4332: 4330: 4327: 4325: 4322: 4320: 4317: 4315: 4312: 4310: 4307: 4305: 4302: 4301: 4299: 4295: 4291: 4287: 4280: 4275: 4273: 4268: 4266: 4261: 4260: 4257: 4251: 4248: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4229: 4224: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4212: 4208: 4201: 4194: 4189: 4187: 4183: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4173: 4168: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4146: 4143: 4140: 4138: 4136: 4131: 4129: 4126: 4124: 4122: 4117: 4116: 4111: 4102: 4098: 4094: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4069: 4066: 4063: 4058: 4055: 4051: 4046: 4043: 4031: 4027: 4021: 4018: 4013: 4011:0-89464-000-3 4007: 4003: 3991: 3988: 3975: 3971: 3965: 3962: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3946: 3943: 3939: 3934: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3920: 3915: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3901: 3897: 3893: 3890: 3885: 3882: 3869: 3868:listverse.com 3865: 3859: 3856: 3852: 3847: 3844: 3828: 3821: 3815: 3812: 3796: 3790: 3787: 3774: 3770: 3764: 3761: 3748: 3744: 3737: 3734: 3721: 3715: 3712: 3700: 3699: 3694: 3688: 3685: 3681: 3677: 3672: 3669: 3665: 3661: 3655: 3652: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3606: 3604: 3602: 3598: 3590: 3583: 3577: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3563: 3557: 3555: 3551: 3547: 3543: 3538: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3522: 3520: 3516: 3508: 3504: 3497: 3489: 3486: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3450: 3447: 3441: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3417: 3414: 3406: 3399: 3396: 3393: 3389: 3386: 3381: 3379: 3375: 3363: 3359: 3353: 3350: 3347: 3342: 3339: 3336: 3331: 3328: 3320: 3314: 3312: 3308: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3281: 3278: 3266: 3260: 3257: 3244: 3237: 3234: 3222:on 4 May 2010 3221: 3217: 3211: 3209: 3207: 3203: 3190: 3186: 3182: 3176: 3173: 3160: 3156: 3150: 3148: 3144: 3140: 3135: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3125: 3123: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3111: 3095: 3089: 3086: 3081: 3077: 3073: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3048: 3045: 3040: 3036: 3031: 3026: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3007: 3004: 2991: 2987: 2981: 2978: 2966: 2962: 2956: 2953: 2945: 2938: 2937: 2929: 2927: 2925: 2923: 2921: 2919: 2915: 2902: 2898: 2891: 2888: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2870: 2865: 2858: 2855: 2847: 2840: 2839: 2832: 2829: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2802: 2799: 2796: 2792: 2787: 2784: 2780: 2776: 2771: 2768: 2755: 2751: 2745: 2743: 2741: 2737: 2725: 2721: 2717: 2710: 2708: 2706: 2704: 2700: 2692: 2688: 2681: 2675: 2672: 2666: 2661: 2657: 2656: 2648: 2646: 2644: 2640: 2627: 2623: 2617: 2614: 2601: 2597: 2591: 2588: 2576: 2570: 2567: 2555: 2549: 2546: 2539: 2534: 2531: 2525: 2522: 2516: 2513: 2510: 2507: 2504: 2501: 2495: 2492: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2477: 2474: 2471: 2470: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2416: 2413: 2409: 2406:One RTG, the 2401: 2397: 2392: 2389: 2386: 2382: 2381:Pacific Ocean 2378: 2374: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2359: 2355: 2351: 2348: 2344: 2340: 2336: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2324:Transit-5BN-3 2321: 2320: 2319: 2314: 2310: 2306: 2301: 2294: 2292: 2290: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2254: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2226:plutonium-239 2223: 2219: 2218:plutonium-238 2214: 2212: 2207: 2203: 2198: 2196: 2192: 2188: 2182: 2178: 2176: 2168: 2166: 2163: 2159: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2122: 2117: 2112: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2100:New Frontiers 2097: 2089: 2086: 2082: 2078: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2063: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2046: 2040: 2036: 2029: 2027: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2008: 2001: 1999: 1997: 1996:neptunium-237 1981: 1977: 1972: 1971:Americium-241 1965: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1934: 1930: 1926: 1918: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1878: 1874: 1873:Mohs hardness 1866: 1862: 1858: 1854: 1839: 1813: 1808: 1801: 1799: 1795: 1762: 1740: 1735: 1730: 1729:power density 1726: 1725:Plutonium-238 1719: 1704: 1693: 1690: 1687: 1686: 1674: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1656: 1644: 1633: 1630: 1627: 1626: 1614: 1603: 1600: 1597: 1596: 1586: 1583: 1582: 1579: 1577: 1572: 1568: 1564: 1563:critical mass 1556: 1552: 1548: 1547:neptunium-237 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1523:alkali metals 1520: 1516: 1512: 1507: 1505: 1504:americium-241 1501: 1497: 1493: 1492:Plutonium-238 1489: 1487: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1455: 1451: 1447: 1444: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1421: 1417: 1416:radioisotopes 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1400: 1399: 1393: 1392: 1387: 1380: 1378: 1372: 1365: 1358: 1355: 1352: 1350: 1347: 1345:power source 1344: 1341: 1338: 1337: 1333: 1331: 1325: 1323: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1309: 1306: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289:Sentinel 100F 1288: 1287: 1283: 1280: 1278: 1272: 1270: 1267: 1261: 1260: 1257:2(3) × 1,050 1256: 1253: 1250: 1248:2,200 (3,300) 1247: 1244: 1241: 1240: 1236: 1233: 1230: 1227: 1224: 1221: 1220: 1216: 1213: 1210: 1207: 1204: 1201: 1200: 1196: 1193: 1190: 1187: 1184: 1181: 1180: 1176: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1156: 1153: 1150: 1147: 1144: 1141: 1140: 1136: 1133: 1130: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1120: 1116: 1113: 1107: 1104: 1101: 1098: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1083: 1080: 1079: 1071:Max fuel used 1068:Radioisotope 1057: 1051: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1038: 1035: 1033: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1006: 1004:c. 140 (2x70) 1003: 1001: 997: 994: 991: 990: 986: 983: 980: 978: 975: 972: 969: 966: 963: 960: 959: 955: 952: 949: 946: 943: 940: 937: 934: 931: 928: 924: 923: 919: 916: 913: 910: 907: 904: 901: 898: 895: 892: 889: 888: 884: 881: 878: 875: 872: 869: 866: 864: 861: 858: 857: 853: 850: 847: 844: 841: 838: 835: 833: 831: 827: 824: 822: 817: 814: 811: 810: 806: 803: 800: 797: 794: 791: 788: 785: 782: 780: 777: 776: 772: 769: 766: 763: 760: 757: 754: 751: 748: 746: 743: 742: 738: 735: 732: 729: 726: 723: 720: 718: 716: 711: 709: 704: 701: 699: 696: 695: 691: 688: 685: 682: 679: 676: 673: 671: 669: 664: 662: 657: 655: 650: 648: 644: 642: 639: 638: 634: 631: 628: 625: 622: 619: 616: 614: 610: 606: 604: 599: 597: 594: 593: 589: 586: 582: 581: 547: 544: 542: 538: 531: 527: 519: 517: 510: 508: 504: 502: 498: 494: 489: 486: 481: 477: 470: 466: 457: 455: 452: 448: 444: 440: 436: 431: 429: 425: 421: 417: 413: 408: 406: 402: 401:Thermocouples 398: 390: 388: 385: 380: 378: 374: 370: 366: 362: 358: 354: 349: 347: 343: 339: 335: 331: 327: 322: 320: 316: 313:: the Soviet 312: 308: 304: 300: 296: 292: 288: 284: 280: 276: 272: 268: 267: 262: 261: 256: 255: 250: 249: 244: 243: 238: 237: 232: 231: 226: 225: 220: 216: 211: 209: 205: 201: 200:plutonium-238 197: 192: 190: 186: 182: 178: 173: 169: 161: 157: 153: 152: 147: 146: 137: 132: 125: 123: 121: 120:radioisotopes 116: 114: 113:Arctic Circle 110: 107:built by the 106: 102: 98: 94: 90: 85: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 62:thermocouples 59: 55: 51: 47: 40: 38: 32: 19: 7437: 7425:The Farthest 7423: 7251: 7244: 7187:Voyager team 7176: 7168: 7106: 7099: 7041: 7029: 7017: 7005: 6787:Oil refinery 6779: 6731:Cogeneration 6664:Nuclear fuel 6470:Quintessence 6258:Free entropy 6191:Energy level 6155:Fundamental 6080: 6068: 6049: 6029:Pyroelectric 5983:Laser-driven 5763:Sodium (SFR) 5690:fast-neutron 5529: 5075: 4965:Reprocessing 4846:WMD treaties 4665:Radiosurgery 4635:Fast-neutron 4607:Scintigraphy 4538: 4227: 4171: 4134: 4120: 4074: 4068: 4057: 4045: 4033:. Retrieved 4029: 4020: 4001: 3990: 3978:. Retrieved 3974:the original 3964: 3945: 3933: 3914: 3884: 3872:. Retrieved 3867: 3858: 3846: 3834:. Retrieved 3827:the original 3814: 3802:. Retrieved 3789: 3777:. Retrieved 3772: 3763: 3751:. Retrieved 3746: 3736: 3724:. Retrieved 3714: 3702:. Retrieved 3696: 3687: 3671: 3654: 3619: 3615: 3589:the original 3576: 3545: 3537: 3529: 3507:the original 3502: 3488: 3463: 3449: 3430: 3426: 3416: 3398: 3365:. Retrieved 3362:www.lanl.gov 3361: 3352: 3341: 3330: 3298:. Retrieved 3294:the original 3289: 3280: 3270:14 September 3268:. Retrieved 3259: 3249:14 September 3247:. Retrieved 3236: 3224:. Retrieved 3220:the original 3195:13 September 3193:. Retrieved 3189:the original 3175: 3163:. Retrieved 3159:the original 3101:. Retrieved 3088: 3053: 3047: 3020: 3016: 3006: 2994:. Retrieved 2990:the original 2980: 2968:. Retrieved 2955: 2944:the original 2935: 2905:. Retrieved 2901:the original 2890: 2873: 2867: 2857: 2846:the original 2837: 2831: 2819:. 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Retrieved 2548: 2485:Betavoltaics 2430:have become 2417: 2405: 2377:Tonga trench 2369:Lunar Module 2358:polonium-210 2317: 2277:Strontium-90 2266: 2255: 2215: 2199: 2190: 2183: 2179: 2172: 2141:strontium-90 2137:Soviet Union 2126: 2081:skutterudite 2074: 2069: 2065: 2052:used by the 2047: 2044: 2005: 1969: 1925:polonium-210 1922: 1807:Strontium-90 1805: 1796: 1763: 1723: 1566: 1508: 1500:strontium-90 1490: 1483: 1439:decay energy 1397: 1391:New Horizons 1389: 1376: 1039: 1036: 1029: 894:Apollo 12–17 829: 825: 820: 714: 707: 667: 660: 654:New Horizons 653: 646: 609:Perseverance 602: 583:Electrical ( 578:mass (W/kg) 573:mass (W/kg) 536: 533: 514: 505: 490: 461: 458:Developments 432: 428:temperatures 409: 394: 381: 369:strontium-90 350: 326:Soviet Union 323: 295:Tonga Trench 266:New Horizons 264: 258: 252: 246: 240: 234: 228: 222: 219:solar panels 212: 208:Fairway Rock 193: 177:polonium-210 165: 150: 144: 134:A pellet of 117: 109:Soviet Union 101:space probes 86: 53: 49: 45: 43: 36: 7292:Observation 7278:Frank Drake 7043:WikiProject 6863:Agriculture 6792:Solar power 6758:Tidal power 6632:Natural gas 6622:Fossil fuel 6565:Latent heat 6533:Electricity 5940:Stellarator 5904:confinement 5798:Superphénix 5625:Molten-salt 5577:VHTR (HTGR) 5354:HW BLWR 250 5320:R4 Marviken 5249:Pressurized 5219:Heavy water 5203:many others 5132:Pressurized 5087:Light water 4789:underground 4747:Disarmament 4655:Tomotherapy 4650:Proton-beam 4514:Power plant 4476:Temperature 4309:Engineering 3753:12 November 3560:Rod Adams, 3103:28 November 3023:: 291–296. 2876:: 314–318. 2424:lighthouses 1861:bone marrow 1569:maintain a 1478:decay chain 1474:decay modes 1262:Sentinel 25 1052:Terrestrial 927:Buk (BES-5) 571:Power/total 501:ion engines 373:ocean floor 111:inside the 105:lighthouses 93:solar cells 74:electricity 70:radioactive 7444:Categories 7327:Prometheus 7283:Carl Sagan 7258:Titan IIIE 7118:Components 7093:Spacecraft 6826:Wind power 6748:Hydropower 6699:components 6654:Hydropower 6644:Geothermal 6594:Sound wave 6505:Zero-point 6435:Mechanical 6420:Ionization 6393:Electrical 6288:Negentropy 6169:Energetics 5965:(acoustic) 5582:PBR (PBMR) 4970:Spent fuel 4960:Repository 4940:Fuel cycle 4907:Activation 4684:Processing 4551:Propulsion 4509:by country 4441:Activation 4230:RTG Debate 4112:References 4035:18 January 3874:30 January 3836:10 October 3779:19 October 3582:"Polonium" 3546:Space News 3367:2 November 3290:bellona.no 3165:19 October 3080:1300218719 2996:22 October 2970:22 October 2580:21 January 2559:21 January 2448:dirty bomb 2444:terrorists 2412:Nanda Devi 2328:Madagascar 2281:Enguri Dam 2240:(640 2133:dirty bomb 2024:reflecting 2007:Curium-250 1933:decay rate 1929:140 W 1865:perovskite 1535:molar mass 1513:form. 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