465:, and represent relatively small segments of DNA that contain necessary genetic signals for replication, as well as additional elements for convenience in inserting foreign DNA, identifying cells that contain recombinant DNA, and, where appropriate, expressing the foreign DNA. The choice of vector for molecular cloning depends on the choice of host organism, the size of the DNA to be cloned, and whether and how the foreign DNA is to be expressed. The DNA segments can be combined by using a variety of methods, such as restriction enzyme/ligase cloning or
576:" genes to determine their biological function and importance. Another mechanism by which rDNA insertion into chromosomal DNA can affect gene expression is by inappropriate activation of previously unexpressed host cell genes. This can happen, for example, when a recombinant DNA fragment containing an active promoter becomes located next to a previously silent host cell gene, or when a host cell gene that functions to restrain gene expression undergoes insertional inactivation by recombinant DNA.
27:
450:(PCR), used to direct the replication of any specific DNA sequence chosen by the experimentalist. There are two fundamental differences between the methods. One is that molecular cloning involves replication of the DNA within a living cell, while PCR replicates DNA in the test tube, free of living cells. The other difference is that cloning involves cutting and pasting DNA sequences, while PCR amplifies by copying an existing sequence.
58:
596:. Today, recombinant proteins and other products that result from the use of DNA technology are found in essentially every western pharmacy, physician or veterinarian office, medical testing laboratory, and biological research laboratory. In addition, organisms that have been manipulated using recombinant DNA technology, as well as products derived from those organisms, have found their way into many farms,
979:
859:) with insecticidal properties. The bacterium has been applied to crops as an insect-control strategy for many years, and this practice has been widely adopted in agriculture and gardening. Recently, plants have been developed that express a recombinant form of the bacterial protein, which may effectively control some insect predators. Environmental issues associated with the use of these
955:(USA) developed and issued formal guidelines for rDNA work. Today, recombinant DNA molecules and recombinant proteins are usually not regarded as dangerous. However, concerns remain about some organisms that express recombinant DNA, particularly when they leave the laboratory and are introduced into the environment or food chain. These concerns are discussed in the articles on
434:
537:). Specific changes to the host organism may be made to improve expression of the ectopic gene. In addition, changes may be needed to the coding sequences as well, to optimize translation, make the protein soluble, direct the recombinant protein to the proper cellular or extracellular location, and stabilize the protein from degradation.
701:(e.g. glycosylation) whereas yeasts are able to perform these modifications themselves by virtue of being more complex host organisms. The advantage of recombinant human insulin is after chronic use patients don't develop an immune defence against it the way animal sourced insulin stimulates the human immune system.
615:
The most common application of recombinant DNA is in basic research, in which the technology is important to most current work in the biological and biomedical sciences. Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map and sequence genes, and to determine their function. rDNA probes are employed in analyzing
560:
methods. Gross phenotypic changes are not the norm, unless the recombinant gene has been chosen and modified so as to generate biological activity in the host organism. Additional phenotypes that are encountered include toxicity to the host organism induced by the recombinant gene product, especially
670:
bacteria for large-scale laboratory production of the enzyme. This microbiologically produced recombinant enzyme, identical structurally to the calf derived enzyme, costs less and is produced in abundant quantities. Today about 60% of U.S. hard cheese is made with genetically engineered chymosin. In
734:, who are unable to produce factor VIII in quantities sufficient to support normal blood coagulation. Before the development of recombinant factor VIII, the protein was obtained by processing large quantities of human blood from multiple donors, which carried a very high risk of transmission of
472:
In standard cloning protocols, the cloning of any DNA fragment essentially involves seven steps: (1) Choice of host organism and cloning vector, (2) Preparation of vector DNA, (3) Preparation of DNA to be cloned, (4) Creation of recombinant DNA, (5) Introduction of recombinant DNA into the host
421:. When recombinant DNA encoding a protein is introduced into a host organism, the recombinant protein is not necessarily produced. Expression of foreign proteins requires the use of specialized expression vectors and often necessitates significant restructuring by foreign coding sequences.
713:
Administered to patients whose pituitary glands generate insufficient quantities to support normal growth and development. Before recombinant HGH became available, HGH for therapeutic use was obtained from pituitary glands of cadavers. This unsafe practice led to some patients developing
549:. That is, their appearance, behavior and metabolism are usually unchanged, and the only way to demonstrate the presence of recombinant sequences is to examine the DNA itself, typically using a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test. Significant exceptions exist, and are discussed below.
775:(rAbs) are produced in vitro by the means of expression systems based on mammalian cells. Their monospecific binding to a specific epitope makes rAbs eligible not only for research purposes, but also as therapy options against certain cancer types, infections and autoimmune diseases.
382:
Recombinant DNA is the general name for a piece of DNA that has been created by combining two or more fragments from different sources. Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share the same chemical structure, differing only in the
1901:
Paine, J. A.; Shipton, C. A.; Chaggar, S.; Howells, R. M.; Kennedy, M. J.; Vernon, G.; Wright, S. Y.; Hinchliffe, E.; Adams, J. L.; Silverstone, A. L.; Drake, R. (2005). "Improving the nutritional value of Golden Rice through increased pro-vitamin a content".
756:, which contains a form of the hepatitis B virus surface antigen that is produced in yeast cells. The development of the recombinant subunit vaccine was an important and necessary development because hepatitis B virus, unlike other common viruses such as
616:
gene expression within individual cells, and throughout the tissues of whole organisms. Recombinant proteins are widely used as reagents in laboratory experiments and to generate antibody probes for examining protein synthesis within cells and organisms.
664:. It was the first genetically engineered food additive used commercially. Traditionally, processors obtained chymosin from rennet, a preparation derived from the fourth stomach of milk-fed calves. Scientists engineered a non-pathogenic strain (K-12) of
1620:
424:
Recombinant DNA differs from genetic recombination in that the former results from artificial methods while the latter is a normal biological process that results in the remixing of existing DNA sequences in essentially all organisms.
2317:
833:
Commercial varieties of important agricultural crops (including soy, maize/corn, sorghum, canola, alfalfa and cotton) have been developed that incorporate a recombinant gene that results in resistance to the herbicide
946:
Scientists associated with the initial development of recombinant DNA methods recognized that the potential existed for organisms containing recombinant DNA to have undesirable or dangerous properties. At the 1975
888:, a professor in the Biochemistry Department at Stanford and an author on one of the first papers was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on nucleic acids "with particular regard to recombinant DNA".
875:
in the
Biochemistry Department at Stanford University Medical School. The first publications describing the successful production and intracellular replication of recombinant DNA appeared in 1972 and 1973, from
619:
Many additional practical applications of recombinant DNA are found in industry, food production, human and veterinary medicine, agriculture, and bioengineering. Some specific examples are identified below.
951:, these concerns were discussed and a voluntary moratorium on recombinant DNA research was initiated for experiments that were considered particularly risky. This moratorium was widely observed until the
30:
Construction of recombinant DNA, in which a foreign DNA fragment is inserted into a plasmid vector. In this example, the gene indicated by the white color is inactivated upon insertion of the foreign DNA
1616:
1530:
Ye, X.; Al-Babili, S.; Klöti, A.; Zhang, J.; Lucca, P.; Beyer, P.; Potrykus, I. (2000). "Engineering the provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm".
2094:"Biochemical method for inserting new genetic information into DNA of Simian Virus 40: Circular SV40 DNA molecules containing lambda phage genes and the galactose operon of Escherichia coli"
410:. For example, plant DNA can be joined to bacterial DNA, or human DNA can be joined with fungal DNA. In addition, DNA sequences that do not occur anywhere in nature can be created by the
339:
963:. Furthermore, there are concerns about the by-products in biopharmaceutical production, where recombinant DNA result in specific protein products. The major by-product, termed
517:
and a recombinant protein is produced. Generally speaking, expression of a foreign gene requires restructuring the gene to include sequences that are required for producing an
414:
and incorporated into recombinant DNA molecules. Using recombinant DNA technology and synthetic DNA, any DNA sequence can be created and introduced into living organisms.
930:); this patent, U.S. 4,237,224A, was awarded on December 2, 1980. The first licensed drug generated using recombinant DNA technology was human insulin, developed by
2818:
800:
1745:
Von Fange, T.; McDiarmid, T.; MacKler, L.; Zolotor, A. (2008). "Clinical inquiries: Can recombinant growth hormone effectively treat idiopathic short stature?".
552:
If the rDNA sequences encode a gene that is expressed, then the presence of RNA and/or protein products of the recombinant gene can be detected, typically using
2756:
718:. Recombinant HGH eliminated this problem, and is now used therapeutically. It has also been misused as a performance-enhancing drug by athletes and others.
691:. A variety of different recombinant insulin preparations are in widespread use. Recombinant insulin is synthesized by inserting the human insulin gene into
2700:
3391:
2489:"The future of host cell protein (HCP) identification during process development and manufacturing linked to a risk-based management for their control"
1342:
Mahmoudi Gomari, Mohammad; Saraygord-Afshari, Neda; Farsimadan, Marziye; Rostami, Neda; Aghamiri, Shahin; Farajollahia, Mohammad M. (1 December 2020).
332:
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organism, (6) Selection of organisms containing recombinant DNA, and (7) Screening for clones with desired DNA inserts and biological properties.
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DNA expression requires the transfection of suitable host cells. Typically, either bacterial, yeast, insect, or mammalian cells (such as
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in the world's population. Golden rice is not currently in use, pending the resolution of regulatory and intellectual property issues.
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Following transplantation into the host organism, the foreign DNA contained within the recombinant DNA construct may or may not be
446:
Molecular cloning is the laboratory process used to produce recombinant DNA. It is one of two most widely used methods, along with
2363:
568:
In some cases, recombinant DNA can have deleterious effects even if it is not expressed. One mechanism by which this happens is
3439:
2982:
1344:"Opportunities and challenges of the tag-assisted protein purification techniques: Applications in the pharmaceutical industry"
698:
170:
2318:"Making dollars out of DNA. The first major patent in biotechnology and the commercialization of molecular biology, 1974-1980"
1858:
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that the body has produced in response to an HIV infection. The DNA test looks for the presence of HIV genetic material using
697:, or yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) which then produces insulin for human use. Insulin produced by E. coli requires further
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803:(RT-PCR). Development of the RT-PCR test was made possible by the molecular cloning and sequence analysis of HIV genomes.
79:
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842:), and simplifies weed control by glyphosate application. These crops are in common commercial use in several countries.
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Hannig, G.; Makrides, S. (1998). "Strategies for optimizing heterologous protein expression in
Escherichia coli".
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3081:
2992:
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2731:, MC-0100. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Department of Distinctive Collections, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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905:
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572:, in which the rDNA becomes inserted into a host cell's gene. In some cases, researchers use this phenomenon to "
447:
411:
260:
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125:
101:
967:, comes from the host expression system and poses a threat to the patient's health and the overall environment.
687:
has almost completely replaced insulin obtained from animal sources (e.g. pigs and cattle) for the treatment of
1017:
510:
17:
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2698:
Animation illustrating construction of recombinant DNA and foreign protein production by recombinant bacteria
1946:
1632:
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Peter Walter; Alberts, Bruce; Johnson, Alexander S.; Lewis, Julian; Raff, Martin C.; Roberts, Keith (2008).
530:
293:
220:
165:
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Brondyk, W. H. (2009). "Chapter 11 Selecting an
Appropriate Method for Expressing a Recombinant Protein".
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1983:
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1440:"Multi-compartment and multi-host vector suite for recombinant protein expression and purification"
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is a recombinant variety of rice that has been engineered to express the enzymes responsible for
526:
489:
2712:
Edited transcript of 1994 interview with
Herbert W. Boyer, Living history project. Oral history.
1438:
Ortega, Claudia; Prieto, Daniel; Abreu, Cecilia; Oppezzo, Pablo Javier; Correa, Agustin (2018).
303:
2432:"Host cell proteins in biologics development: Identification, quantitation and risk assessment"
1823:
Manco-Johnson, M. J. (2010). "Advances in the Care and
Treatment of Children with Hemophilia".
417:
Proteins that can result from the expression of recombinant DNA within living cells are termed
406:
The DNA sequences used in the construction of recombinant DNA molecules can originate from any
3516:
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2011:
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2001:
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1402:
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871:
The idea of recombinant DNA was first proposed by Peter Lobban, a graduate student of Prof.
2322:
Isis; an
International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences
914:
applied for a U.S. patent on recombinant DNA on
November 4, 1974, listing the inventors as
821:
biosynthesis. This variety of rice holds substantial promise for reducing the incidence of
3338:
3181:
3140:
3050:
2722:
2704:
750:
688:
506:
466:
457:, a DNA molecule that replicates within a living cell. Vectors are generally derived from
57:
2670:
2400:
2262:
2168:
2109:
1987:
1594:
1543:
23:
DNA molecules formed by human agency at a molecular level generating novel DNA sequences
3364:
3359:
3294:
3196:
3033:
2997:
2521:
2488:
2006:
1971:
1772:
Fernandez, M.; Hosey, R. (2009). "Performance-enhancing drugs snare nonathletes, too".
1684:
1474:
1439:
1087:
1052:
984:
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872:
730:, a blood-clotting protein that is administered to patients with the bleeding disorder
706:
298:
227:
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1406:
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272:
205:
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2359:
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1567:
3328:
3227:
3206:
3055:
2877:
1862:
1581:
Koller, B. H.; Smithies, O. (1992). "Altering Genes in
Animals by Gene Targeting".
889:
804:
792:
557:
372:
267:
215:
2303:
1931:
391:
because they can be made of material from two different species like the mythical
2587:
1551:
1118:
3191:
2854:
2210:
Lobban, P.; Kaiser, A. (1973). "Enzymatic end-to end joining of DNA molecules".
814:
757:
746:
727:
2251:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2157:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2098:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1836:
978:
3232:
2895:
1012:
974:
860:
835:
796:
731:
384:
2512:
2457:
1658:
Gualandi-Signorini, A.; Giorgi, G. (2001). "Insulin formulations--a review".
1465:
1456:
1367:
1078:
1069:
1053:"Recombinant protein expression in Escherichia coli: advances and challenges"
509:. That is, the DNA may simply be replicated without expression, or it may be
3544:
3511:
3386:
3045:
3038:
2977:
2972:
2931:
2913:
2408:
2271:
2177:
2118:
1996:
931:
885:
546:
2530:
2465:
2351:
2054:
2015:
1923:
1844:
1785:
1758:
1671:
1559:
1483:
1424:
1375:
1096:
545:
In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal
2715:
2416:
2290:
2231:
2196:
2137:
1602:
1328:
749:
infection can be successfully controlled through the use of a recombinant
433:
3534:
3501:
3304:
3299:
3176:
2153:"Cleavage of DNA by R 1 restriction endonuclease generates cohesive ends"
2046:
1970:
Funke, T.; Han, H.; Healy-Fried, M.; Fischer, M.; Schönbrunn, E. (2006).
856:
784:
761:
633:
593:
589:
2710:
Recombinant DNA research at UCSF and commercial application at Genentech
2387:
Johnson, I. S. (1983). "Human insulin from recombinant DNA technology".
1799:
1696:
1647:
Food Biotechnology in the United States: Science, Regulation, and Issues
3529:
3506:
3086:
2987:
2836:
2808:
2803:
693:
684:
666:
605:
601:
458:
407:
371:) that bring together genetic material from multiple sources, creating
2734:
2504:
2487:
Bracewell, Daniel G.; Francis, Richard; Smales, C. Mark (2015-07-14).
2448:
2431:
2342:
2967:
2905:
2247:"Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro"
1972:"Molecular basis for the herbicide resistance of Roundup Ready crops"
653:
641:
629:
553:
376:
237:
2557:. 2nd edition: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, 1996 paperback:
2030:
1915:
2333:
16:
This article is about DNA molecules. For the GPU architecture, see
3284:
2304:"Process for producing biologically functional molecular chimeras"
788:
462:
232:
25:
1646:
1186:. Fourth edition is available online through the NCBI Bookshelf:
2716:
Recombinant Protein Purification Principles and Methods Handbook
675:" (GRAS) status based on data showing that the enzyme was safe.
661:
657:
518:
2738:
2547:
The Eighth Day of Creation: Makers of the Revolution in Biology
475:
These steps are described in some detail in a related article (
2029:
Mendelsohn, M.; Kough, J.; Vaituzis, Z.; Matthews, K. (2003).
360:
2727:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Oral History Program,
2589:
Gene Jockeys: Life Science and the rise of Biotech Enterprise
1859:"Hepatitis B Vaccine Information from Hepatitis B Foundation"
1199:
Berg, Jeremy Mark; Tymoczko, John L.; Stryer, Lubert (2010).
1172:
Molecular Biology of the Cell (5th edition, Extended version)
795:) uses a recombinant HIV protein to test for the presence of
787:
has been developed using recombinant DNA. The antibody test (
1287:"Recombinant DNA technology – Steps, Methods & Examples"
1885:"Recombinant Antibodies: Next level in antibody technology"
1215:
Fifth edition available online through the NCBI Bookshelf:
2729:
Oral History Collection on the Recombinant DNA Controversy
2430:
Wang, Xing; Hunter, Alan K.; Mozier, Ned M. (2009-06-15).
1401:. Methods in Enzymology. Vol. 463. pp. 131–147.
1264:. Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.
805:
HIV testing page from US Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
2606:
DNA: A Graphic Guide to the Molecule that Shook the World
387:
sequence. Recombinant DNA molecules are sometimes called
1722:"HSC Biology Recombinant technology: Insulin production"
1660:
European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences
1051:
Rosano, Germán L.; Ceccarelli, Eduardo A. (2014-04-17).
2621:
The Stuff of Life: A Graphic Guide to Genetics and DNA
2245:
Cohen, S.; Chang, A.; Boyer, H.; Helling, R. (1973).
2819:
List of varieties of genetically modified maize/corn
1497:
1495:
1493:
565:
or expressed within inappropriate cells or tissues.
3494:
3448:
3430:
3377:
3347:
3315:
3252:
3245:
3215:
3162:
3153:
3116:
3069:
3019:
3010:
2940:
2922:
2904:
2886:
2863:
2845:
2827:
2794:
2785:
2772:
2591:, Johns Hopkins University Press, (Baltimore), 2014
1226:
1224:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1144:. San Francisco: Addison Wesley. pp. 375–401.
1257:
1233:Recombinant DNA: Genes and Genomes: A Short Course
908:which enhanced the techniques of rDNA technology.
855:is a bacterium that naturally produces a protein (
541:Properties of organisms containing recombinant DNA
1947:"Foreign group roots for 'golden rice' in India"
1896:
1894:
1525:
1523:
1140:Campbell, Neil A. & Reece, Jane B.. (2002).
2087:
2085:
1976:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1617:"Chymosin - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
801:reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction
1504:Gene Cloning and DNA Analysis: an Introduction
604:, and even pet shops, such as those that sell
2750:
333:
8:
2694:(Fact sheet from San Diego State University)
1256:Russell, David W.; Sambrook, Joseph (2001).
1111:"Promoters used to regulate gene expression"
636:is the enzyme responsible for hydrolysis of
3392:Detection of genetically modified organisms
1201:Biochemistry, 7th ed. (Biochemistry (Berg))
3249:
3159:
3016:
2791:
2782:
2757:
2743:
2735:
2092:Jackson, D.; Symons, R.; Berg, P. (1972).
1399:Guide to Protein Purification, 2nd Edition
783:Each of the three widely used methods for
652:, which is the first step in formation of
363:molecules formed by laboratory methods of
340:
326:
34:
2520:
2447:
2341:
2280:
2270:
2186:
2176:
2127:
2117:
2005:
1995:
1473:
1455:
1086:
1068:
375:that would not otherwise be found in the
1645:Donna U. Vogt and Mickey Parish. (1999)
521:molecule that can be used by the host's
453:Formation of recombinant DNA requires a
432:
2619:Schultz, Mark and Zander Cannon. 2009.
1043:
961:genetically modified food controversies
920:University of California, San Francisco
289:Genetically modified food controversies
280:
247:
180:
145:
69:
46:
1260:Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual
993:Asilomar conference on recombinant DNA
949:Asilomar Conference on Recombinant DNA
722:Recombinant blood clotting factor VIII
902:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
7:
2079:. New York: Crown Publishers. p. 43.
863:crops have not been fully resolved.
2151:Mertz, J. E.; Davis, R. W. (1972).
1595:10.1146/annurev.iy.10.040192.003421
1285:Eberle, Christian (December 2022).
738:, for example HIV and hepatitis B.
3422:Genetic use restriction technology
2688:(from University of New Hampshire)
584:Recombinant DNA is widely used in
14:
2077:Recombinant DNA: The Untold Story
2493:Biotechnology and Bioengineering
2436:Biotechnology and Bioengineering
1506:. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell Pub.
1360:10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107653
977:
699:post translational modifications
56:
3440:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
1623:from the original on 2023-12-10
1235:. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
742:Recombinant hepatitis B vaccine
736:blood borne infectious diseases
580:Applications of recombinant DNA
531:translational initiation signal
399:and leads to the production of
171:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
2306:, retrieved from Google Patent
1774:The Journal of Family Practice
1747:The Journal of Family Practice
1203:. W.H. Freeman & Company.
957:genetically modified organisms
726:It is the recombinant form of
71:Genetically modified organisms
1:
3202:Somatic cell nuclear transfer
2608:. Columbia University Press:
1407:10.1016/S0076-6879(09)63011-1
1321:10.1016/S0167-7799(97)01155-4
1174:. New York: Garland Science.
1003:Genetically modified organism
953:National Institutes of Health
2676:Resources in other libraries
2572:. Cold Spring Harbor Press:
2224:10.1016/0022-2836(73)90468-3
2212:Journal of Molecular Biology
1861:. 2011-06-28. Archived from
1720:Mills, Joshua (2022-05-16).
1634:Link to original publication
1552:10.1126/science.287.5451.303
673:generally recognized as safe
671:1990, FDA granted chymosin "
610:genetically modified animals
496:Human Embryonic Kidney cells
2570:DNA Science: A First Course
1583:Annual Review of Immunology
3612:
2686:Recombinant DNA fact sheet
1837:10.1016/j.yapd.2010.08.007
1023:Recombinant DNA technology
779:Diagnosis of HIV infection
535:transcriptional terminator
502:) are used as host cells.
487:
439:
256:Genetically modified crops
15:
3525:
3260:Genetically modified food
2671:Resources in your library
2604:Rosenfeld, Israel. 2010.
1444:Frontiers in Microbiology
1231:Watson, James D. (2007).
1057:Frontiers in Microbiology
906:restriction endonucleases
829:Herbicide-resistant crops
716:Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease
679:Recombinant human insulin
448:polymerase chain reaction
412:chemical synthesis of DNA
1457:10.3389/fmicb.2018.01384
1070:10.3389/fmicb.2014.00172
1018:Biomolecular engineering
785:diagnosing HIV infection
570:insertional inactivation
18:RDNA (microarchitecture)
2636:DNA: The Secret of Life
2409:10.1126/science.6337396
2272:10.1073/pnas.70.11.3240
2178:10.1073/pnas.69.11.3370
2119:10.1073/pnas.69.10.2904
1997:10.1073/pnas.0603638103
1309:Trends in Biotechnology
523:translational apparatus
395:. rDNA technology uses
294:GMO conspiracy theories
166:Substantial equivalence
2568:Micklas, David. 2003.
1883:Narang, Aarti (2022).
1825:Advances in Pediatrics
1348:Biotechnology Advances
852:Bacillus thuringiensis
846:Insect-resistant crops
773:Recombinant antibodies
768:Recombinant antibodies
602:home medicine cabinets
437:
146:History and regulation
32:
3596:1972 in biotechnology
2873:Roundup ready soybean
2634:Watson, James. 2004.
1502:Brown, Terry (2006).
936:Eli Lilly and Company
904:for the discovery of
558:western hybridization
436:
401:sticky and blunt ends
397:palindromic sequences
365:genetic recombination
29:
3412:Reverse transfection
3187:Genetic transduction
2662:Recombinant proteins
2549:. Touchstone Books,
2047:10.1038/nbt0903-1003
2035:Nature Biotechnology
2031:"Are Bt crops safe?"
1904:Nature Biotechnology
1121:on 24 September 2018
1033:T7 expression system
823:vitamin A deficiency
624:Recombinant chymosin
419:recombinant proteins
309:StarLink corn recall
3576:Genetics techniques
3566:American inventions
3402:Genetics in fiction
3334:Genetic enhancement
3136:Hepatitis B vaccine
2766:Genetic engineering
2401:1983Sci...219..632J
2316:Hughes, S. (2001).
2263:1973PNAS...70.3240C
2169:1972PNAS...69.3370M
2110:1972PNAS...69.2904J
1988:2006PNAS..10313010F
1982:(35): 13010–13015.
1544:2000Sci...287..303Y
998:Genetic engineering
928:Stanford University
912:Stanford University
754:hepatitis B vaccine
709:(HGH, somatotropin)
656:, and subsequently
49:Genetic engineering
3581:Molecular genetics
3571:Biopharmaceuticals
3512:Stem cell research
3131:Ice-minus bacteria
2721:2008-12-05 at the
2703:2012-03-28 at the
2692:Plasmids in Yeasts
2584:Rasmussen, Nicolas
918:(professor at the
760:, cannot be grown
705:Recombinant human
683:Recombinant human
490:Protein production
438:
33:
3591:Synthetic biology
3586:Molecular biology
3553:
3552:
3517:Synthetic biology
3407:Human enhancement
3397:Genetic pollution
3373:
3372:
3241:
3240:
3149:
3148:
3112:
3111:
3006:
3005:
2657:Library resources
2644:978-0-09-945184-6
2623:. Hill and Wang:
2614:978-0-231-14271-7
2599:978-1-42141-340-2
2578:978-0-87969-636-8
2505:10.1002/bit.25628
2449:10.1002/bit.22304
2395:(4585): 632–637.
2257:(11): 3240–3244.
2104:(10): 2904–2909.
2075:Lear, J. (1978).
1538:(5451): 303–305.
1513:978-1-4051-1121-8
1271:978-0-87969-576-7
1242:978-0-7167-2866-5
1210:978-1-4292-2936-4
1181:978-0-8153-4111-6
1151:978-0-201-75054-6
1142:Biology (6th ed.)
1028:Host cell protein
1008:Recombinant virus
965:host cell protein
650:glycomacropeptide
477:molecular cloning
442:Molecular cloning
369:molecular cloning
350:
349:
314:He Jiankui affair
194:Molecular cloning
3603:
3290:Dow AgroSciences
3250:
3160:
3017:
2792:
2783:
2759:
2752:
2745:
2736:
2638:. Random House:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2499:(9): 1727–1737.
2484:
2478:
2477:
2451:
2427:
2421:
2420:
2384:
2378:
2377:
2375:
2374:
2368:
2362:. Archived from
2345:
2313:
2307:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2284:
2274:
2242:
2236:
2235:
2207:
2201:
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2180:
2148:
2142:
2141:
2131:
2121:
2089:
2080:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2041:(9): 1003–1009.
2026:
2020:
2019:
2009:
1999:
1967:
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1196:
1190:
1185:
1167:
1156:
1155:
1137:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1117:. Archived from
1107:
1101:
1100:
1090:
1072:
1048:
987:
982:
981:
934:and licensed by
924:Stanley N. Cohen
916:Herbert W. Boyer
900:shared the 1978
644:to produce para-
359:) molecules are
342:
335:
328:
60:
35:
3611:
3610:
3606:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3601:
3600:
3556:
3555:
3554:
3549:
3521:
3490:
3444:
3426:
3379:
3369:
3343:
3339:Genetic testing
3321:
3311:
3237:
3223:Recombinant DNA
3211:
3182:Electroporation
3145:
3141:Oncolytic virus
3120:
3108:
3065:
3051:Herman the Bull
3002:
2936:
2918:
2900:
2882:
2859:
2841:
2823:
2777:
2775:
2768:
2763:
2723:Wayback Machine
2705:Wayback Machine
2682:
2681:
2680:
2665:
2664:
2660:
2653:
2543:
2541:Further reading
2538:
2486:
2485:
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2428:
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2028:
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1969:
1968:
1964:
1955:
1953:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1916:10.1038/nbt1082
1900:
1899:
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1877:
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1866:
1857:
1856:
1852:
1822:
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1817:
1808:
1806:
1804:go.drugbank.com
1798:
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1766:
1744:
1743:
1739:
1730:
1728:
1719:
1718:
1714:
1705:
1703:
1701:go.drugbank.com
1697:"Insulin human"
1695:
1694:
1690:
1685:#Insulin aspart
1683:
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711:
689:type 1 diabetes
681:
626:
582:
543:
492:
486:
467:Gibson assembly
444:
431:
353:Recombinant DNA
346:
304:Séralini affair
199:Recombinant DNA
24:
21:
12:
11:
5:
3609:
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3599:
3598:
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3498:
3496:
3495:Similar fields
3492:
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3399:
3394:
3389:
3383:
3381:
3375:
3374:
3371:
3370:
3368:
3367:
3365:Gene targeting
3362:
3360:Gene knockdown
3357:
3351:
3349:
3345:
3344:
3342:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3325:
3323:
3313:
3312:
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3309:
3308:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3295:DuPont Pioneer
3292:
3287:
3282:
3274:
3269:
3268:
3267:
3256:
3254:
3253:In agriculture
3247:
3243:
3242:
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3238:
3236:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3219:
3217:
3213:
3212:
3210:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3197:Microinjection
3194:
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3179:
3174:
3168:
3166:
3157:
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3067:
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3048:
3043:
3042:
3041:
3036:
3034:Knockout mouse
3025:
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3014:
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2654:
2652:
2651:External links
2649:
2648:
2647:
2632:
2617:
2602:
2581:
2566:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2536:
2479:
2442:(3): 446–458.
2422:
2379:
2334:10.1086/385281
2328:(3): 541–575.
2308:
2296:
2237:
2218:(3): 453–471.
2202:
2163:(11): 3370–4.
2143:
2081:
2068:
2021:
1962:
1937:
1910:(4): 482–487.
1890:
1875:
1850:
1831:(1): 287–294.
1815:
1800:"Somatotropin"
1791:
1764:
1753:(9): 611–612.
1737:
1712:
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1115:www.cambia.org
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1005:
1000:
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989:
988:
985:Biology portal
972:
969:
943:
940:
926:(professor at
898:Daniel Nathans
894:Hamilton Smith
868:
865:
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707:growth hormone
703:
680:
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625:
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578:
563:over-expressed
542:
539:
488:Main article:
485:
484:DNA expression
482:
455:cloning vector
440:Main article:
430:
427:
348:
347:
345:
344:
337:
330:
322:
319:
318:
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311:
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299:Pusztai affair
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3540:Biotechnology
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3481:South America
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3417:Transhumanism
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3355:Gene knockout
3353:
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3265:Controversies
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3164:Inserting DNA
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36:
28:
19:
3329:Gene therapy
3228:Transgenesis
3222:
3207:Transfection
3172:Agrobacteria
3056:Knockout rat
2878:Vistive Gold
2774:Genetically
2661:
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2620:
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2364:the original
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1950:
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1867:. Retrieved
1863:the original
1853:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1807:. Retrieved
1803:
1794:
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1767:
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1280:
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1119:the original
1114:
1105:
1060:
1056:
1046:
945:
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890:Werner Arber
870:
850:
849:
839:
838:(trade name
832:
813:
793:western blot
782:
771:
745:
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712:
692:
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665:
648:-casein and
645:
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598:supermarkets
583:
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551:
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452:
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418:
416:
405:
389:chimeric DNA
388:
381:
356:
352:
351:
268:Gene therapy
248:Applications
221:Transduction
216:Transfection
198:
47:
3348:In research
3322:diagnostics
3192:Lipofection
2953:Arabidopsis
2855:Golden rice
1589:: 705–730.
1125:16 February
942:Controversy
873:Dale Kaiser
815:Golden rice
810:Golden rice
758:polio virus
747:Hepatitis B
728:factor VIII
511:transcribed
3560:Categories
3432:Regulation
3276:Companies
3233:Cisgenesis
3177:Biolistics
2983:Sugar beet
2896:Flavr Savr
2796:Maize/corn
2373:2019-09-05
2343:10161/8125
1956:2023-12-10
1869:2023-12-10
1809:2023-12-10
1731:2022-12-26
1706:2023-12-10
1627:2023-12-10
1354:: 107653.
1039:References
1013:Vector DNA
884:. In 1980
861:transgenic
836:glyphosate
819:β-carotene
797:antibodies
732:hemophilia
608:and other
547:phenotypes
515:translated
429:Production
385:nucleotide
189:Techniques
161:Regulation
121:Maize/corn
3545:Bioethics
3449:Geography
3387:Transgene
3155:Processes
3046:Enviropig
3039:Oncomouse
2978:SmartStax
2914:Bt cotton
2778:organisms
2513:0006-3592
2458:0006-3592
1466:1664-302X
1384:226276355
1368:0734-9750
1079:1664-302X
932:Genentech
886:Paul Berg
628:Found in
574:knock out
561:if it is
507:expressed
500:CHO cells
373:sequences
367:(such as
31:fragment.
3535:Genetics
3502:Eugenics
3380:articles
3305:Syngenta
3300:Monsanto
3272:Pharming
3118:Bacteria
2814:StarLink
2776:modified
2719:Archived
2701:Archived
2531:25998019
2474:22707536
2466:19388135
2360:22823711
2352:11810894
2063:16392889
2055:12949561
2016:16916934
1924:15793573
1845:21056743
1786:19141266
1759:18786336
1672:12004916
1621:Archived
1568:40258379
1560:10634784
1484:29997597
1450:: 1384.
1425:19892171
1376:33157154
1292:July 18,
1097:24860555
971:See also
878:Stanford
857:Bt toxin
762:in vitro
634:chymosin
594:research
590:medicine
527:promoter
459:plasmids
80:Bacteria
40:a series
38:Part of
3530:Biology
3507:Cloning
3486:Oceania
3378:Related
3123:viruses
3087:GloFish
3077:Insects
3021:Mammals
3012:Animals
2998:Mustard
2988:Tobacco
2958:Brinjal
2865:Soybean
2837:Amflora
2809:MON 863
2804:MON 810
2522:4973824
2417:6337396
2397:Bibcode
2389:Science
2291:4594039
2259:Bibcode
2232:4754844
2197:4343968
2165:Bibcode
2138:4342968
2106:Bibcode
2007:1559744
1984:Bibcode
1603:1591000
1540:Bibcode
1532:Science
1475:6030378
1329:9487731
1088:4029002
1063:: 172.
867:History
840:Roundup
751:subunit
694:E. coli
685:insulin
667:E. coli
606:GloFish
463:viruses
408:species
393:chimera
181:Process
154:History
131:Soybean
107:Insects
97:Mammals
92:Animals
85:Viruses
3461:Africa
3456:Europe
3318:humans
3092:Salmon
3061:Rabbit
2968:Papaya
2963:Canola
2906:Cotton
2888:Tomato
2829:Potato
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116:Plants
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3216:Types
3104:Frogs
3099:Birds
3029:Mouse
2993:Trees
2948:Apple
2941:Other
2924:Wheat
2787:Crops
2470:S2CID
2367:(PDF)
2356:S2CID
2059:S2CID
1928:S2CID
1564:S2CID
1380:S2CID
789:ELISA
233:TALEN
3466:Asia
3280:BASF
3246:Uses
3121:and
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2847:Rice
2640:ISBN
2625:ISBN
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2012:PMID
1920:PMID
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1237:ISBN
1217:link
1205:ISBN
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1146:ISBN
1127:2018
1093:PMID
1075:ISSN
959:and
882:UCSF
880:and
662:whey
658:curd
592:and
519:mRNA
513:and
357:rDNA
261:food
126:Rice
102:Fish
3320:and
3316:In
2932:HB4
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2501:doi
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2444:doi
2440:103
2405:doi
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2338:hdl
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2277:PMC
2267:doi
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2124:PMC
2114:doi
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2002:PMC
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