1499:, exhibits tens of thousands of partial state of charge cycles and has outperformed traditional lead-acid, lithium, and NiMH-based cells when compared in testing in this mode against variability management power profiles. UltraBattery has kW and MW-scale installations in place in Australia, Japan, and the U.S. It has also been subjected to extensive testing in hybrid electric vehicles and has been shown to last more than 100,000 vehicle miles in on-road commercial testing in a courier vehicle. The technology is claimed to have a lifetime of 7 to 10 times that of conventional lead-acid batteries in high rate partial state-of-charge use, with safety and environmental benefits claimed over competitors like lithium-ion. Its manufacturer suggests an almost 100% recycling rate is already in place for the product.
953:(LiPo) are light in weight, offer slightly higher energy density than Li-ion at slightly higher cost, and can be made in any shape. They are available but have not displaced Li-ion in the market. A primary use is for LiPo batteries is in powering remote-controlled cars, boats and airplanes. LiPo packs are readily available on the consumer market, in various configurations, up to 44.4 V, for powering certain R/C vehicles and helicopters or drones. Some test reports warn of the risk of fire when the batteries are not used in accordance with the instructions. Independent reviews of the technology discuss the risk of fire and explosion from lithium-ion batteries under certain conditions because they use liquid electrolytes.
1570:. One drawback of capacitors compared to batteries is that the terminal voltage drops rapidly; a capacitor that has 25% of its initial energy left in it will have one-half of its initial voltage. By contrast, battery systems tend to have a terminal voltage that does not decline rapidly until nearly exhausted. This terminal voltage drop complicates the design of power electronics for use with ultracapacitors. However, there are potential benefits in cycle efficiency, lifetime, and weight compared with rechargeable systems. China started using ultracapacitors on two commercial bus routes in 2006; one of them is route 11 in
213:
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depending on the model, with the fastest taking as little as fifteen minutes. Fast chargers must have multiple ways of detecting when a cell reaches full charge (change in terminal voltage, temperature, etc.) to stop charging before harmful overcharging or overheating occurs. The fastest chargers often incorporate cooling fans to keep the cells from overheating. Battery packs intended for rapid charging may include a temperature sensor that the charger uses to protect the pack; the sensor will have one or more additional electrical contacts.
640:
batteries, not all the active material is restored to the plates on each charge/discharge cycle; eventually enough material is lost that the battery capacity is reduced. In lithium-ion types, especially on deep discharge, some reactive lithium metal can be formed on charging, which is no longer available to participate in the next discharge cycle. Sealed batteries may lose moisture from their liquid electrolyte, especially if overcharged or operated at high temperature. This reduces the cycling life.
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diffuse through a liquid electrolyte. High charging rates may produce excess gas in a battery, or may result in damaging side reactions that permanently lower the battery capacity. Very roughly, and with many exceptions and caveats, restoring a battery's full capacity in one hour or less is considered fast charging. A battery charger system will include more complex control-circuit- and charging strategies for fast charging, than for a charger designed for slower recharging.
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Wh/kg, and can eliminate cobalt, nickel and manganese from the production process. Furthermore, while initially lithium-sulfur batteries suffered from stability problems, recent research has made advances in developing lithium-sulfur batteries that cycle as long as (or longer than) batteries based on
603:
If a multi-cell battery is fully discharged, it will often be damaged due to the cell reversal effect mentioned above. It is possible however to fully discharge a battery without causing cell reversalâeither by discharging each cell separately, or by allowing each cell's internal leakage to dissipate
2124:
I've not yet heard of a LiPo that burst into flames during storage. All of the fire incidents that I'm aware of occurred during charge or discharge of the battery. Of those cases, the majority of problems happened during charge. Of those cases, the fault usually rested with either the charger or the
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that are left sitting on a shelf for long periods. For this reason it is often recommended to charge a battery that is intended to remain in storage, and to maintain its charge level by periodically recharging it. Since damage may also occur if the battery is overcharged, the optimal level of charge
536:
In some situations, such as when correcting NiCd batteries that have been previously overcharged, it may be desirable to fully discharge a battery. To avoid damage from the cell reversal effect, it is necessary to access each cell separately: each cell is individually discharged by connecting a load
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might be performed at C/20 (or a "20-hour" rate), while typical charging and discharging may occur at C/2 (two hours for full capacity). The available capacity of electrochemical cells varies depending on the discharge rate. Some energy is lost in the internal resistance of cell components (plates,
626:
Depth of discharge (DOD) is normally stated as a percentage of the nominal ampere-hour capacity; 0% DOD means no discharge. As the usable capacity of a battery system depends on the rate of discharge and the allowable voltage at the end of discharge, the depth of discharge must be qualified to show
639:
If batteries are used repeatedly even without mistreatment, they lose capacity as the number of charge cycles increases, until they are eventually considered to have reached the end of their useful life. Different battery systems have differing mechanisms for wearing out. For example, in lead-acid
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is meant for stationary storage and competes with leadâacid batteries. It aims at a low total cost of ownership per kWh of storage. This is achieved by a long and stable lifetime. The effective number of cycles is above 5000 and the battery is not damaged by deep discharge. The energy density is
489:
Battery manufacturers' technical notes often refer to voltage per cell (VPC) for the individual cells that make up the battery. For example, to charge a 12 V lead-acid battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 13.8 V across the battery's terminals.
771:
A rechargeable battery cannot be recharged at an arbitrarily high rate. The internal resistance of the battery will produce heat, and excessive temperature rise will damage or destroy a battery. For some types, the maximum charging rate will be limited by the speed at which active material can
425:
Different battery chemistries require different charging schemes. For example, some battery types can be safely recharged from a constant voltage source. Other types need to be charged with a regulated current source that tapers as the battery reaches fully charged voltage. Charging a battery
767:
Recharging time is an important parameter to the user of a product powered by rechargeable batteries. Even if the charging power supply provides enough power to operate the device as well as recharge the battery, the device is attached to an external power supply during the charging time. For
421:
Chargers take from a few minutes to several hours to charge a battery. Slow "dumb" chargers without voltage or temperature-sensing capabilities will charge at a low rate, typically taking 14 hours or more to reach a full charge. Rapid chargers can typically charge cells in two to five hours,
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when not in use. It does have drawbacks too, particularly the risk of unexpected ignition from the heat generated by the battery. Such incidents are rare and according to experts, they can be minimized "via appropriate design, installation, procedures and layers of safeguards" so the risk is
631:. Generally a rechargeable battery system will tolerate more charge/discharge cycles if the DOD is lower on each cycle. Lithium batteries can discharge to about 80 to 90% of their nominal capacity. Lead-acid batteries can discharge to about 50â60%. While flow batteries can discharge 100%.
1562:
batteries may be utilized as a method of providing a trickle-charge to a secondary battery, greatly extending the life and energy capacity of the battery system being employed; this type of arrangement is often referred to as a "hybrid betavoltaic power source" by those in the industry.
458:; a lead-acid cell that can no longer sustain a usable terminal voltage at a high current may still have usable capacity, if discharged at a much lower rate. Data sheets for rechargeable cells often list the discharge capacity on 8-hour or 20-hour or other stated time; cells for
533:. This results in the reversal of the cell's polarity while the current is flowing. The higher the required discharge rate of a battery, the better matched the cells should be, both in the type of cell and state of charge, in order to reduce the chances of cell reversal.
1450:
have been developed, and numerous research groups and organizations have demonstrated that batteries based on lithium sulfur can achieve superior energy density to other lithium technologies. Whereas lithium-ion batteries offer energy density in the range of
506:. Generally, pushing current through a discharged cell in this way causes undesirable and irreversible chemical reactions to occur, resulting in permanent damage to the cell. Cell reversal can occur under a number of circumstances, the two most common being:
517:
In the latter case, the problem occurs due to the different cells in a battery having slightly different capacities. When one cell reaches discharge level ahead of the rest, the remaining cells will force the current through the discharged cell.
528:
Cell reversal can occur to a weakly charged cell even before it is fully discharged. If the battery drain current is high enough, the cell's internal resistance can create a resistive voltage drop that is greater than the cell's forward
823:
cells, because of their origins in primary lithium cellsâthis practice can lead to confusion. In rechargeable cells the positive electrode is the cathode on discharge and the anode on charge, and vice versa for the negative electrode.
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418:, although some are equipped to use a vehicle's 12-volt DC power outlet. The voltage of the source must be higher than that of the battery to force current to flow into it, but not too much higher or the battery may be damaged.
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which charges in 90 seconds and will drive about half as many screws as a device using a rechargeable battery was introduced in 2007, and similar flashlights have been produced. In keeping with the concept of ultracapacitors,
183:
and voltages as disposable types, and can be used interchangeably with them. Billions of dollars in research are being invested around the world for improving batteries as industry focuses on building better batteries.
454:
electrolyte, interconnections), and the rate of discharge is limited by the speed at which chemicals in the cell can move about. For lead-acid cells, the relationship between time and discharge rate is described by
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systems store energy in a spinning rotor for conversion to electric power when needed; such systems may be used to provide large pulses of power that would otherwise be objectionable on a common electrical grid.
448:
Battery charging and discharging rates are often discussed by referencing a "C" rate of current. The C rate is that which would theoretically fully charge or discharge the battery in one hour. For example,
465:
The terminal voltage of the battery is not constant during charging and discharging. Some types have relatively constant voltage during discharge over much of their capacity. Non-rechargeable alkaline and
901:. Cadmium is a toxic element, and was banned for most uses by the European Union in 2004. Nickelâcadmium batteries have been almost completely superseded by nickelâmetal hydride (NiMH) batteries.
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1526:
A rechargeable battery is only one of several types of rechargeable energy storage systems. Several alternatives to rechargeable batteries exist or are under development. For uses such as
1467:(TFB) is a refinement of lithium ion technology by Excellatron. The developers claim a large increase in recharge cycles to around 40,000 and higher charge and discharge rates, at least 5
1939:
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Subjecting a discharged cell to a current in the direction which tends to discharge it further to the point the positive and negative terminals switch polarity causes a condition called
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Even if a cell is brought to a fully discharged state without reversal, however, damage may occur over time simply due to remaining in the discharged state. An example of this is the
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electric vehicles used industrially, charging during off-shifts may be acceptable. For highway electric vehicles, rapid charging is necessary for charging in a reasonable time.
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Voltages, cell counts and capacities just right for your kind of racing ... Discharge rates from 50C up to 100C ...Balanced for longer life and achieving the maximum 4.2V/cell
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According to a report from
Research and Markets, the analysts forecast the global rechargeable battery market to grow at a CAGR of 8.32% during the period 2018â2022.
1970:
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866:, is the oldest type of rechargeable battery. Despite having a very low energy-to-weight ratio and a low energy-to-volume ratio, its ability to supply high
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during the day to be used at night). Load-leveling reduces the maximum power which a plant must be able to generate, reducing capital cost and the need for
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2381:
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Xie, Z.; Liu, Q.; Chang, Z.; Zhang, X. (2013). "The developments and challenges of cerium half-cell in zincâcerium redox flow battery for energy storage".
2014:
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1580:, used for specialized applications, are recharged by replacing the electrolyte liquid. A flow battery can be considered to be a type of rechargeable
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Rechargeable battery research includes development of new electrochemical systems as well as improving the life span and capacity of current types.
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Ultracapacitors are being developed for transportation, using a large capacitor to store energy instead of the rechargeable battery banks used in
908:(NiFe) was also developed by Waldemar Jungner in 1899; and commercialized by Thomas Edison in 1901 in the United States for electric vehicles and
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the way it is to be measured. Due to variations during manufacture and aging, the DOD for complete discharge can change over time or number of
2469:"EVWORLD FEATURE: Fuel Cell Disruptor â Part 2:BROOKS FUEL CELL | CARB | ARB | HYDROGEN | ZEBRA | EV | ELECTRIC"
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Nickel-Cadmium
Battery Cell Reversal from Resistive Network Effects: Computer simulations of short-down on a variety of battery configurations
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Braga, M.H.; Grundish, N.S.; Murchison, A.J.; Goodenough, J.B. (9 December 2016). "Alternative strategy for a safe rechargeable battery".
179:, as they can be recharged inexpensively many times before they need replacing. Some rechargeable battery types are available in the same
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delivers around a million cycles, due to the extraordinary electrochemical stability of potassium insertion/extraction materials such as
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Many battery-operated devices have a low-voltage cutoff that prevents deep discharges from occurring that might cause cell reversal. A
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use rechargeable batteries for load-leveling (storing electric energy at times of low demand for use during peak periods) and for
2614:"Zeta Energy Announces Graphite-Free and Cobalt-Free Batteries on Target to Reach 450 Wh/kg and Over One Thousand Cycles by 2025"
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874:. These features, along with the low cost, makes it attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by
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The active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the positive and negative active materials, and the
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3088:, 27 April 2011. Describes: ABB; Community Energy Storage for the use of electric vehicle batteries for grid energy storage.
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incorrectly can damage a battery; in extreme cases, batteries can overheat, catch fire, or explosively vent their contents.
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919:(NiMH) became available in 1989. These are now a common consumer and industrial type. The battery has a hydrogen-absorbing
3622:
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912:. It is composed of only non-toxic elements, unlike many kinds of batteries that contain toxic mercury, cadmium, or lead.
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2427:"Sumitomo considering marketing new lower-temperature molten-salt electrolyte battery to automakers for EVs and hybrids"
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2555:"Notice of the development of mass production technology of Secondary battery "battenice" based on quantum technology"
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Zhang, Sheng S (2013). "Liquid electrolyte lithium/sulfur battery: Fundamental chemistry, problems, and solutions".
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2974:, 31 March 2011, p. F4. Published online 30 March 2011. Discusses rechargeable batteries and the new-technology
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hold their charge for many months, and are typically sold factory-charged to about 70% of their rated capacity.
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Keep a dry fire extinguisher nearby or a large bucket of dry sand, which is a cheap and effective extinguisher.
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819:, respectively. Although this convention is sometimes carried through to rechargeable systemsâespecially with
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2904:, 16 July 2013 online and 17 July 2013 in print on 17 July 2013, on page B1 in the New York City edition of
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1870:"Battery management strategies: An essential review for battery state of health monitoring techniques"
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1495:, a hybrid leadâacid battery and ultracapacitor invented by Australia's national science organisation
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which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed to a disposable or
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1530:, rechargeable batteries may be replaced by clockwork mechanisms which are wound up by hand, driving
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Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than disposable batteries but have a much lower
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David Linden, Thomas B. Reddy (ed). Handbook of
Batteries 3rd Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002
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1534:, although this system may be used to charge a battery rather than to operate the radio directly.
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was introduced in the market in 1991, is the choice in most consumer electronics, having the best
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3071:, 31 March 2011, p. F4. Published online 30 March 2011. Discusses rechargeable batteries and
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1710:"The battery decade: How energy storage could revolutionize industries in the next 10 years"
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1553: – capacitors of extremely high value – are also used; an
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98:, which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use. It is composed of one or more
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117:. Rechargeable batteries are produced in many different shapes and sizes, ranging from
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Salvatierra, Rodrigo V; James, Dustin K; Tour, James M (2022). Gupta, Ram K (ed.).
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251:), road vehicles (cars, vans, trucks, motorbikes), trains, small airplanes, tools,
59:
2872:'Battery University' Aims to Train a Work Force for Next-Generation Energy Storage
2281:"How to Make a Cheap Battery for Storing Solar Power | MIT Technology Review"
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Bloated lithium ion batteries, possibly damaged by faulty monitoring electronics
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2921:, 4 December 2013 on line, and 5 December 2013 in the New York City edition of
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When a battery or cell is connected to a charging circuit the wrong way around.
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When a battery made of several cells connected in series is deeply discharged.
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drive the technology to reduce cost, weight, and size, and increase lifetime.
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Promise and reality of post-lithium-ion batteries with high energy densities.
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Positive and negative electrode vs. anode and cathode for a secondary battery
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High Energy
Density Lithium Batteries: Materials, Engineering, Applications
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Eftekhari, A.; Jian, Z.; Ji, X. (2017). "Potassium
Secondary Batteries".
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Green Blog: When It Comes to Car
Batteries, Moore's Law Does Not Compute
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Wh/kg, batteries based on lithium-sulfur are expected to achieve 450â500
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clip across the terminals of each cell, thereby avoiding cell reversal.
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684: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
470:
output 1.5 V when new, but this voltage drops with use. Most NiMH
70:
A common consumer battery charger for rechargeable AA and AAA batteries
410:
The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries usually comes from a
196:
Cylindrical cell (18650) prior to assembly. Several thousand of them (
760:
482:
than alkalines and can usually be used in equipment designed to use
2220:
Automotive Li-Ion
Batteries: Current Status and Future Perspectives
788:
are made up of different materials, with the positive exhibiting a
66:
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The
Vanadium Advantage: Flow Batteries Put Wind Energy in the Bank
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2880:, 8 April 2013. Discusses a professional development program at
309:, power tools, appliances, and so on. Heavy-duty batteries power
2637:
Lithium-Sulfur
Batteries: Materials, Challenges and Applications
1429:
322:
3118:
2222:(Report). U.S. Department Of Energy. 1 January 2019. p. 26
2037:"Lithium Polymer Charging/Discharging & Safety Information"
1414:
3586:
2499:"Design and Performance of Large Format Nickel-Zinc Batteries"
2360:
1400:= energy/weight or energy/size, given in three different units
653:
544:
384:
2857:, 52Bus.com website, August 2006 (in Chinese, archived page).
2713:"Life Cycle Testing and Evaluation of Energy Storage Devices"
2660:
1673:"EU approves 3.2 billion euro state aid for battery research"
1930:"Samsung's Recall â The Problem with Lithium Ion Batteries"
3013:
Green Blog: Cutting the
Electric Bill with a Giant Battery
2445:"mpoweruk.com: Accumulator and battery comparisons (pdf)"
2260:
Research News: A longer life for lithiumâsulfur batteries
2940:
In Presidio, a Grasp at the Holy Grail of Energy Storage
2919:
SolarCity to Use Batteries From Tesla for Energy Storage
2528:. Hiroshima University. 25 November 2011. Archived from
2104:"Battery Guide: The Basics of Lithium-Polymer Batteries"
1800:
AEROSPACE CORP EL SEGUNDO CA CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS LAB.
1538:
may be driven by a dynamo directly. For transportation,
30:"Secondary battery" redirects here. For naval guns, see
2996:
Green Blog: Is That Onions You Smell? Or Battery Juice?
2835:
219:
monitoring electronics (over- and discharge protection)
3080:
Green Blog: A Second Life for the Electric Car Battery
811:
the positive and negative electrodes are known as the
371:, absorbing electrons. These electrons constitute the
3029:
Seeking to Start a Silicon Valley for Battery Science
571:. Please help to ensure that disputed statements are
235:, portable consumer devices, light vehicles (such as
2902:
Battery Seen as Way to Cut Heat-Related Power Losses
2409:
2407:
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person who was operating the chargerâŠbut not always.
1754:. researchandmarkets.com. April 2018. Archived from
3544:
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2560:. MICRONICS JAPAN. 19 November 2013. Archived from
1791:, Scientific Affairs Division, pp. 242â247, 254â259
1479:peak discharge rate and a significant increase in
277:and require charging before first use; some newer
399:cells, or it may be an active participant in the
359:During charging, the positive active material is
231:Devices which use rechargeable batteries include
2953:Filling the Gaps in the Flow of Renewable Energy
796:potential. The sum of the potentials from these
305:Small rechargeable batteries can power portable
2991:, 7 January 2011. Discusses AES Energy Storage.
1868:Pradhan, S. K.; Chakraborty, B. (1 July 2022).
612:during storage is typically around 30% to 70%.
541:Damage during storage in fully discharged state
525:has voltage monitoring circuitry built inside.
2811:"Capacitor-powered electric screwdriver, 2007"
2214:
2212:
1752:"Global Rechargeable Battery Market 2018â2022"
3130:
870:means that the cells have a relatively large
462:systems may be rated at 15-minute discharge.
8:
2889:Chinese Firm Wins Bid for Auto Battery Maker
763:taxi. Recharging in 15 Minutes to 80 percent
609:sulfation that occurs in lead-acid batteries
478:are rated at 1.2 V, but have a flatter
3063:Building Better Batteries for Electric Cars
2966:Building Better Batteries for Electric Cars
2011:"Tattu R-Line 4S 1300mah 95~190C Lipo Pack"
1831:, RepairFAQ.org website, 24 September 1996.
1518:rather low, somewhat lower than leadâacid.
1380:⥠citations are needed for these parameters
291:uses (such as storing power generated from
3137:
3123:
3115:
3050:, 8 January 2014. Discusses research into
2897:, published online 9 December 2012, p. B1.
2523:"Study of secondary battery semiconductor"
1992:all-battery.com: Lithium Polymer Batteries
960:
383:may serve as a simple buffer for internal
744:Learn how and when to remove this message
591:Learn how and when to remove this message
3054:utilizing carbon-based molecules called
2855:è¶
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Źäș€èœŠäžéą (Super capacitor buses topics)
2639:. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 241-270.
2429:. Green Car Congress. 11 November 2011.
567:Relevant discussion may be found on the
3042:From Harvard, a Cheaper Storage Battery
2910:, p. B1. Discusses Eos Energy Systems'
1664:
1460:conventional lithium-ion technologies.
862:, invented in 1859 by French physicist
102:. The term "accumulator" is used as it
2750:ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces
2693:from the original on 12 September 2012
2414:https://www.avalonbattery.com/product/
1963:"Lithium Batteries: The Pros and Cons"
1633:Comparison of commercial battery types
838:Comparison of commercial battery types
2492:
2490:
2298:
2296:
2294:
2292:
2290:
1942:from the original on 5 September 2016
1928:Fowler, Suzanne (21 September 2016).
1855:"Solar Batteries: Are They Worth It?"
792:potential and the negative having an
7:
2416:Avalon Battery Vanadium Flow Battery
2269:, Fraunhofer.de website, April 2013.
1423:Cycle durability in number of cycles
682:adding citations to reliable sources
129:. Several different combinations of
2017:from the original on 30 August 2016
1822:NiCd Batteries do NOT have "memory"
1708:Stevens, Pippa (30 December 2019).
1420:Self-discharge rate in %/month
444:Battery (electricity) § C rate
2667:from the original on 6 August 2012
2310:from the original on 8 August 2012
2279:Bullis, Kevin (18 February 2014).
2139:Energy & Environmental Science
2114:from the original on 16 March 2017
2080:from the original on 16 March 2017
2047:from the original on 16 March 2017
1973:from the original on 16 March 2017
1789:North Atlantic Treaty Organization
800:is the standard cell potential or
327:distributed electricity generation
261:hybrid internal combustion-battery
25:
3006:vanadium redox battery technology
2817:from the original on 7 March 2012
2789:. Cengage Learning. p. 445.
2433:from the original on 18 May 2012.
2359:. Vrb.unsw.edu.au. Archived from
2197:from the original on 25 July 2010
2187:"Solar plane makes record flight"
279:low self-discharge NiMH batteries
121:to megawatt systems connected to
3205:
2722:. 2 January 2011. Archived from
2147:Energy and Environmental Science
1961:Schweber, Bill (4 August 2015).
1602:
1489:are used in some applications.
1487:lithium iron phosphate batteries
658:
549:
3101:, 6 September 2010. Discusses
2616:. PR Newswire. 16 November 2023
2343:10.1016/j.electacta.2012.12.066
669:needs additional citations for
367:, and the negative material is
127:electrical distribution network
2600:10.1016/j.jpowsour.2012.12.102
285:Battery storage power stations
257:battery storage power stations
253:uninterruptible power supplies
1:
2813:. Ohgizmo.com. 24 July 2005.
2471:. Evworld.com. Archived from
951:Lithium-ion polymer batteries
650:Battery charger § C-rate
349:for rechargeable AA batteries
270:Older rechargeable batteries
2786:Illustrated Guide to the NEC
2720:Sandia National Laboratories
2663:. Excellatron. 2 June 2010.
2102:Dunn, Terry (5 March 2015).
1906:Katerina E. Aifantis et al,
1540:uninterruptible power supply
917:nickelâmetal hydride battery
784:. The positive and negative
635:Lifespan and cycle stability
460:uninterruptible power supply
45:uninterruptible power supply
2783:Miller, Charles R. (2012).
889:of Sweden in 1899. It uses
259:. Emerging applications in
43:A battery bank used for an
3639:
3021:, 27 June 2012. Discusses
1542:systems and laboratories,
1471:charge rate. Sustained 60
831:
647:
619:
441:
352:
29:
27:Type of electrical battery
3295:Metalâair electrochemical
3203:
2882:San Jose State University
1886:10.1016/j.est.2022.104427
1874:Journal of Energy Storage
1783:17 September 2014 at the
1653:Battery management system
1409:Energy/consumer price in
969:
963:
876:automobile starter motors
494:Damage from cell reversal
331:stand-alone power systems
3004:, 9 May 2012. Discusses
2841:15 February 2016 at the
2588:Journal of Power Sources
2398:7 September 2008 at the
2357:"Vanadium Redox Battery"
2243:, PolyPlus.com website.
2173:14 December 2007 at the
2110:. Whalerock Industries.
1827:30 December 2015 at the
1432:or recombinant includes
1426:Time durability in years
957:Other experimental types
337:Charging and discharging
2845:, CityLabs.net website.
2283:. Technologyreview.com.
2265:19 January 2016 at the
1997:7 February 2015 at the
1544:flywheel energy storage
885:(NiCd) was invented by
173:total cost of ownership
3618:Rechargeable batteries
3597:Semipermeable membrane
3386:Lithiumâironâphosphate
2762:10.1021/acsami.6b07989
1811:, DTIC Online website.
1618:History of the battery
1483:, and energy density.
1448:lithiumâsulfur battery
1406:= power/weight in W/kg
1349:(oxide semiconductor)
891:nickel oxide hydroxide
883:nickelâcadmium battery
850:
764:
693:"Rechargeable battery"
604:its charge over time.
434:
350:
228:
220:
209:
162:lithium iron phosphate
71:
63:
48:
3468:Rechargeable alkaline
3146:Electrochemical cells
3103:lithium-air batteries
3073:lithium ion batteries
2247:18 March 2009 at the
1842:Handbook of Batteries
1778:Solid state batteries
1648:List of battery types
1504:potassium-ion battery
872:power-to-weight ratio
845:
834:List of battery types
759:
432:
375:flow in the external
353:Further information:
347:solar-powered charger
344:
237:motorized wheelchairs
226:
215:
195:
110:through a reversible
100:electrochemical cells
69:
54:
42:
3623:Flexible electronics
3448:Nickelâmetal hydride
2927:, p. B-2. Discusses
2836:Welcome to City Labs
1807:3 March 2016 at the
1555:electric screwdriver
678:improve this article
560:factual accuracy is
297:peaking power plants
177:environmental impact
154:nickelâmetal hydride
140:are used, including
86:(formally a type of
76:rechargeable battery
3458:Polysulfideâbromide
3300:Nickel oxyhydroxide
3192:Thermogalvanic cell
3037:, 30 November 2012.
2983:Hold That Megawatt!
2976:lithium ion battery
2729:on 26 December 2014
2331:Electrochimica Acta
1857:. 19 February 2020.
1475:discharge and 1000
1438:absorbed glass mats
936:lithium-ion battery
906:nickelâiron battery
325:. They are used in
293:photovoltaic arrays
233:automobile starters
217:Lithium ion battery
166:lithium-ion polymer
3221:(non-rechargeable)
3165:Concentration cell
3098:The New York Times
3085:The New York Times
3068:The New York Times
3047:The New York Times
3034:The New York Times
3018:The New York Times
3001:The New York Times
2988:The New York Times
2971:The New York Times
2961:, 22 October 2013.
2958:The New York Times
2948:, 6 November 2010.
2945:The New York Times
2931:, DemandLogic and
2924:The New York Times
2912:Zincâair batteries
2907:The New York Times
2894:The New York Times
2877:The New York Times
2567:on 16 January 2014
2535:on 21 January 2014
2497:Listerud, Eivind.
2193:. 24 August 2008.
2155:10.1039/C6EE02888H
2070:"Batteries â LiPo"
1935:The New York Times
1697:. 5 November 2019.
1679:. 9 December 2019.
1515:sodium-ion battery
982:Charge Efficiency
910:railway signalling
851:
765:
622:Depth of discharge
616:Depth of discharge
484:alkaline batteries
435:
351:
307:electronic devices
275:relatively rapidly
229:
221:
210:
168:(Li-ion polymer).
92:electrical battery
88:energy accumulator
72:
64:
49:
32:secondary armament
18:Recharge (battery)
3605:
3604:
3040:Wald, Matthew L.
3027:Wald, Matthew L.
3011:Wald, Matthew L.
2994:Wald, Matthew L.
2981:Wald, Matthew L.
2951:Galbraith, Kate.
2938:Galbraith, Kate.
2917:Cardwell, Diane.
2900:Cardwell, Diane.
2796:978-1-133-41764-4
2646:978-0-323-91934-0
2013:. Genstattu.com.
1776:Sequeira, C.A.C.
1465:thin-film battery
1446:Several types of
1381:
1377:
1376:
1094:Thin-film lithium
923:for the negative
860:leadâacid battery
776:Active components
754:
753:
746:
728:
601:
600:
593:
468:zincâcarbon cells
438:Rate of discharge
416:mains electricity
387:flow between the
311:electric vehicles
265:electric vehicles
245:electric bicycles
16:(Redirected from
3630:
3401:Lithiumâtitanate
3346:
3222:
3209:
3170:Electric battery
3139:
3132:
3125:
3116:
3108:Jang Wook Choi.
3023:Saft Groupe S.A.
2858:
2852:
2846:
2833:
2827:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2807:
2801:
2800:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2756:(5): 4404â4419.
2745:
2739:
2738:
2736:
2734:
2728:
2717:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2700:
2698:
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2326:
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2317:
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2300:
2285:
2284:
2276:
2270:
2257:
2251:
2238:
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2227:
2216:
2207:
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2204:
2202:
2183:
2177:
2165:
2159:
2158:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2121:
2119:
2099:
2093:
2092:
2087:
2085:
2076:. Hobbico, Inc.
2066:
2060:
2059:
2054:
2052:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2022:
2007:
2001:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1980:
1978:
1958:
1952:
1951:
1949:
1947:
1925:
1919:
1910:Wiley-VCH, 2010
1904:
1898:
1897:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1851:
1845:
1838:
1832:
1818:
1812:
1798:
1792:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1758:on 14 April 2021
1748:
1742:
1731:
1725:
1724:
1722:
1720:
1705:
1699:
1698:
1687:
1681:
1680:
1669:
1612:
1607:
1606:
1458:
1454:
1442:Pilot production
1379:
1010:
961:
942:and a very slow
887:Waldemar Jungner
854:Commercial types
749:
742:
738:
735:
729:
727:
686:
662:
654:
596:
589:
585:
582:
576:
573:reliably sourced
553:
552:
545:
504:
503:
451:trickle charging
403:reaction, as in
289:renewable energy
276:
90:), is a type of
47:in a data center
21:
3638:
3637:
3633:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3608:
3607:
3606:
3601:
3540:
3519:
3512:
3433:Nickelâhydrogen
3391:Lithiumâpolymer
3347:
3344:
3343:
3334:
3223:
3220:
3219:
3210:
3201:
3148:
3143:
2867:
2865:Further reading
2862:
2861:
2853:
2849:
2843:Wayback Machine
2834:
2830:
2820:
2818:
2809:
2808:
2804:
2797:
2782:
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2777:
2747:
2746:
2742:
2732:
2730:
2726:
2715:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2696:
2694:
2689:. Excellatron.
2685:
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2680:
2670:
2668:
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2420:
2412:
2405:
2400:Wayback Machine
2391:
2387:
2380:
2376:
2366:
2364:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2328:
2327:
2323:
2313:
2311:
2306:. Excellatron.
2302:
2301:
2288:
2278:
2277:
2273:
2267:Wayback Machine
2258:
2254:
2249:Wayback Machine
2239:
2235:
2225:
2223:
2218:
2217:
2210:
2200:
2198:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2175:Wayback Machine
2166:
2162:
2136:
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2131:
2117:
2115:
2101:
2100:
2096:
2083:
2081:
2068:
2067:
2063:
2050:
2048:
2035:
2034:
2030:
2020:
2018:
2009:
2008:
2004:
1999:Wayback Machine
1990:
1986:
1976:
1974:
1960:
1959:
1955:
1945:
1943:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1905:
1901:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1839:
1835:
1829:Wayback Machine
1820:Zaun, James A.
1819:
1815:
1809:Wayback Machine
1799:
1795:
1785:Wayback Machine
1775:
1771:
1761:
1759:
1750:
1749:
1745:
1732:
1728:
1718:
1716:
1707:
1706:
1702:
1695:www.tdworld.com
1689:
1688:
1684:
1671:
1670:
1666:
1661:
1608:
1601:
1598:
1590:
1568:hybrid vehicles
1551:Ultracapacitors
1528:portable radios
1524:
1481:specific energy
1456:
1452:
1417:(approximately)
1347:Quantum battery
1008:
970:Energy density
959:
856:
849:of common types
840:
830:
778:
750:
739:
733:
730:
687:
685:
675:
663:
652:
646:
644:Recharging time
637:
624:
618:
597:
586:
580:
577:
566:
558:This section's
554:
550:
543:
501:
500:
496:
480:discharge curve
446:
440:
412:battery charger
401:electrochemical
357:
355:Battery charger
339:
313:, ranging from
274:
247:, and electric
190:
164:(LiFePO4), and
112:electrochemical
96:primary battery
80:storage battery
57:lithium polymer
55:A rechargeable
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3636:
3634:
3626:
3625:
3620:
3610:
3609:
3603:
3602:
3600:
3599:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3548:
3546:
3542:
3541:
3539:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3526:Atomic battery
3522:
3520:
3517:
3514:
3513:
3511:
3510:
3505:
3500:
3498:Vanadium redox
3495:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3473:Silverâcadmium
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3443:Nickelâlithium
3440:
3435:
3430:
3428:Nickelâcadmium
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3405:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3396:Lithiumâsulfur
3393:
3388:
3383:
3373:
3368:
3367:
3366:
3356:
3350:
3348:
3345:(rechargeable)
3341:Secondary cell
3339:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3332:
3327:
3322:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3302:
3297:
3292:
3287:
3282:
3277:
3272:
3267:
3265:EdisonâLalande
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3226:
3224:
3215:
3212:
3211:
3204:
3202:
3200:
3199:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3183:
3182:
3180:Trough battery
3177:
3167:
3162:
3156:
3154:
3150:
3149:
3144:
3142:
3141:
3134:
3127:
3119:
3113:
3112:
3106:
3089:
3076:
3059:
3052:flow-batteries
3038:
3025:
3009:
2992:
2979:
2962:
2949:
2936:
2915:
2898:
2887:Vlasic, Bill.
2885:
2870:Belli, Brita.
2866:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2847:
2828:
2802:
2795:
2775:
2740:
2704:
2678:
2652:
2645:
2627:
2605:
2578:
2546:
2514:
2486:
2475:on 25 May 2012
2460:
2436:
2418:
2403:
2385:
2374:
2363:on 26 May 2012
2348:
2321:
2286:
2271:
2252:
2241:Patent 6358643
2233:
2208:
2178:
2168:Lithium_Sulfur
2160:
2129:
2094:
2061:
2028:
2002:
1984:
1953:
1920:
1899:
1860:
1846:
1833:
1813:
1793:
1769:
1743:
1726:
1700:
1682:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1656:
1655:
1650:
1645:
1643:Energy storage
1640:
1638:Energy density
1635:
1630:
1625:
1620:
1614:
1613:
1597:
1594:
1589:
1586:
1578:Flow batteries
1523:
1520:
1444:
1443:
1440:
1427:
1424:
1421:
1418:
1407:
1404:Specific power
1401:
1398:Energy density
1395:
1387:
1386:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1357:
1355:
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1234:
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1227:
1224:
1222:
1216:
1215:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1189:
1187:Vanadium redox
1183:
1182:
1181:Under testing
1179:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
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1160:
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1056:
1055:
1053:
1050:
1048:
1046:
1044:
1042:
1039:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1028:Lithiumâsulfur
1024:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1006:
1003:
1000:
997:
994:
990:
989:
986:
983:
980:
977:
974:
971:
968:
965:
958:
955:
944:loss of charge
940:energy density
868:surge currents
855:
852:
829:
826:
798:half-reactions
777:
774:
752:
751:
734:September 2017
666:
664:
657:
648:Main article:
645:
642:
636:
633:
620:Main article:
617:
614:
599:
598:
557:
555:
548:
542:
539:
515:
514:
511:
495:
492:
442:Main article:
439:
436:
397:nickel-cadmium
338:
335:
272:self-discharge
189:
186:
150:nickelâcadmium
84:secondary cell
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3635:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3615:
3613:
3598:
3595:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3549:
3547:
3543:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3523:
3521:
3515:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3488:Sodiumâsulfur
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3463:Potassium ion
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3392:
3389:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3365:
3362:
3361:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3351:
3349:
3342:
3337:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3301:
3298:
3296:
3293:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3281:
3280:Lithium metal
3278:
3276:
3273:
3271:
3268:
3266:
3263:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3235:Aluminiumâair
3233:
3231:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3172:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3160:Galvanic cell
3158:
3157:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3140:
3135:
3133:
3128:
3126:
3121:
3120:
3117:
3111:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3099:
3094:
3091:Woody, Todd.
3090:
3087:
3086:
3081:
3078:Witkin, Jim.
3077:
3074:
3070:
3069:
3064:
3061:Witkin, Jim.
3060:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3048:
3043:
3039:
3036:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3024:
3020:
3019:
3014:
3010:
3007:
3003:
3002:
2997:
2993:
2990:
2989:
2984:
2980:
2977:
2973:
2972:
2967:
2964:Witkin, Jim.
2963:
2960:
2959:
2954:
2950:
2947:
2946:
2941:
2937:
2934:
2930:
2926:
2925:
2920:
2916:
2913:
2909:
2908:
2903:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2890:
2886:
2883:
2879:
2878:
2873:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2856:
2851:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2837:
2832:
2829:
2816:
2812:
2806:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2788:
2787:
2779:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2744:
2741:
2725:
2721:
2714:
2708:
2705:
2692:
2688:
2687:"the Company"
2682:
2679:
2666:
2662:
2661:"Excellatron"
2656:
2653:
2648:
2642:
2638:
2631:
2628:
2615:
2609:
2606:
2601:
2597:
2593:
2589:
2582:
2579:
2563:
2556:
2550:
2547:
2531:
2524:
2518:
2515:
2500:
2493:
2491:
2487:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2461:
2446:
2440:
2437:
2432:
2428:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2410:
2408:
2404:
2401:
2397:
2394:
2389:
2386:
2383:
2378:
2375:
2362:
2358:
2352:
2349:
2344:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2325:
2322:
2309:
2305:
2304:"the Company"
2299:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2291:
2287:
2282:
2275:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2261:
2256:
2253:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2237:
2234:
2221:
2215:
2213:
2209:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2182:
2179:
2176:
2172:
2169:
2164:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2144:
2140:
2133:
2130:
2126:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2098:
2095:
2091:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2062:
2058:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2032:
2029:
2016:
2012:
2006:
2003:
2000:
1996:
1993:
1988:
1985:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1957:
1954:
1941:
1937:
1936:
1931:
1924:
1921:
1917:
1916:3-527-32407-0
1913:
1909:
1903:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1864:
1861:
1856:
1850:
1847:
1843:
1837:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1823:
1817:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1803:
1797:
1794:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1779:
1773:
1770:
1757:
1753:
1747:
1744:
1740:
1739:0-07-135978-8
1736:
1730:
1727:
1715:
1711:
1704:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1686:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1668:
1665:
1658:
1654:
1651:
1649:
1646:
1644:
1641:
1639:
1636:
1634:
1631:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1619:
1616:
1615:
1611:
1610:energy portal
1605:
1600:
1595:
1593:
1587:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1564:
1561:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1529:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1511:
1509:
1508:Prussian blue
1505:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1488:
1484:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1461:
1449:
1441:
1439:
1435:
1434:gel batteries
1431:
1428:
1425:
1422:
1419:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1399:
1396:
1393:
1390:Nominal cell
1389:
1388:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1348:
1345:
1344:
1341:
1338:
1336:
1334:
1332:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1283:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1272:
1269:
1266:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1248:
1245:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1221:
1220:Sodiumâsulfur
1218:
1217:
1213:
1210:
1208:
1205:
1203:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1193:
1190:
1188:
1185:
1184:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1174:
1172:
1170:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1112:
1109:
1106:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1095:
1092:
1091:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1077:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1066:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1043:
1040:
1037:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
991:
987:
984:
981:
978:
975:
972:
966:
962:
956:
954:
952:
948:
945:
941:
937:
932:
930:
926:
922:
918:
913:
911:
907:
902:
900:
896:
893:and metallic
892:
888:
884:
879:
877:
873:
869:
865:
864:Gaston Planté
861:
853:
848:
844:
839:
835:
827:
825:
822:
818:
814:
810:
809:primary cells
805:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
775:
773:
769:
762:
758:
748:
745:
737:
726:
723:
719:
716:
712:
709:
705:
702:
698:
695: â
694:
690:
689:Find sources:
683:
679:
673:
672:
667:This section
665:
661:
656:
655:
651:
643:
641:
634:
632:
630:
629:charge cycles
623:
615:
613:
610:
605:
595:
592:
584:
574:
570:
564:
563:
556:
547:
546:
540:
538:
534:
532:
526:
524:
523:smart battery
519:
512:
509:
508:
507:
505:
502:cell reversal
493:
491:
487:
485:
481:
477:
473:
469:
463:
461:
457:
456:Peukert's law
452:
445:
437:
431:
427:
423:
419:
417:
413:
408:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
374:
370:
366:
362:
356:
348:
343:
336:
334:
332:
328:
324:
320:
316:
312:
308:
303:
300:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
280:
273:
268:
266:
262:
258:
254:
250:
246:
242:
238:
234:
225:
218:
214:
207:
204:battery (see
203:
202:Tesla Model S
199:
194:
187:
185:
182:
178:
174:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
113:
109:
108:stores energy
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
68:
61:
58:
53:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3503:Zincâbromine
3340:
3310:Silver oxide
3245:Chromic acid
3217:Primary cell
3197:Voltaic pile
3175:Flow battery
3096:
3083:
3066:
3045:
3032:
3016:
2999:
2986:
2969:
2956:
2943:
2933:Tesla Motors
2922:
2905:
2892:
2875:
2850:
2831:
2819:. Retrieved
2805:
2785:
2778:
2753:
2749:
2743:
2731:. Retrieved
2724:the original
2719:
2707:
2695:. Retrieved
2681:
2669:. Retrieved
2655:
2636:
2630:
2618:. Retrieved
2608:
2591:
2587:
2581:
2569:. Retrieved
2562:the original
2549:
2537:. Retrieved
2530:the original
2517:
2505:. Retrieved
2477:. Retrieved
2473:the original
2463:
2451:. Retrieved
2439:
2421:
2388:
2377:
2365:. Retrieved
2361:the original
2351:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2312:. Retrieved
2274:
2255:
2236:
2224:. Retrieved
2199:. Retrieved
2190:
2181:
2163:
2142:
2138:
2132:
2123:
2116:. Retrieved
2107:
2097:
2089:
2082:. Retrieved
2073:
2064:
2056:
2049:. Retrieved
2040:
2031:
2019:. Retrieved
2005:
1987:
1975:. Retrieved
1966:
1956:
1944:. Retrieved
1938:. New York.
1933:
1923:
1907:
1902:
1877:
1873:
1863:
1849:
1841:
1836:
1816:
1796:
1772:
1760:. Retrieved
1756:the original
1746:
1729:
1719:24 September
1717:. Retrieved
1713:
1703:
1694:
1685:
1676:
1667:
1628:Battery pack
1591:
1576:
1565:
1549:
1525:
1522:Alternatives
1512:
1501:
1493:UltraBattery
1491:
1485:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1462:
1445:
1378:
1128:Zincâbromine
979:Self-disch.
949:
947:acceptable.
933:
914:
903:
880:
857:
806:
779:
770:
766:
740:
731:
721:
714:
707:
700:
688:
676:Please help
671:verification
668:
638:
625:
606:
602:
587:
581:January 2019
578:
559:
535:
527:
520:
516:
499:
497:
488:
464:
447:
424:
420:
409:
363:, releasing
358:
304:
301:
283:
269:
230:
188:Applications
170:
138:electrolytes
119:button cells
83:
79:
75:
73:
60:mobile phone
36:
3592:Salt bridge
3577:Electrolyte
3508:Zincâcerium
3493:Solid state
3478:Silverâzinc
3453:Nickelâzinc
3438:Nickelâiron
3413:Molten salt
3381:Dual carbon
3376:Lithium ion
3371:Lithiumâair
3330:Zincâcarbon
3305:Siliconâair
3285:Lithiumâair
2733:26 December
2620:16 November
2594:: 153â162.
2382:broken link
2337:: 695â704.
2149:: 331â336.
2021:6 September
1741:chapter 22.
1691:"StackPath"
1623:Accumulator
1560:betavoltaic
1536:Flashlights
1362:8000 (W/L)
1317:Nickel-zinc
1286:Silverâzinc
1251:Molten-salt
1158:Zincâcerium
927:instead of
847:Ragone plot
821:lithium-ion
782:electrolyte
393:lithium-ion
381:electrolyte
319:locomotives
206:Gigafactory
200:) form the
198:lithium ion
158:lithium-ion
104:accumulates
3612:Categories
3545:Cell parts
3536:Solar cell
3518:Other cell
3483:Sodium ion
3354:Automotive
2571:18 January
2539:18 January
1967:GlobalSpec
1880:: 104427.
1844:page 22-20
1659:References
1258:0.25â1.04
1243:2500â4500
1194:0.09â0.13
1191:1.15â1.55
1135:0.27â0.31
1067:0.27â0.72
1060:Sodium-ion
1035:0.94â1.44
1013:(%/month)
899:electrodes
832:See also:
786:electrodes
704:newspapers
389:electrodes
241:golf carts
160:(Li-ion),
3582:Half-cell
3572:Electrode
3531:Fuel cell
3408:Metalâair
3359:Leadâacid
3275:Leclanché
3187:Fuel cell
2929:SolarCity
2821:14 August
2697:14 August
2671:14 August
2479:14 August
2453:14 August
2367:14 August
2314:14 August
2074:TrakPower
1894:2352-152X
1582:fuel cell
1214:25 years
925:electrode
794:oxidation
790:reduction
569:talk page
476:AAA cells
414:using AC
405:leadâacid
365:electrons
249:forklifts
142:leadâacid
134:materials
131:electrode
123:stabilize
3562:Catalyst
3423:Nanowire
3418:Nanopore
3364:gelâVRLA
3325:Zincâair
3230:Alkaline
3056:quinones
2839:Archived
2815:Archived
2770:27714999
2691:Archived
2665:Archived
2431:Archived
2396:Archived
2308:Archived
2263:Archived
2245:Archived
2226:15 March
2201:10 April
2195:Archived
2191:BBC News
2171:Archived
2118:15 March
2112:Archived
2084:15 March
2078:Archived
2051:15 March
2045:Archived
2043:. 2017.
2015:Archived
1995:Archived
1977:15 March
1971:Archived
1946:15 March
1940:Archived
1825:Archived
1805:Archived
1781:Archived
1762:18 April
1596:See also
1588:Research
1572:Shanghai
1371:100,000
1280:<=20
1267:150â220
1088:Testing
1038:400-500
1022:(years)
999:(Wh/kg)
996:(MJ/kg)
967:Voltage
562:disputed
391:, as in
361:oxidized
315:scooters
156:(NiMH),
152:(NiCd),
146:zincâair
115:reaction
3567:Cathode
3320:Zamboni
3290:Mercury
3255:Daniell
2507:27 July
2041:Maxamps
1918:page 66
1840:Reddy,
1677:Reuters
1532:dynamos
1451:150â260
1392:voltage
1261:70â290
1240:89â92%
1211:20,000
1070:75â200
1009:(Wh/$ )
1005:(W/kg)
1002:(Wh/L)
985:Cycles
929:cadmium
895:cadmium
813:cathode
802:voltage
718:scholar
407:cells.
377:circuit
373:current
369:reduced
329:and in
62:battery
3557:Binder
3315:Weston
3240:Bunsen
2793:
2768:
2643:
2108:Tested
1914:
1892:
1737:
1457:
1453:
1352:1.5â3
1326:70-90
1277:3000+
1197:25â35
1138:75â85
1120:40000
1085:5000+
1052:~1400
973:Power
761:BYD e6
720:
713:
706:
699:
691:
379:. The
255:, and
3552:Anode
3270:Grove
3250:Clark
3153:Types
2727:(PDF)
2716:(PDF)
2565:(PDF)
2558:(PDF)
2533:(PDF)
2526:(PDF)
2502:(PDF)
2448:(PDF)
1497:CSIRO
1394:in V.
1385:Notes
1339:8000
1321:1.65
1293:0.47
1290:1.86
1270:4.54
1255:2.58
1226:0.54
1110:6000
988:Life
976:E/$
964:Type
921:alloy
828:Types
817:anode
725:JSTOR
711:books
323:ships
181:sizes
82:, or
3587:Ions
3065:,
2823:2012
2791:ISBN
2766:PMID
2735:2014
2699:2012
2673:2012
2641:ISBN
2622:2023
2573:2014
2541:2014
2509:2024
2481:2012
2455:2012
2369:2012
2316:2012
2228:2021
2203:2010
2120:2017
2086:2017
2053:2017
2023:2016
1979:2017
1948:2016
1912:ISBN
1890:ISSN
1764:2019
1735:ISBN
1721:2021
1714:CNBC
1513:The
1502:The
1463:The
1436:and
1430:VRLA
1415:US$
1359:500
1299:240
1296:130
1264:160
1229:150
1206:20%
1162:2.5
1132:1.8
1107:959
1104:300
1101:1.1
1078:3.3
1064:3.6
1041:350
1032:2.0
1019:(#)
1016:(%)
993:(V)
934:The
915:The
904:The
881:The
858:The
836:and
815:and
697:news
474:and
395:and
321:and
263:and
175:and
136:and
106:and
3260:Dry
3095:,
2985:,
2968:,
2758:doi
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