4960:
signatures. DNSCrypt uses either TCP or UDP port 443, the same port as HTTPS encrypted web traffic. This introduced not only privacy regarding the content of the query, but also a significant measure of firewall-traversal capability. In 2019, DNSCrypt was further extended to support an "anonymized" mode, similar to the proposed "Oblivious DNS", in which an ingress node receives a query which has been encrypted with the public key of a different server, and relays it to that server, which acts as an egress node, performing the recursive resolution. Privacy of user/query pairs is created, since the ingress node does not know the content of the query, while the egress nodes does not know the identity of the client. DNSCrypt was first implemented in production by
3740:. A recursive query is one for which the DNS server answers the query completely by querying other name servers as needed. In typical operation, a client issues a recursive query to a caching recursive DNS server, which subsequently issues non-recursive queries to determine the answer and send a single answer back to the client. The resolver, or another DNS server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver, negotiates use of recursive service using bits in the query headers. DNS servers are not required to support recursive queries.
3618:
5290:
3351:
3855:
5274:(NIC), also function as registrars to end-users, in addition to providing access to the WHOIS datasets. The top-level domain registries, such as for the domains COM, NET, and ORG use a registry-registrar model consisting of many domain name registrars. In this method of management, the registry only manages the domain name database and the relationship with the registrars. The
3296:, expressly to provide a home for BIND development and maintenance. BIND versions from 4.9.3 onward were developed and maintained by ISC, with support provided by ISC's sponsors. As co-architects/programmers, Bob Halley and Paul Vixie released the first production-ready version of BIND version 8 in May 1997. Since 2000, over 43 different core developers have worked on BIND.
3676:) of the domain name record in question. Typically, such caching DNS servers also implement the recursive algorithm necessary to resolve a given name starting with the DNS root through to the authoritative name servers of the queried domain. With this function implemented in the name server, user applications gain efficiency in design and operation.
4802:(EDNS) that introduced optional protocol elements without increasing overhead when not in use. This was accomplished through the OPT pseudo-resource record that only exists in wire transmissions of the protocol, but not in any zone files. Initial extensions were also suggested (EDNS0), such as increasing the DNS message size in UDP datagrams.
4989:, in which data is distributed to caching resolvers under the pretense of being an authoritative origin server, thereby polluting the data store with potentially false information and long expiration times (time-to-live). Subsequently, legitimate application requests may be redirected to network hosts operated with malicious intent.
3955:
The DNS is used for efficient storage and distribution of IP addresses of blacklisted email hosts. A common method is to place the IP address of the subject host into the sub-domain of a higher level domain name, and to resolve that name to a record that indicates a positive or a negative indication.
3224:
directory on a server in the NIC for retrieval of information about resources, contacts, and entities. She and her team developed the concept of domains. Feinler suggested that domains should be based on the location of the physical address of the computer. Computers at educational institutions would
6808:
DNS over HTTPS (DoH) obviates many but not all of the risks, and its transport protocol (i.e. HTTPS) raises concerns of privacy due to (e.g.) 'cookies.' The Tor
Network exists to provide TCP circuits with some freedom from tracking, surveillance, and blocking. Thus: In combination with Tor, DoH, and
4922:
as an extension to unencrypted DNS, before DoH was standardized and widely deployed. Apple and
Cloudflare subsequently deployed the technology in the context of DoH, as Oblivious DoH (ODoH). ODoH combines ingress/egress separation (invented in ODNS) with DoH's HTTPS tunneling and TLS transport-layer
3801:
A common approach to reduce the burden on DNS servers is to cache the results of name resolution locally or on intermediary resolver hosts. Each DNS query result comes with a time to live (TTL), which indicates how long the information remains valid before it needs to be discarded or refreshed. This
3756:
Name servers in delegations are identified by name, rather than by IP address. This means that a resolving name server must issue another DNS request to find out the IP address of the server to which it has been referred. If the name given in the delegation is a subdomain of the domain for which the
4959:
standards framework, introduced DNS encryption on the downstream side of recursive resolvers, wherein clients encrypt query payloads using servers' public keys, which are published in the DNS (rather than relying upon third-party certificate authorities) and which may in turn be protected by DNSSEC
4813:
use the UPDATE DNS opcode to add or remove resource records dynamically from a zone database maintained on an authoritative DNS server. This facility is useful to register network clients into the DNS when they boot or become otherwise available on the network. As a booting client may be assigned a
3697:
of the DNS is called a DNS resolver. A resolver is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address. DNS resolvers are classified by a variety of query methods,
3419:
A label may contain zero to 63 characters. The null label of length zero is reserved for the root zone. The full domain name may not exceed the length of 253 characters in its textual representation. In the internal binary representation of the DNS the maximum length requires 255 octets of storage,
3899:
Some applications such as web browsers maintain an internal DNS cache to avoid repeated lookups via the network. This practice can add extra difficulty when debugging DNS issues as it obscures the history of such data. These caches typically use very short caching times on the order of one minute.
3877:
The DNS resolver will almost invariably have a cache (see above) containing recent lookups. If the cache can provide the answer to the request, the resolver will return the value in the cache to the program that made the request. If the cache does not contain the answer, the resolver will send the
4973:
Originally, security concerns were not major design considerations for DNS software or any software for deployment on the early
Internet, as the network was not open for participation by the general public. However, the expansion of the Internet into the commercial sector in the 1990s changed the
4885:
was developed as a competing standard for DNS query transport in 2018, tunneling DNS query data over HTTPS, which transports HTTP over TLS. DoH was promoted as a more web-friendly alternative to DNS since, like DNSCrypt, it uses TCP port 443, and thus looks similar to web traffic, though they are
3747:
procedure is a process in which a DNS resolver queries a chain of one or more DNS servers. Each server refers the client to the next server in the chain, until the current server can fully resolve the request. For example, a possible resolution of www.example.com would query a global root server,
3841:
When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats before querying the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, assuming the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is assigned to
Wikimedia, it is represented as a DNS name in
5156:
Solutions preventing DNS inspection by local network operator are criticized for thwarting corporate network security policies and
Internet censorship. They are also criticized from a privacy point of view, as giving away the DNS resolution to the hands of a small number of companies known for
3234:
By the early 1980s, maintaining a single, centralized host table had become slow and unwieldy and the emerging network required an automated naming system to address technical and personnel issues. Postel directed the task of forging a compromise between five competing proposals of solutions to
6649:
We investigate whether DoH traffic is distinguishable from encrypted Web traffic. To this end, we train a machine learning model to classify HTTPS traffic as either Web or DoH. With our DoH identification model in place, we show that an authoritarian ISP can identify โ97.4% of the DoH packets
3792:
org includes glue along with the delegation for example.org. The glue records are address records that provide IP addresses for ns1.example.org. The resolver uses one or more of these IP addresses to query one of the domain's authoritative servers, which allows it to complete the DNS query.
4842:
53 for servers listening to queries. Such queries consist of a clear-text request sent in a single UDP packet from the client, responded to with a clear-text reply sent in a single UDP packet from the server. When the length of the answer exceeds 512 bytes and both client and server support
4690:. DNS records belonging to wildcard domain names specify rules for generating resource records within a single DNS zone by substituting whole labels with matching components of the query name, including any specified descendants. For example, in the following configuration, the DNS zone
3636:
Assuming the resolver has no cached records to accelerate the process, the resolution process starts with a query to one of the root servers. In typical operation, the root servers do not answer directly, but respond with a referral to more authoritative servers, e.g., a query for
3833:
is a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known. Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address. The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (PTR) records within the infrastructure top-level domain
3787:
for example.org is ns1.example.org, a computer trying to resolve www.example.org first resolves ns1.example.org. As ns1 is contained in example.org, this requires resolving example.org first, which presents a circular dependency. To break the dependency, the name server for the
3153:
domain name, a key point of divergence from a traditional phone-book view of the DNS. This process of using the DNS to assign proximal servers to users is key to providing faster and more reliable responses on the
Internet and is widely used by most major Internet services.
3805:
As a result of this distributed caching architecture, changes to DNS records do not propagate throughout the network immediately, but require all caches to expire and to be refreshed after the TTL. RFC 1912 conveys basic rules for determining appropriate TTL values.
3906:
represents a notable exception: versions up to IE 3.x cache DNS records for 24 hours by default. Internet
Explorer 4.x and later versions (up to IE 8) decrease the default timeout value to half an hour, which may be changed by modifying the default configuration.
3887:, until it either successfully finds a result or does not. It then returns its results to the DNS resolver; assuming it has found a result, the resolver duly caches that result for future use, and hands the result back to the software which initiated the request.
3882:
to set it; however, where systems administrators have configured systems to use their own DNS servers, their DNS resolvers point to separately maintained name servers of the organization. In any event, the name server thus queried will follow the process outlined
3118:). The DNS can be quickly and transparently updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same hostname. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (
3878:
request to one or more designated DNS servers. In the case of most home users, the
Internet service provider to which the machine connects will usually supply this DNS server: such a user will either have configured that server's address manually or allowed
4010:
E-mail servers can query blacklist.example to find out if a specific host connecting to them is in the blacklist. Many of such blacklists, either subscription-based or free of cost, are available for use by email administrators and anti-spam software.
3669:
To improve efficiency, reduce DNS traffic across the
Internet, and increase performance in end-user applications, the Domain Name System supports DNS cache servers which store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration
4631:
is data of type-specific relevance, such as the IP address for address records, or the priority and hostname for MX records. Well known record types may use label compression in the RDATA field, but "unknown" record types must not (RFC 3597).
3542:
to DNS queries from data that have been configured by an original source, for example, the domain administrator or by dynamic DNS methods, in contrast to answers obtained via a query to another name server that only maintains a cache of data.
4598:
is the fully qualified domain name of the node in the tree. On the wire, the name may be shortened using label compression where ends of domain names mentioned earlier in the packet can be substituted for the end of the current domain name.
5227:
ICANN publishes the complete list of TLDs, TLD registries, and domain name registrars. Registrant information associated with domain names is maintained in an online database accessible with the WHOIS service. For most of the more than 290
3423:
Although no technical limitation exists to prevent domain name labels from using any character that is representable by an octet, hostnames use a preferred format and character set. The characters allowed in labels are a subset of the
3838:. For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa. The IP address is represented as a name in reverse-ordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6.
5204:, that are charged with overseeing the name and number systems of the Internet. In addition to ICANN, each top-level domain (TLD) is maintained and serviced technically by an administrative organization, operating a registry. A
4847:(EDNS), larger UDP packets may be used. Use of DNS over UDP is limited by, among other things, its lack of transport-layer encryption, authentication, reliable delivery, and message length. In 1989, RFC 1123 specified optional
4964:
in
December 2011. There are several free and open source software implementations that additionally integrate ODoH. It is available for a variety of operating systems, including Unix, Apple iOS, Linux, Android, and Windows.
4040:
The DNS protocol uses two types of DNS messages, queries and responses; both have the same format. Each message consists of a header and four sections: question, answer, authority, and an additional space. A header field
5165:, the browser in Chrome, and the DNS resolver in the 8.8.8.8 service. Would this scenario be a case of a single corporate entity being in a position of overarching control of the entire namespace of the Internet?
4855:. Via fragmentation of long replies, TCP allows longer responses, reliable delivery, and re-use of long-lived connections between clients and servers. For larger responses, the server refers the client to TCP transport.
3846:(ARIN) for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone. ARIN's servers delegate 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa to Wikimedia to which the resolver sends another query for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response.
5069:
Originally designed as a public, hierarchical, distributed and heavily cached database, DNS protocol has no confidentiality controls. User queries and nameserver responses are being sent unencrypted which enables
3641:
servers. The resolver now queries the servers referred to, and iteratively repeats this process until it receives an authoritative answer. The diagram illustrates this process for the host that is named by the
3456:(letters, digits, hyphen). Domain names are interpreted in a case-independent manner. Labels may not start or end with a hyphen. An additional rule requires that top-level domain names should not be all-numeric.
3564:
were sometimes used interchangeably but the current practice is to use the latter form. A primary server is a server that stores the original copies of all zone records. A secondary server uses a special
3895:
Some large ISPs have configured their DNS servers to violate rules, such as by disobeying TTLs, or by indicating that a domain name does not exist just because one of its name servers does not respond.
3661:
In theory, authoritative name servers are sufficient for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the
3601:
When a name server is designated as the authoritative server for a domain name for which it does not have authoritative data, it presents a type of error called a "lame delegation" or "lame response".
4866:
emerged as an IETF standard for encrypted DNS in 2016, utilizing Transport Layer Security (TLS) to protect the entire connection, rather than just the DNS payload. DoT servers listen on TCP port 853.
4405:
The question section has a simpler format than the resource record format used in the other sections. Each question record (there is usually just one in the section) contains the following fields:
3514:. Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is served by the
3685:
typically provide recursive and caching name servers for their customers. In addition, many home networking routers implement DNS caches and recursion to improve efficiency in the local network.
4706:
is needed to specify the mail exchanger IP address. As this has the result of excluding this domain name and its subdomains from the wildcard matches, an additional MX record for the subdomain
5057:
DNS can also "leak" from otherwise secure or private connections, if attention is not paid to their configuration, and at times DNS has been used to bypass firewalls by malicious persons, and
1884:
4943:. The privacy gains of Oblivious DNS can be garnered through the use of the preexisting Tor network of ingress and egress nodes, paired with the transport-layer encryption provided by TLS.
4014:
To provide resilience in the event of computer or network failure, multiple DNS servers are usually provided for coverage of each domain. At the top level of global DNS, thirteen groups of
3328:(RR), which hold information associated with the domain name. The domain name itself consists of the label, concatenated with the name of its parent node on the right, separated by a dot.
5131:
and public DNS servers, which move the actual DNS resolution to a third-party provider, who usually promises little or no request logging and optional added features, such as DNS-level
3717:, a DNS resolver queries a DNS server that provides a record either for which the server is authoritative, or it provides a partial result without querying other servers. In case of a
3459:
The limited set of ASCII characters permitted in the DNS prevented the representation of names and words of many languages in their native alphabets or scripts. To make this possible,
4798:
The original DNS protocol had limited provisions for extension with new features. In 1999, Paul Vixie published in RFC 2671 (superseded by RFC 6891) an extension mechanism, called
3614:
Domain name resolvers determine the domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (top-level) domain label.
3009:
implement the Domain Name System. A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records for a domain; a DNS name server responds with answers to queries against its database.
4072:. Each field is 16 bits long, and appears in the order given. The identification field is used to match responses with queries. The flag field consists of sub-fields as follows:
3039:(CNAME). Although not intended to be a general purpose database, DNS has been expanded over time to store records for other types of data for either automatic lookups, such as
5197:
4830:(UDP) for transport over IP. Its limitations have motivated numerous protocol developments for reliability, security, privacy, and other criteria, in the following decades.
2990:
service that is at its core. It defines the DNS protocol, a detailed specification of the data structures and data communication exchanges used in the DNS, as part of the
3679:
The combination of DNS caching and recursive functions in a name server is not mandatory; the functions can be implemented independently in servers for special purposes.
6854:
3725:
delivers a result and reduces the load on upstream DNS servers by caching DNS resource records for a period of time after an initial response from upstream DNS servers.
388:
7843:
3732:, a DNS resolver queries a single DNS server, which may in turn query other DNS servers on behalf of the requester. For example, a simple stub resolver running on a
6189:
3842:
reverse order: 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa. When the DNS resolver gets a pointer (PTR) request, it begins by querying the root servers, which point to the servers of
1139:
4902:. It has "privacy properties similar to DNS over TLS (DoT) , and latency characteristics similar to classic DNS over UDP". This method is not the same as DNS over
3653:
is used in DNS servers to off-load the root servers, and as a result, root name servers actually are involved in only a relatively small fraction of all requests.
4471:
The Domain Name System specifies a database of information elements for network resources. The types of information elements are categorized and organized with a
6329:
e-Infrastructure and e-Services for Developing Countries: 8th International Conference, AFRICOMM 2016, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, December 6-7, 2016, Proceedings
3925:
Hostnames and IP addresses are not required to match in a one-to-one relationship. Multiple hostnames may correspond to a single IP address, which is useful in
3005:. The Domain Name System maintains the domain name hierarchy and provides translation services between it and the address spaces. Internet name servers and a
148:
4185:
After the flags word, the header ends with four 16-bit integers which contain the number of records in each of the sections that follow, in the same order.
3572:
Every DNS zone must be assigned a set of authoritative name servers. This set of servers is stored in the parent domain zone with name server (NS) records.
6830:
5617:
5181:
used a DoH-resolution mechanism to bypass local DNS resolution and steer all DNS queries from Apple's platforms to a set of Apple-operated name resolvers?
4874:
specifies that opportunistic encryption and authenticated encryption may be supported, but did not make either server or client authentication mandatory.
3870:, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the
3633:) of the known addresses of the root name servers. The hints are updated periodically by an administrator by retrieving a dataset from a reliable source.
1464:
3145:
is translated to the IP address of a server that is proximal to the user. The key functionality of the DNS exploited here is that different users can
6800:
5531:
5314:
3649:
This mechanism would place a large traffic burden on the root servers, if every resolution on the Internet required starting at the root. In practice
526:
5482:
5263:, etc., etc.) holds basic WHOIS data (i.e., registrar and name servers, etc.). Organizations, or registrants using ORG on the other hand, are on the
6738:
5008:, add support for cryptographic authentication between trusted peers and are commonly used to authorize zone transfer or dynamic update operations.
1556:
5613:
3621:
A DNS resolver that implements the iterative approach mandated by RFC 1034; in this case, the resolver consults three name servers to resolve the
1811:
1754:
6975:
4997:
4492:
3843:
6337:
6310:
6139:
5691:
5169:
already fielded an app that used its own DNS resolution mechanism independent of the platform upon which the app was running. What if the
381:
108:
5800:
5097:
User privacy is further exposed by proposals for increasing the level of client IP information in DNS queries (RFC 7871) for the benefit of
7853:
5354:
3813:, i.e. the caching of the fact of non-existence of a record, is determined by name servers authoritative for a zone which must include the
3212:
Addresses were assigned manually. Computers, including their hostnames and addresses, were added to the primary file by contacting the SRI
3197:
developed and maintained the first ARPANET directory. Maintenance of numerical addresses, called the Assigned Numbers List, was handled by
2974:
The Domain Name System delegates the responsibility of assigning domain names and mapping those names to Internet resources by designating
1793:
238:
233:
203:
6944:
3862:
Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such as
3952:
provides a mapping between a domain and a mail exchanger; this can provide an additional layer of fault tolerance and load distribution.
3929:, in which many web sites are served from a single host. Alternatively, a single hostname may resolve to many IP addresses to facilitate
3879:
1924:
1515:
1328:
1027:
970:
614:
63:
7777:
5138:
Public DNS servers can be queried using traditional DNS protocol, in which case they provide no protection from local surveillance, or
3802:
TTL is determined by the administrator of the authoritative DNS server and can range from a few seconds to several days or even weeks.
3254:
310:
253:
178:
5212:
is a person or organization who asked for domain registration. The registry receives registration information from each domain name
2986:
service and was designed to avoid a single large central database. In addition, the DNS specifies the technical functionality of the
7058:
5309:
5221:
5208:
is responsible for operating the database of names within its authoritative zone, although the term is most often used for TLDs. A
3240:
3202:
3166:
320:
290:
6992:
5743:
3362:
Administrative responsibility for any zone may be divided by creating additional zones. Authority over the new zone is said to be
5232:(ccTLDs), the domain registries maintain the WHOIS (Registrant, name servers, expiration dates, etc.) information. For instance,
374:
305:
98:
6499:
James F. Kurose and Keith W. Ross, Computer Networking: A Top-Down Approach, 6th ed. Essex, England: Pearson Educ. Limited, 2012
6092:
6040:
5991:
5950:
5574:
4956:
4895:
3247:
2963:) assigned to each of the associated entities. Most prominently, it translates readily memorized domain names to the numerical
989:
6844:
5019:
are different names, yet users may be unable to distinguish them in a graphical user interface depending on the user's chosen
3250:
published the original specifications in RFC 882 and RFC 883 in November 1983. These were updated in RFC 973 in January 1986.
7561:
These RFCs are advisory in nature, but may provide useful information despite defining neither a standard or BCP. (RFC 1796)
6809:
the principle of "Don't Do That, Then" (DDTT) to mitigate request fingerprinting, I describe DNS over HTTPS over Tor (DoHoT).
3206:
1366:
123:
113:
5157:
monetizing user traffic and for centralizing DNS name resolution, which is generally perceived as harmful for the Internet.
6755:
6327:
6300:
4463:
The domain name is broken into discrete labels which are concatenated; each label is prefixed by the length of that label.
3809:
Some resolvers may override TTL values, as the protocol supports caching for up to sixty-eight years or no caching at all.
3374:
The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, RFC 2181, and RFC 5892. A
5384:
5229:
5086:. This deficiency is commonly used by cybercriminals and network operators for marketing purposes, user authentication on
5051:
5036:
4848:
3476:
3464:
3285:
3269:
3067:
1290:
1178:
876:
243:
223:
173:
7768:
3666:
of the Domain Name System and each user system would have to implement resolver software capable of recursive operation.
6641:
6474:
5416:"Information fusion-based method for distributed domain name system cache poisoning attack detection and identification"
5364:
4844:
4799:
4663:
2957:
2659:
1271:
1234:
671:
163:
158:
153:
5278:(users of a domain name) are customers of the registrar, in some cases through additional subcontracting of resellers.
3591:
in its responses. This flag is usually reproduced prominently in the output of DNS administration query tools, such as
7858:
7848:
4658:, the domain name system also defines several request types that are used only in communication with other DNS nodes (
3643:
3622:
3281:
750:
340:
300:
168:
5216:, which is authorized (accredited) to assign names in the corresponding zone and publishes the information using the
3343:
may consist of as many domains and subdomains as the zone manager chooses. DNS can also be partitioned according to
5162:
4488:
3934:
3682:
4605:
is the record type. It indicates the format of the data and it gives a hint of its intended use. For example, the
4176:
Response code, can be NOERROR (0), FORMERR (1, Format error), SERVFAIL (2), NXDOMAIN (3, Nonexistent domain), etc.
4028:(DDNS) updates a DNS server with a client IP address on-the-fly, for example, when moving between ISPs or mobile
3784:
3765:
3592:
3555:
3173:
services. That data can be used to gain insight on, and track responsibility for, a given host on the Internet.
2975:
2960:
2720:
1829:
1493:
1121:
7048:
6822:
5606:
5379:
5264:
5237:
5098:
5083:
4502:
network, all records (answer, authority, and additional sections) use the common format specified in RFC 1035:
4483:(RRset), having no special ordering. DNS resolvers return the entire set upon query, but servers may implement
4472:
3138:
3052:
3017:
1866:
1727:
193:
133:
5912:
3507:
5334:
4993:
4932:
3821:
field of the SOA record and the TTL of the SOA itself is used to establish the TTL for the negative answer.
3569:
in the DNS protocol in communication with its primary to maintain an identical copy of the primary records.
2991:
2781:
1538:
1143:
1083:
1065:
857:
360:
350:
143:
58:
42:
6793:
6402:
5500:
5475:
7022:
5349:
5329:
4827:
4651:(HS) exist. Each class is an independent name space with potentially different delegations of DNS zones.
4643:) for common DNS records involving Internet hostnames, servers, or IP addresses. In addition, the classes
4121:
Authoritative Answer, in a response, indicates if the DNS server is authoritative for the queried hostname
4110:
The type can be QUERY (standard query, 0), IQUERY (inverse query, 1), or STATUS (server status request, 2)
3764:
In this case, the name server providing the delegation must also provide one or more IP addresses for the
3617:
3063:
3006:
2971:. The Domain Name System has been an essential component of the functionality of the Internet since 1985.
1216:
228:
78:
6697:
3400:
The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or
6453:
4919:
4648:
3317:
2311:
1902:
652:
355:
128:
6378:
5854:
5289:
3629:
For proper operation of its domain name resolver, a network host is configured with an initial cache (
7703:
6778:
6679:
6579:
6246:
6172:
6106:
6054:
6005:
5964:
5662:
5588:
5304:
5244:
registry approach, i.e. keeping the WHOIS data in central registries instead of registrar databases.
5032:
4915:
4710:, as well as a wildcarded MX record for all of its subdomains, must also be defined in the DNS zone.
3503:
3484:
3300:
3194:
3162:
3157:
The DNS reflects the structure of administrative responsibility on the Internet. Each subdomain is a
3130:
2697:
2141:
1497:
138:
31:
6964:
7422:
Domain Name System (DNS) Security Extensions Mapping for the Extensible Provisioning Protocol (EPP)
6941:
5476:"Globally Distributed Content Delivery, IEEE Internet Computing, September/October 2002, pp. 50โ58"
5091:
4986:
4675:
4625:
record specifies the mail server used to handle mail for a domain specified in an e-mail address.
3941:
3758:
3299:
In November 1987, RFC 1034 and RFC 1035 superseded the 1983 DNS specifications. Several additional
3079:
1774:
713:
5196:
The right to use a domain name is delegated by domain name registrars which are accredited by the
5043:
may appear identical on typical computer screens. This vulnerability is occasionally exploited in
4939:. A use which has become common since 2019 to warrant its own frequently used acronym is DNS over
6993:"Registration Data Access Protocol (RDAP) Operational Profile for gTLD Registries and Registrars"
6923:
6730:
6712:
6449:
6353:
5808:
5523:
5443:
4985:
Several vulnerability issues were discovered and exploited by malicious users. One such issue is
4936:
3830:
3032:
2618:
345:
5415:
3066:(UDP) as transport over IP. Reliability, security, and privacy concerns spawned the use of the
7054:
6915:
6333:
6306:
6183:
6135:
5687:
5435:
5374:
5058:
4852:
4518:
4499:
4421:
4213:
3903:
3273:
3186:
3181:
Using a simpler, more memorable name in place of a host's numerical address dates back to the
3048:
3036:
2947:
2918:
2851:
2829:
1253:
273:
49:
7642:
Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Background, Explanation, and Rationale
6267:
2982:
of their allocated name space to other name servers. This mechanism provides distributed and
6907:
6722:
6669:
6619:
6569:
6537:
6275:
6236:
6162:
6096:
6082:
6044:
6030:
5995:
5954:
5889:
5858:
5829:
5652:
5578:
5515:
5427:
5319:
4867:
4783:
4775:
4475:, the resource records (RRs). Each record has a type (name and number), an expiration time (
4015:
3789:
3523:
3515:
3488:
3390:
3236:
2968:
2803:
2009:
1847:
1709:
1347:
6868:
4154:
Recursion Available, in a response, indicates if the replying DNS server supports recursion
6948:
5295:
5071:
4484:
4029:
3940:
DNS serves other purposes in addition to translating names to IP addresses. For instance,
3930:
3926:
3366:
to a designated name server. The parent zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.
3141:. When a user accesses a distributed Internet service using a URL, the domain name of the
2197:
1653:
214:
7265:
Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA):Definitions and Document Framework
4479:), a class, and type-specific data. Resource records of the same type are described as a
7000:
5464:, Information Sciences Institute, J. Postel (Ed.), The Internet Society (September 1981)
3257:
students, Douglas Terry, Mark Painter, David Riggle, and Songnian Zhou, wrote the first
3012:
The most common types of records stored in the DNS database are for start of authority (
5339:
5139:
5087:
4979:
4975:
4882:
3810:
3123:
3028:
2987:
2983:
2739:
2443:
2292:
1690:
1309:
264:
4564:
Count of seconds that the RR stays valid (The maximum is 2โ1, which is about 68 years)
3347:
where the separate classes can be thought of as an array of parallel namespace trees.
2967:
needed for locating and identifying computer services and devices with the underlying
17:
7837:
5527:
5359:
5324:
5122:
5114:
5111:, which move DNS resolution to the VPN operator and hide user traffic from local ISP,
5075:
4940:
3911:
3867:
3663:
3575:
An authoritative server indicates its status of supplying definitive answers, deemed
3336:
3134:
3047:(RP) records. As a general purpose database, the DNS has also been used in combating
3002:
2914:
2873:
2825:
2761:, Web-based word processor, spreadsheet, presentation, form, and data storage service
2636:
2123:
1446:
488:
6927:
6734:
6428:
5744:"Why Does the Net Still Work on Christmas? Paul Mockapetris - Internet Hall of Fame"
5447:
3416:
is a subdomain of example.com. This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels.
3231:, for example. She and her team managed the Host Naming Registry from 1972 to 1989.
7782:
6226:
5642:
5344:
5143:
5128:
5079:
4863:
4610:
4559:
4476:
3871:
3817:(SOA) record when reporting no data of the requested type exists. The value of the
3780:
of the response. A glue record is a combination of the name server and IP address.
3672:
3383:
3293:
3190:
2939:
2561:
2447:
2406:
2160:
952:
183:
7285:
The Unicode Code Points and Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)
3874:
in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.
3494:) have adopted the IDNA system, guided by RFC 5890, RFC 5891, RFC 5892, RFC 5893.
7652:
Mapping Characters for Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) 2008
3133:
function of the DNS is its central role in distributed Internet services such as
7742:
7732:
7722:
7687:
7677:
7667:
7657:
7647:
7637:
7627:
7617:
7607:
7597:
7587:
7577:
7566:
7545:
7534:
7523:
7512:
7501:
7484:
7467:
7457:
7447:
7437:
7432:
Use of GOST Signature Algorithms in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC
7427:
7417:
7412:
Use of SHA-2 Algorithms with RSA in DNSKEY and RRSIG Resource Records for DNSSEC
7407:
7397:
7387:
7377:
7367:
7357:
7347:
7330:
7320:
7310:
7300:
7295:
Right-to-Left Scripts for Internationalized Domain Names for Applications (IDNA)
7290:
7280:
7270:
7260:
7250:
7240:
7230:
7220:
7210:
7200:
7190:
7180:
7170:
7160:
7150:
7140:
7130:
7120:
7110:
7100:
7090:
7080:
6682:
6663:
6623:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6595:
6591:
6582:
6563:
6541:
6249:
6230:
6210:
6206:
6202:
6198:
6175:
6156:
6109:
6086:
6057:
6034:
6008:
5985:
5967:
5944:
5665:
5646:
5591:
5568:
5369:
5132:
4871:
4839:
4810:
4787:
4779:
4025:
3863:
3772:. The delegating name server provides this glue in the form of records in the
3733:
3722:
3694:
3597:
that the responding name server is an authority for the domain name in question.
3539:
3511:
3375:
3350:
3261:
3091:
3055:(RBL). The DNS database is traditionally stored in a structured text file, the
3021:
2952:
2777:
2758:
2085:
1731:
1630:
1427:
1046:
469:
7711:
6895:
4818:
server, it is not possible to provide static DNS assignments for such clients.
3854:
3393:; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain
3193:
that mapped host names to the numerical addresses of computers on the ARPANET.
7760:
6559:
5431:
5285:
5174:
3814:
3289:
3277:
3264:
implementation for the Berkeley Internet Name Domain, commonly referred to as
3198:
3013:
2964:
2047:
1475:
Commercialization, privatization, broader access leads to the modern Internet:
331:
6919:
6726:
5878:
Elizabeth Feinler, IEEE Annals, 3B2-9 man2011030074.3d 29/7/011 11:54 Page 74
5439:
4132:
TrunCation, indicates that this message was truncated due to excessive length
7764:
5519:
5389:
5040:
4655:
3949:
3475:. In 2009, ICANN approved the installation of internationalized domain name
3401:
3217:
3056:
2998:
2979:
2821:
2599:
2330:
2066:
1649:
933:
5501:"The Akamai Network: A Platform for High-Performance Internet Applications"
5000:(DNSSEC) modify DNS to add support for cryptographically signed responses.
3161:
of administrative autonomy delegated to a manager. For zones operated by a
7800:
3937:
to multiple server instances across an enterprise or the global Internet.
3239:. Mockapetris instead created the Domain Name System in 1983 while at the
2847:
1867:
ICANN begins accepting applications for new generic top-level domain names
6406:
5394:
5260:
5170:
5147:
5044:
5020:
5004:
has been proposed as an alternative to DNSSEC. Other extensions, such as
5001:
4952:
4644:
4618:
4495:(DNSSEC) work on the complete set of resource record in canonical order.
3914:
detects issues with the DNS server it displays a specific error message.
3472:
3340:
3213:
3158:
3083:
2943:
2891:
2869:
2640:
2466:
2349:
2216:
1385:
791:
633:
560:
7778:"Meet the seven people who hold the keys to worldwide internet security"
6911:
5104:
The main approaches that are in use to counter privacy issues with DNS:
5011:
Some domain names may be used to achieve spoofing effects. For example,
5473:
J. Dilley, B. Maggs, J. Parikh, H. Prokop, R. Sitaraman, and B. Weihl.
5256:
5252:
5201:
5166:
4961:
4019:
3468:
3182:
3126:
without having to know how the computer actually locates the services.
2799:
2716:
2678:
2580:
2523:
2485:
2368:
2254:
731:
690:
507:
6940:
APWG. "Global Phishing Survey: Domain Name Use and Trends in 1H2010."
4694:
specifies that all subdomains, including subdomains of subdomains, of
3922:
The Domain Name System includes several other functions and features.
3736:
typically makes a recursive query to the DNS server run by the user's
2700:, a collaborative encyclopedia intended to document all living species
7801:"Internet Governance and the Domain Name System: Issues for Congress"
6849:
6674:
6574:
6279:
6241:
6167:
6101:
6049:
6000:
5959:
5657:
5583:
5118:
4903:
3945:
3467:(IDNA) system, by which user applications, such as web browsers, map
3165:, administrative information is often complemented by the registry's
3040:
2910:
2542:
2504:
2235:
2178:
1408:
1102:
914:
810:
769:
579:
294:
188:
87:
67:
4914:
Oblivious DNS (ODNS) was invented and implemented by researchers at
2978:
for each domain. Network administrators may delegate authority over
7821:
6717:
5908:
4790:
was incomplete and resulted in misinterpretations by implementers.
1955:
dial-up service provider, email, instant messaging, and web browser
7175:
DNSSEC and IPv6 A6 aware server/resolver message size requirements
6996:
6896:"Retrofitting Security into Network Protocols: The Case of DNSSEC"
5984:
Paul Hoffman; Andrew Sullivan; Kazunori Fujiwara (December 2015).
5233:
5217:
4143:
Recursion Desired, indicates if the client means a recursive query
4018:
exist, with additional "copies" of them distributed worldwide via
3853:
3835:
3616:
3460:
3425:
3349:
3221:
3170:
3078:
An often-used analogy to explain the DNS is that it serves as the
2424:
2387:
2273:
2104:
1990:
1920:
1735:
1612:
1534:
1197:
1008:
838:
450:
315:
93:
6662:
Huitema, Christian; Dickinson, Sara; Mankin, Allison (May 2022).
5462:
Internet Protocol - DARPA Internet Program Protocol Specification
7382:
Use of SHA-256 in DNSSEC Delegation Signer (DS) Resource Records
7125:
A Mechanism for Prompt Notification of Zone Changes (DNS NOTIFY)
6478:
5896:. USENIX Association Software Tools Users Group. pp. 23โ31.
5031:
look very similar or even identical. This problem, known as the
5005:
4899:
4815:
3566:
3265:
3258:
3227:
3115:
3103:
3025:
2028:
1971:
1927:
oversight passes to the global Internet community on October 1st
1671:
1574:
773:
709:
431:
283:
278:
248:
198:
118:
83:
7632:
Requirements for a Mechanism Identifying a Name Server Instance
7612:
Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names
7275:
Internationalized Domain Names in Applications (IDNA): Protocol
7050:
Broad Band: The Untold Story of the Women Who Made the Internet
6232:
Application Techniques for Checking and Transformation of Names
5236:, Germany NIC, holds the DE domain data. From about 2001, most
3710:. A resolution process may use a combination of these methods.
7402:
DNS Security (DNSSEC) Hashed Authenticated Denial of Existence
6429:"Ben Anderson: Why Web Browser DNS Caching Can Be A Bad Thing"
5178:
5108:
4218:
4088:
3737:
3588:
3142:
3119:
1952:
1593:
1404:
103:
7255:
Measures for Making DNS More Resilient against Forged Answers
5121:
domains, hiding both name resolution and user traffic behind
4662:), such as when performing zone transfers (AXFR/IXFR) or for
6650:
correctly while only misclassifying 1 in 10,000 Web packets.
6266:
Fujiwara, Kazunori; Sullivan, Andrew; Hoffman, Paul (2024).
4851:(TCP) transport for DNS queries, replies and, particularly,
7827:
6450:"How Internet Explorer uses the cache for DNS host entries"
5414:
Wu, Hao; Dang, Xianglei; Wang, Lidong; He, Longtao (2016).
5117:, which replaces traditional DNS resolution with anonymous
1613:
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN)
7550:
DNS Root Name Service Protocol and Deployment Requirements
7392:
Minimally Covering NSEC Records and DNSSEC On-line Signing
6794:""No Port 53, Who Dis?" A Year of DNS over HTTPS over Tor"
4886:
easily differentiable in practice without proper padding.
3748:
then a "com" server, and finally an "example.com" server.
1885:
Montevideo Statement on the Future of Internet Cooperation
400:
7452:
Specification for DNS over Transport Layer Security (TLS)
7205:
Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification
6299:
Nemeth, Evi; Snyder, Garth; Hein, Trent R. (2006-10-30).
6158:
Domain Name System (DNS) Case Insensitivity Clarification
5738:
5736:
4910:
Oblivious DoH (ODoH) and predecessor Oblivious DNS (ODNS)
4826:
From the time of its origin in 1983 the DNS has used the
3998:. This hostname is either not configured, or resolves to
2946:, services, and other resources on the Internet or other
1755:
UN World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) phase I
7706:, but due to their age are not clearly labeled as such.
7245:
Automated Updates of DNS Security (DNSSEC) Trust Anchors
4617:
record lists which name servers can answer lookups on a
3776:
of the DNS response, and provides the delegation in the
3768:
mentioned in the delegation. This information is called
3082:
for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer
7105:
Requirements for Internet HostsโApplication and Support
6696:
Schmitt, Paul; Edmundson, Anne; Feamster, Nick (2019).
6640:
Csikor, Levente; Divakaran, Dinil Mon (February 2021).
5759:
5757:
3070:(TCP) as well as numerous other protocol developments.
7372:
Protocol Modifications for the DNS Security Extensions
7135:
Dynamic Updates in the domain name system (DNS UPDATE)
6565:
Dynamic Updates in the Domain Name System (DNS UPDATE)
4099:
Indicates if the message is a query (0) or a reply (1)
2950:(IP) networks. It associates various information with
1848:
First internationalized country code top-level domains
6799:. Network and Distributed System Security Symposium.
4609:
record is used to translate from a domain name to an
4048:
The header section consists of the following fields:
1903:
NetMundial international Internet governance proposal
544:
NPL followed by the ARPANET carry their first packets
7335:
Secret Key Transaction Authentication for DNS (TSIG)
7325:
DNS Transport over TCP - Implementation Requirements
6326:
Bissyande, Tegawendรฉ F.; Sie, Oumarou (2017-10-09).
5730:
IEEE Annals man2011030074.3d 29/7/011 11:54 Page 74
3358:, organized into zones, each served by a name server
3303:
have proposed extensions to the core DNS protocols.
5894:
Summer Conference, Salt Lake City 1984: Proceedings
5888:Terry, Douglas B.; et al. (June 12โ15, 1984).
5251:registry model is used. The domain registry (e.g.,
5198:
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers
5161:Google is the dominant provider of the platform in
4032:, or when the IP address changes administratively.
3404:of the domain to the right. For example, the label
598:
Merit Network's packet-switched network operational
7195:Handling of Unknown DNS Resource Record (RR) Types
6823:"DNSCrypt โ Critical, fundamental, and about time"
6698:"Oblivious DNS: Practical Privacy for DNS Queries"
4955:protocol, which was developed in 2011 outside the
3378:consists of one or more parts, technically called
7462:Usage Profiles for DNS over TLS and DNS over DTLS
6642:"Privacy of DNS over HTTPS: Requiem for a Dream?"
6132:International Domain Name Law: ICANN and the UDRP
3884:
7824:, Open Source Guide โ DNS for Rocket Scientists.
7506:Selection and Operation of Secondary DNS Servers
7362:Resource Records for the DNS Security Extensions
6756:"Oblivious DNS Deployed by Cloudflare and Apple"
4540:Type of RR in numeric form (e.g., 15 for MX RRs)
3944:use DNS to find the best mail server to deliver
7622:Threat Analysis of the Domain Name System (DNS)
7592:Common DNS Operational and Configuration Errors
7215:The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System
7095:Domain Names - Implementation and Specification
6558:S. Thomson; Y. Rekhter; J. Bound (April 1997).
6546:The Role of Wildcards in the Domain Name System
5570:Domain Names - Implementation and Specification
5159:
5054:can also be used to help validate DNS results.
4045:) controls the content of these four sections.
3471:strings into the valid DNS character set using
3465:Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications
3220:during business hours. Later, Feinler set up a
1557:very high-speed Backbone Network Service (vBNS)
821:Merging the networks and creating the Internet:
7747:DNS Encodings of Network Names and Other Types
7682:DNS Query Name Minimisation to Improve Privacy
6958:
6956:
6869:"Oblivious DoH ยท DNSCrypt/dnscrypt-proxy Wiki"
5499:Nygren., E.; Sitaraman R. K.; Sun, J. (2010).
5240:(gTLD) registries have adopted this so-called
4974:requirements for security measures to protect
4529:Name of the node to which this record pertains
3386:, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.
3354:The hierarchical Domain Name System for class
3272:substantially revised the DNS implementation.
1830:First meeting of the Internet Governance Forum
1794:UN Working Group on Internet Governance (WGIG)
7830:โ site where you can do experiments with DNS.
6088:Domain Names - Domain Concepts and Facilities
6036:Domain Names - Domain Concepts and Facilities
5946:Domain Names - Domain Concepts and Facilities
4654:In addition to resource records defined in a
3546:An authoritative name server can either be a
3538:name server is a name server that only gives
3086:into IP addresses. For example, the hostname
382:
8:
7539:Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations
7155:Negative Caching of DNS Queries (DNS NCACHE)
6894:Herzberg, Amir; Shulman, Haya (2014-01-01).
6523:Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations
6512:, D. Eastlake 3rd (November 2008), Section 3
6510:Domain Name System (DNS) IANA Considerations
4996:, leading to many attack possibilities; the
4774:The role of wildcard records was refined in
1596:changes pricing model from hourly to monthly
7582:Domain Name System Structure and Delegation
6188:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
6076:
6074:
6031:"Name space specifications and terminology"
5686:(5th ed.). O'Reilly Media. p. 3.
5061:data, since it is often seen as innocuous.
4575:Length of RDATA field (specified in octets)
3209:(ISI), whose team worked closely with SRI.
3062:The Domain Name System originally used the
1923:contract with U.S. Dept. of Commerce ends,
1122:Federal Internet Exchanges (FIX East|FIXes)
7352:DNS Security Introduction and Requirements
6533:
6531:
6221:
6219:
5979:
5977:
5938:
5936:
5934:
5932:
5930:
5890:"The Berkeley Internet Name Domain Server"
5830:"Paul Mockapetris | Internet Hall of Fame"
5270:Some domain name registries, often called
4992:DNS responses traditionally do not have a
3579:, by setting a protocol flag, called the "
3502:The Domain Name System is maintained by a
3420:as it also stores the length of the name.
3185:era. The Stanford Research Institute (now
1492:New Internet architecture with commercial
389:
375:
38:
30:"DNS" redirects here. For other uses, see
7662:Running a Root Server Local to a Resolver
6716:
6673:
6573:
6240:
6166:
6100:
6048:
5999:
5958:
5656:
5582:
5562:
5560:
5558:
5556:
5554:
5552:
5315:Decentralized object location and routing
3757:delegation is being provided, there is a
3059:, but other database systems are common.
527:Symposium on Operating Systems Principles
27:System to identify resources on a network
7235:DNS Name Server Identifier (NSID) Option
6525:, D. Eastlake 3rd (November 2008), p. 11
6083:"How the database is divided into zones"
5247:For top-level domains on COM and NET, a
4678:which specify names that start with the
4504:
4407:
4187:
4074:
3518:, the servers to query when looking up (
3487:of the existing top-level domain names (
3452:, and hyphen. This rule is known as the
3428:character set, consisting of characters
3370:Domain name syntax, internationalization
7844:Internet properties established in 1983
7799:Kruger, Lennard G. (18 November 2016).
7145:Clarifications to the DNS Specification
5853:Andrei Robachevsky (26 November 2013).
5406:
5200:(ICANN) or other organizations such as
3721:, the non-recursive query of its local
3637:"www.wikipedia.org" is referred to the
3149:receive different translations for the
3001:, the domain name hierarchy and the IP
1465:North American Network Operators' Group
330:
263:
213:
48:
41:
7737:Domain Administrators Operations Guide
7718:โ Specified original top-level domains
7702:These RFCs have an official status of
7185:DNS Extensions to Support IP Version 6
7085:Domain Names - Concepts and Facilities
6181:
5605:Champika Wijayatunga (February 2015).
4998:Domain Name System Security Extensions
4814:different IP address each time from a
4493:Domain Name System Security Extensions
4326:
3844:American Registry for Internet Numbers
3752:Circular dependencies and glue records
3320:. Each node or leaf in the tree has a
3043:records, or for human queries such as
3031:(MX), name servers (NS), pointers for
7165:Indicating Resolver Support of DNSSEC
6857:from the original on 25 October 2019.
6475:"Domain Name System (DNS) Parameters"
5787:
5775:
5763:
5718:
5706:
4782:, because the original definition in
3510:. The nodes of this database are the
2997:The Internet maintains two principal
7:
7315:Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0)
6647:. National University of Singapore.
6628:Extension Mechanisms for DNS (EDNS0)
6134:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 8.
5648:Role of the Domain Name System (DNS)
5355:IPv6 brokenness and DNS whitelisting
4066:Number of authority resource records
3316:The domain name space consists of a
2938:) is a hierarchical and distributed
2602:anonymous news and information leaks
2161:Yahoo Groups (formerly Yahoo! Clubs)
1710:New top-level domain names activated
7786:. Guardian News & Media Limited
7771:from the original on 29 March 2023.
7528:DNS Proxy Implementation Guidelines
7225:HMAC SHA TSIG Algorithm Identifiers
6845:"Anonymized DNSCrypt specification"
6821:Ulevitch, David (6 December 2011).
6668:. Internet Engineering Task Force.
6665:DNS over Dedicated QUIC Connections
5943:Mockapetris, Paul (November 1987).
5682:Liu, Cricket; Albitz, Paul (2006).
5567:Mockapetris, Paul (November 1987).
5508:ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review
5035:, is acute in systems that support
4894:RFC 9250, published in 2022 by the
4443:Type of RR (A, AAAA, MX, TXT, etc.)
3718:
3650:
615:Internet Assigned Numbers Authority
6081:Paul Mockapetris (November 1987).
6029:Paul Mockapetris (November 1987).
5150:, which do provide such protection
3110:2606:2800:220:1:248:1893:25c8:1946
2942:that provides a naming system for
1105:founded, allows commercial traffic
712:protocol approved and deployed on
693:commercial packet-switched network
25:
7571:Choosing a Name for Your Computer
7517:Classless IN-ADDR.ARPA delegation
7305:Non-Terminal DNS Name Redirection
6999:. 3 December 2015. Archived from
6833:from the original on 1 July 2020.
6806:from the original on 2021-03-21.
6777:Pauly, Tommy (2 September 2021).
6427:Ben Anderson (7 September 2011).
5310:Comparison of DNS server software
4923:encryption in a single protocol.
3994:is not blacklisted and points to
3657:Recursive and caching name server
3389:The right-most label conveys the
3280:then took over BIND maintenance.
3241:University of Southern California
3203:University of Southern California
953:First .COM domain name registered
7776:Ball, James (28 February 2014).
7115:Incremental Zone Transfer in DNS
6981:from the original on 2019-09-30.
6744:from the original on 2022-01-21.
6155:D. Eastlake 3rd (January 2006).
5488:from the original on 2015-04-17.
5288:
5220:protocol. As of 2015, usage of
4674:The domain name system supports
3477:country code top-level domains (
3216:(NIC), directed by Feinler, via
7053:. New York: Portfolio/Penguin.
6792:Muffett, Alec (February 2021).
6305:. Addison-Wesley Professional.
5915:from the original on 2019-06-30
5623:from the original on 2015-12-22
5537:from the original on 2010-12-02
4896:Internet Engineering Task Force
3554:server. Historically the terms
3248:Internet Engineering Task Force
3189:) maintained a text file named
990:Internet Engineering Task Force
414:Early research and development:
7808:Congressional Research Service
6705:Privacy Enhancing Technologies
5230:country code top-level domains
5037:internationalized domain names
4639:of a record is set to IN (for
4432:Name of the requested resource
3207:Information Sciences Institute
1935:Examples of Internet services:
1367:Classless Inter-Domain Routing
1:
6972:The Internet Protocol Journal
6403:"Providers ignoring DNS TTL?"
6302:Linux Administration Handbook
5907:Internet Systems Consortium.
5385:List of managed DNS providers
5052:forward-confirmed reverse DNS
5039:, as many character codes in
4849:Transmission Control Protocol
4165:Zero, reserved for future use
3996:6.113.0.203.blacklist.example
3973:5.113.0.203.blacklist.example
3971:is blacklisted. It points to
3408:specifies a subdomain of the
3068:Transmission Control Protocol
2894:, massive open online courses
1179:Advanced Network and Services
877:Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
434:networking concepts developed
7472:DNS Queries over HTTPS (DoH)
5365:Public recursive name server
4845:Extension Mechanisms for DNS
4800:Extension Mechanisms for DNS
4698:use the mail exchanger (MX)
4506:Resource record (RR) fields
4409:Resource record (RR) fields
3610:Address resolution mechanism
3567:automatic updating mechanism
3094:translates to the addresses
2660:Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud
1447:Full text web search engines
1272:Commercial Internet eXchange
1235:Wide area information server
672:Transmission Control Program
7854:Application layer protocols
7727:Domain Administrators Guide
7341:Proposed security standards
6963:Huston, Geoff (July 2019).
5855:"Happy 30th Birthday, DNS!"
5272:network information centers
5065:Privacy and tracking issues
5023:. In many fonts the letter
4586:Additional RR-specific data
3644:fully qualified domain name
3623:fully qualified domain name
3282:Internet Systems Consortium
3268:. In 1985, Kevin Dunlap of
2031:online auction and shopping
1030:upgraded to 1.5 Mbit/s (T1)
7875:
7759:Vixie, Paul (4 May 2007).
7672:DNS Privacy Considerations
7442:The EDNS(0) Padding Option
6965:"DNS Privacy and the IETF"
6779:"Oblivious DNS Over HTTPS"
6610:.
6379:"What is DNS propagation?"
6213:.
5173:app included DoH? What if
4834:DNS over UDP/TCP/53 (Do53)
4589:Variable, as per RDLENGTH
4393:
4390:
4379:
4376:
4329:
3683:Internet service providers
3382:, that are conventionally
3331:The tree sub-divides into
3214:Network Information Center
2976:authoritative name servers
2086:Outlook (formerly Hotmail)
1331:upgraded to 45 Mbit/s (T3)
561:Network Information Center
29:
7047:Evans, Claire L. (2018).
6568:. Network Working Group.
6235:. Network Working Group.
6161:. Network Working Group.
5651:. Network Working Group.
5432:10.1049/iet-ifs.2014.0386
5135:or pornography blocking.
5099:Content Delivery Networks
5084:man-in-the-middle attacks
4394:Number of additional RRs
4365:
4362:
4339:
4323:
4320:
4207:
4204:
4201:
4198:
4193:
3785:authoritative name server
3766:authoritative name server
3530:Authoritative name server
3139:content delivery networks
2314:peer-to-peer file sharing
2257:peer-to-peer file sharing
2050:classified advertisements
1293:allows commercial traffic
1200:allows commercial traffic
860:protocol suite formalized
751:Internet Activities Board
405:Internet history timeline
6727:10.2478/popets-2019-0028
6630:, P. Vixie (August 1999)
5420:IET Information Security
5380:List of DNS record types
5265:Public Interest Registry
5238:Generic top-level domain
5192:Domain name registration
5186:DNS Privacy and the IETF
4933:virtual private networks
4712:
4473:list of DNS record types
4391:Number of authority RRs
4070:Number of additional RRs
3053:real-time blackhole list
2681:cloud-based file hosting
839:Computer Science Network
582:switched-circuit network
6900:IEEE Internet Computing
6130:Lindsay, David (2007).
5520:10.1145/1842733.1842736
5335:DNS management software
5072:network packet sniffing
4994:cryptographic signature
3858:DNS resolution sequence
3506:system, which uses the
3284:was founded in 1994 by
3090:within the domain name
2992:Internet protocol suite
2782:threshold pledge system
2723:music streaming service
2238:mobile internet service
2181:Internet payment system
1974:Internet movie database
1084:Border Gateway Protocol
1066:Internet protocol suite
674:specification published
43:Internet protocol suite
7495:Best Current Practices
7489:New DNS RR Definitions
6594:. Updated by RFC
6548:, E. Lewis (July 2006)
5834:internethalloffame.org
5748:internethalloffame.org
5350:Hierarchical namespace
5330:DNS Long-Lived Queries
5189:
4828:User Datagram Protocol
3859:
3626:
3359:
3064:User Datagram Protocol
3007:communication protocol
2469:social networking site
2371:social networking site
1162:ARPANET decommissioned
917:split off from ARPANET
18:Recursive DNS resolver
6454:Microsoft Corporation
5909:"The History of BIND"
5805:Internet Hall of Fame
5224:is being considered.
5125:counter-surveillance,
4920:University of Chicago
4898:, describes DNS over
3857:
3646:"www.wikipedia.org".
3620:
3353:
3276:, Phil Almquist, and
2144:automatic translation
2088:free web-based e-mail
1674:allows broader access
653:PARC Universal Packet
6197:Updated by RFC
5811:on 14 September 2018
5607:"DNS Abuse Handling"
5305:Alternative DNS root
5033:IDN homograph attack
4931:DNS may be run over
4916:Princeton University
4878:DNS over HTTPS (DoH)
4806:Dynamic zone updates
4676:wildcard DNS records
4485:round-robin ordering
4377:Number of questions
4076:Header flags format
3975:, which resolves to
3942:mail transfer agents
3783:For example, if the
3719:caching DNS resolver
3625:"www.wikipedia.org".
3581:Authoritative Answer
3504:distributed database
3483:. In addition, many
3301:Request for Comments
3051:(spam) by storing a
2698:Encyclopedia of Life
2643:and virtual bookshop
2427:Anonymous imageboard
2390:Internet voice calls
2295:Anonymous imageboard
1217:Archie search engine
973:with 56 kbit/s links
714:public data networks
636:network demonstrated
32:DNS (disambiguation)
7716:Domain Requirements
7602:The Naming of Hosts
7003:on 22 December 2015
6942:10/15/2010 apwg.org
6912:10.1109/MIC.2014.14
6201:. Updates RFC
5911:. History of BIND.
5801:"Elizabeth Feinler"
5080:DNS cache poisoning
5050:Techniques such as
4987:DNS cache poisoning
4937:tunneling protocols
4890:DNS over QUIC (DoQ)
4822:Transport protocols
4811:Dynamic DNS updates
4794:Protocol extensions
4702:. The A record for
4507:
4491:. In contrast, the
4481:resource record set
4410:
4190:
4077:
4058:Number of questions
3759:circular dependency
3715:non-recursive query
3508:clientโserver model
3318:tree data structure
3037:domain name aliases
3033:reverse DNS lookups
2352:business networking
2219:Anonymous textboard
1775:National LambdaRail
1633:wireless networking
1467:(NANOG) established
934:OSI Reference Model
794:standard introduced
7859:Internet Standards
7849:Domain Name System
7557:Informational RFCs
7023:"Find a Registrar"
6947:2012-10-03 at the
6875:. DNSCrypt project
6588:Proposed Standard.
6383:IONOS Digitalguide
6358:IONOS Digitalguide
6195:Proposed Standard.
5790:, p. 120โ121.
4859:DNS over TLS (DoT)
4505:
4498:When sent over an
4408:
4380:Number of answers
4188:
4075:
4036:DNS message format
3918:Other applications
3860:
3831:reverse DNS lookup
3815:Start of Authority
3774:additional section
3627:
3360:
3045:responsible person
2932:Domain Name System
2619:Google Street View
1428:Mosaic web browser
1350:(ISOC) established
896:Domain Name System
655:development begins
617:(IANA) established
472:concepts conceived
7478:Experimental RFCs
6758:. 9 December 2020
6590:Updates RFC
6360:. 27 January 2022
6339:978-3-319-66742-3
6312:978-0-13-700275-7
6268:"DNS Terminology"
6229:(February 2004).
6141:978-1-84113-584-7
6095:. sec. 4.2.
6043:. sec. 3.1.
5693:978-0-596-10057-5
5645:(February 2003).
5375:Split-horizon DNS
4593:
4592:
4500:Internet Protocol
4461:
4460:
4398:
4397:
4183:
4182:
4062:Number of answers
4016:root name servers
3935:load distribution
3904:Internet Explorer
3778:authority section
3562:primary/secondary
3516:root name servers
3335:beginning at the
3324:and zero or more
3312:Domain name space
3195:Elizabeth Feinler
3187:SRI International
3129:An important and
3049:unsolicited email
3016:), IP addresses (
2969:network protocols
2948:Internet Protocol
2928:
2927:
2919:social networking
2852:social networking
2830:social networking
2488:media file series
2200:review aggregator
1537:updated to allow
399:
398:
50:Application layer
16:(Redirected from
7866:
7818:
7816:
7814:
7805:
7795:
7793:
7791:
7772:
7761:"DNS Complexity"
7064:
7035:
7034:
7032:
7030:
7019:
7013:
7012:
7010:
7008:
6989:
6983:
6982:
6980:
6969:
6960:
6951:
6938:
6932:
6931:
6891:
6885:
6884:
6882:
6880:
6865:
6859:
6858:
6841:
6835:
6834:
6818:
6812:
6811:
6805:
6798:
6789:
6783:
6782:
6774:
6768:
6767:
6765:
6763:
6752:
6746:
6745:
6743:
6720:
6702:
6693:
6687:
6686:
6677:
6675:10.17487/RFC9250
6659:
6653:
6652:
6646:
6637:
6631:
6617:
6611:
6586:
6577:
6575:10.17487/RFC2136
6555:
6549:
6535:
6526:
6519:
6513:
6506:
6500:
6497:
6491:
6490:
6488:
6486:
6471:
6465:
6464:
6462:
6461:
6446:
6440:
6439:
6437:
6435:
6424:
6418:
6417:
6415:
6414:
6399:
6393:
6392:
6390:
6389:
6375:
6369:
6368:
6366:
6365:
6350:
6344:
6343:
6323:
6317:
6316:
6296:
6290:
6289:
6287:
6286:
6280:10.17487/RFC9499
6263:
6257:
6253:
6244:
6242:10.17487/RFC3696
6223:
6214:
6193:
6187:
6179:
6170:
6168:10.17487/RFC4343
6152:
6146:
6145:
6127:
6121:
6120:
6118:
6116:
6104:
6102:10.17487/RFC1034
6078:
6069:
6068:
6066:
6064:
6052:
6050:10.17487/RFC1034
6026:
6020:
6019:
6017:
6015:
6003:
6001:10.17487/RFC7719
5981:
5972:
5971:
5962:
5960:10.17487/RFC1034
5940:
5925:
5924:
5922:
5920:
5904:
5898:
5897:
5885:
5879:
5876:
5870:
5869:
5867:
5865:
5859:Internet Society
5850:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5840:
5826:
5820:
5819:
5817:
5816:
5807:. Archived from
5797:
5791:
5785:
5779:
5773:
5767:
5761:
5752:
5751:
5740:
5731:
5728:
5722:
5716:
5710:
5704:
5698:
5697:
5679:
5673:
5669:
5660:
5658:10.17487/RFC3467
5639:
5633:
5632:
5630:
5628:
5622:
5611:
5602:
5596:
5595:
5586:
5584:10.17487/RFC1035
5564:
5547:
5546:
5544:
5542:
5536:
5505:
5496:
5490:
5489:
5487:
5480:
5471:
5465:
5458:
5452:
5451:
5411:
5320:Domain hijacking
5298:
5293:
5292:
5187:
5027:and the numeral
5018:
5014:
4770:
4767:
4764:
4761:
4758:
4755:
4752:
4749:
4746:
4743:
4740:
4737:
4734:
4731:
4728:
4725:
4722:
4719:
4716:
4689:
4685:
4670:Wildcard records
4508:
4467:Resource records
4411:
4401:Question section
4360:
4355:
4350:
4345:
4337:
4191:
4078:
4004:
4003:
3997:
3992:
3991:
3981:
3980:
3974:
3969:
3968:
3891:Broken resolvers
3811:Negative caching
3790:top level domain
3391:top-level domain
3326:resource records
3237:Paul Mockapetris
3225:have the domain
3124:e-mail addresses
3112:
3111:
3100:
3099:
3089:
2922:
2921:
2907:
2905:
2896:
2895:
2888:
2886:
2877:
2876:
2866:
2864:
2855:
2854:
2844:
2842:
2833:
2832:
2818:
2816:
2807:
2806:
2804:digital currency
2796:
2794:
2785:
2784:
2774:
2772:
2763:
2762:
2755:
2753:
2744:
2743:
2736:
2734:
2725:
2724:
2713:
2711:
2702:
2701:
2694:
2692:
2683:
2682:
2675:
2673:
2664:
2663:
2656:
2654:
2645:
2644:
2633:
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2622:
2621:
2615:
2613:
2604:
2603:
2596:
2594:
2585:
2584:
2577:
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2566:
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2558:
2556:
2547:
2546:
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2509:
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2499:
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2471:
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2440:
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2410:
2409:
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2401:
2392:
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2384:
2382:
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2365:
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2354:
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2346:
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2335:
2334:
2327:
2325:
2316:
2315:
2308:
2306:
2297:
2296:
2289:
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2278:
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2270:
2268:
2259:
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2251:
2249:
2240:
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2232:
2230:
2221:
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2213:
2211:
2202:
2201:
2194:
2192:
2183:
2182:
2175:
2173:
2164:
2163:
2157:
2155:
2146:
2145:
2138:
2136:
2127:
2126:
2120:
2118:
2109:
2108:
2101:
2099:
2090:
2089:
2082:
2080:
2071:
2070:
2063:
2061:
2052:
2051:
2044:
2042:
2033:
2032:
2025:
2023:
2014:
2013:
2006:
2004:
1995:
1994:
1987:
1985:
1976:
1975:
1968:
1966:
1957:
1956:
1949:
1947:
1929:
1928:
1917:
1915:
1906:
1905:
1899:
1897:
1888:
1887:
1881:
1879:
1870:
1869:
1863:
1861:
1852:
1851:
1844:
1842:
1833:
1832:
1826:
1824:
1815:
1814:
1812:UN WSIS phase II
1808:
1806:
1797:
1796:
1790:
1788:
1779:
1778:
1771:
1769:
1758:
1757:
1751:
1749:
1740:
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1724:
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1401:
1399:
1390:
1389:
1382:
1380:
1371:
1370:
1363:
1361:
1352:
1351:
1348:Internet Society
1344:
1342:
1333:
1332:
1325:
1323:
1314:
1313:
1306:
1304:
1295:
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1287:
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1125:
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1080:
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1049:
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1031:
1024:
1022:
1013:
1012:
1005:
1003:
994:
993:
986:
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949:
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938:
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930:
928:
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909:
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899:
892:
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880:
873:
871:
862:
861:
854:
852:
843:
842:
835:
833:
815:
814:
807:
805:
796:
795:
788:
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776:
766:
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755:
754:
747:
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736:
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728:
726:
717:
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706:
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695:
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687:
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649:
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619:
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512:
511:
504:
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493:
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485:
483:
474:
473:
466:
464:
455:
454:
453:networking ideas
447:
445:
436:
435:
428:
426:
401:
391:
384:
377:
39:
21:
7874:
7873:
7869:
7868:
7867:
7865:
7864:
7863:
7834:
7833:
7812:
7810:
7803:
7798:
7789:
7787:
7775:
7758:
7755:
7700:
7692:DNS Terminology
7559:
7497:
7480:
7343:
7076:
7074:Standards track
7071:
7069:Further reading
7061:
7046:
7043:
7038:
7028:
7026:
7025:. VeriSign, Inc
7021:
7020:
7016:
7006:
7004:
6991:
6990:
6986:
6978:
6967:
6962:
6961:
6954:
6949:Wayback Machine
6939:
6935:
6893:
6892:
6888:
6878:
6876:
6867:
6866:
6862:
6843:
6842:
6838:
6820:
6819:
6815:
6803:
6796:
6791:
6790:
6786:
6776:
6775:
6771:
6761:
6759:
6754:
6753:
6749:
6741:
6700:
6695:
6694:
6690:
6661:
6660:
6656:
6644:
6639:
6638:
6634:
6618:
6614:
6557:
6556:
6552:
6536:
6529:
6520:
6516:
6507:
6503:
6498:
6494:
6484:
6482:
6473:
6472:
6468:
6459:
6457:
6448:
6447:
6443:
6433:
6431:
6426:
6425:
6421:
6412:
6410:
6401:
6400:
6396:
6387:
6385:
6377:
6376:
6372:
6363:
6361:
6352:
6351:
6347:
6340:
6325:
6324:
6320:
6313:
6298:
6297:
6293:
6284:
6282:
6265:
6264:
6260:
6225:
6224:
6217:
6180:
6154:
6153:
6149:
6142:
6129:
6128:
6124:
6114:
6112:
6080:
6079:
6072:
6062:
6060:
6028:
6027:
6023:
6013:
6011:
5987:DNS Terminology
5983:
5982:
5975:
5942:
5941:
5928:
5918:
5916:
5906:
5905:
5901:
5887:
5886:
5882:
5877:
5873:
5863:
5861:
5852:
5851:
5847:
5838:
5836:
5828:
5827:
5823:
5814:
5812:
5799:
5798:
5794:
5786:
5782:
5774:
5770:
5762:
5755:
5750:. 23 July 2012.
5742:
5741:
5734:
5729:
5725:
5717:
5713:
5705:
5701:
5694:
5681:
5680:
5676:
5641:
5640:
5636:
5626:
5624:
5620:
5609:
5604:
5603:
5599:
5566:
5565:
5550:
5540:
5538:
5534:
5503:
5498:
5497:
5493:
5485:
5478:
5474:
5472:
5468:
5459:
5455:
5413:
5412:
5408:
5404:
5399:
5296:Internet portal
5294:
5287:
5284:
5257:BigRock and PDR
5194:
5188:
5185:
5088:captive portals
5067:
5016:
5012:
4971:
4969:Security issues
4949:
4929:
4912:
4892:
4880:
4861:
4836:
4824:
4808:
4796:
4772:
4771:
4768:
4765:
4762:
4759:
4756:
4753:
4750:
4747:
4744:
4741:
4738:
4735:
4732:
4729:
4726:
4723:
4720:
4717:
4714:
4687:
4683:
4672:
4469:
4403:
4358:
4353:
4348:
4343:
4335:
4038:
4001:
4000:
3995:
3989:
3988:
3978:
3977:
3972:
3966:
3965:
3931:fault tolerance
3927:virtual hosting
3920:
3893:
3852:
3827:
3799:
3754:
3745:iterative query
3730:recursive query
3691:
3659:
3612:
3607:
3532:
3500:
3372:
3314:
3309:
3179:
3109:
3108:
3097:
3096:
3088:www.example.com
3087:
3076:
3029:mail exchangers
2909:
2903:
2901:
2899:
2890:
2884:
2882:
2880:
2868:
2862:
2860:
2858:
2846:
2840:
2838:
2836:
2820:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2798:
2792:
2790:
2788:
2776:
2770:
2768:
2766:
2757:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2738:
2732:
2730:
2728:
2715:
2709:
2707:
2705:
2696:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2677:
2671:
2669:
2667:
2658:
2652:
2650:
2648:
2635:
2629:
2627:
2625:
2617:
2611:
2609:
2607:
2598:
2592:
2590:
2588:
2579:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2560:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2541:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2522:
2516:
2514:
2512:
2503:
2497:
2495:
2493:
2484:
2478:
2476:
2474:
2465:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2442:
2436:
2434:
2432:
2423:
2417:
2415:
2413:
2405:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2386:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2367:
2361:
2359:
2357:
2348:
2342:
2340:
2338:
2329:
2323:
2321:
2319:
2310:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2291:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2272:
2266:
2264:
2262:
2253:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2234:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2215:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2198:Rotten Tomatoes
2196:
2190:
2188:
2186:
2177:
2171:
2169:
2167:
2159:
2153:
2151:
2149:
2140:
2134:
2132:
2130:
2122:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2103:
2097:
2095:
2093:
2084:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2065:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2046:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2027:
2021:
2019:
2017:
2012:online retailer
2008:
2002:
2000:
1998:
1989:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1970:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1951:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1919:
1913:
1911:
1909:
1901:
1895:
1893:
1891:
1883:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1865:
1859:
1857:
1855:
1846:
1840:
1838:
1836:
1828:
1822:
1820:
1818:
1810:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1792:
1786:
1784:
1782:
1773:
1767:
1765:
1763:
1753:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1726:
1720:
1718:
1716:
1708:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1689:
1683:
1681:
1679:
1670:
1664:
1662:
1660:
1654:Abilene Network
1648:
1642:
1640:
1638:
1629:
1623:
1621:
1619:
1611:
1605:
1603:
1601:
1592:
1586:
1584:
1582:
1573:
1567:
1565:
1563:
1555:
1549:
1547:
1545:
1533:
1527:
1525:
1523:
1514:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1491:
1485:
1483:
1481:
1463:
1457:
1455:
1453:
1445:
1439:
1437:
1435:
1426:
1420:
1418:
1416:
1403:
1397:
1395:
1393:
1384:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1365:
1359:
1357:
1355:
1346:
1340:
1338:
1336:
1327:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1308:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1289:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1270:
1264:
1262:
1260:
1252:
1246:
1244:
1242:
1233:
1227:
1225:
1223:
1215:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1196:
1190:
1188:
1186:
1177:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1161:
1155:
1153:
1151:
1138:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1120:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1101:
1095:
1093:
1091:
1082:
1076:
1074:
1072:
1063:
1057:
1055:
1053:
1045:
1039:
1037:
1035:
1026:
1020:
1018:
1016:
1007:
1001:
999:
997:
988:
982:
980:
978:
969:
963:
961:
959:
951:
945:
943:
941:
932:
926:
924:
922:
913:
907:
905:
903:
894:
888:
886:
884:
875:
869:
867:
865:
856:
850:
848:
846:
837:
831:
829:
827:
809:
803:
801:
799:
790:
784:
782:
780:
768:
762:
760:
758:
749:
743:
741:
739:
730:
724:
722:
720:
708:
702:
700:
698:
689:
683:
681:
679:
670:
664:
662:
660:
651:
645:
643:
641:
632:
626:
624:
622:
613:
607:
605:
603:
597:
591:
589:
587:
578:
572:
570:
568:
559:
553:
551:
549:
543:
537:
535:
533:
525:
519:
517:
515:
510:planning begins
506:
500:
498:
496:
487:
481:
479:
477:
468:
462:
460:
458:
449:
443:
441:
439:
430:
424:
422:
420:
395:
215:Transport layer
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
7872:
7870:
7862:
7861:
7856:
7851:
7846:
7836:
7835:
7832:
7831:
7825:
7819:
7796:
7773:
7754:
7753:External links
7751:
7750:
7749:
7739:
7729:
7719:
7699:
7696:
7695:
7694:
7684:
7674:
7664:
7654:
7644:
7634:
7624:
7614:
7604:
7594:
7584:
7574:
7558:
7555:
7554:
7553:
7542:
7531:
7520:
7509:
7496:
7493:
7492:
7491:
7479:
7476:
7475:
7474:
7464:
7454:
7444:
7434:
7424:
7414:
7404:
7394:
7384:
7374:
7364:
7354:
7342:
7339:
7338:
7337:
7327:
7317:
7307:
7297:
7287:
7277:
7267:
7257:
7247:
7237:
7227:
7217:
7207:
7197:
7187:
7177:
7167:
7157:
7147:
7137:
7127:
7117:
7107:
7097:
7087:
7075:
7072:
7070:
7067:
7066:
7065:
7059:
7042:
7039:
7037:
7036:
7014:
6984:
6952:
6933:
6886:
6860:
6836:
6827:Cisco Umbrella
6813:
6784:
6769:
6747:
6711:(2): 228โ244.
6688:
6654:
6632:
6612:
6550:
6527:
6514:
6501:
6492:
6466:
6441:
6419:
6394:
6370:
6345:
6338:
6318:
6311:
6291:
6272:tools.ietf.org
6258:
6255:Informational.
6215:
6147:
6140:
6122:
6070:
6021:
5973:
5926:
5899:
5880:
5871:
5845:
5821:
5792:
5780:
5778:, p. 120.
5768:
5766:, p. 119.
5753:
5732:
5723:
5721:, p. 113.
5711:
5709:, p. 112.
5699:
5692:
5674:
5671:Informational.
5634:
5597:
5548:
5491:
5466:
5453:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5397:
5392:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5362:
5357:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5340:DNS over HTTPS
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5301:
5300:
5299:
5283:
5280:
5193:
5190:
5183:
5154:
5153:
5152:
5151:
5140:DNS over HTTPS
5126:
5112:
5066:
5063:
4980:authentication
4976:data integrity
4970:
4967:
4948:
4945:
4928:
4925:
4911:
4908:
4891:
4888:
4883:DNS over HTTPS
4879:
4876:
4860:
4857:
4853:zone transfers
4835:
4832:
4823:
4820:
4807:
4804:
4795:
4792:
4739:*.a.x.example.
4713:
4680:asterisk label
4671:
4668:
4591:
4590:
4587:
4584:
4580:
4579:
4576:
4573:
4569:
4568:
4565:
4562:
4556:
4555:
4552:
4549:
4545:
4544:
4541:
4538:
4534:
4533:
4530:
4527:
4523:
4522:
4515:
4512:
4489:load balancing
4468:
4465:
4459:
4458:
4455:
4452:
4448:
4447:
4444:
4441:
4437:
4436:
4433:
4430:
4426:
4425:
4418:
4415:
4402:
4399:
4396:
4395:
4392:
4389:
4386:
4382:
4381:
4378:
4375:
4372:
4368:
4367:
4364:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4338:
4332:
4331:
4328:
4327:Transaction ID
4325:
4322:
4318:
4317:
4314:
4311:
4308:
4305:
4302:
4299:
4296:
4293:
4290:
4287:
4284:
4281:
4278:
4275:
4272:
4269:
4266:
4263:
4260:
4257:
4254:
4251:
4248:
4245:
4242:
4239:
4236:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4224:
4221:
4216:
4210:
4209:
4206:
4203:
4200:
4197:
4181:
4180:
4177:
4174:
4170:
4169:
4166:
4163:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4152:
4148:
4147:
4144:
4141:
4137:
4136:
4133:
4130:
4126:
4125:
4122:
4119:
4115:
4114:
4111:
4108:
4104:
4103:
4100:
4097:
4093:
4092:
4085:
4082:
4050:Identification
4037:
4034:
4008:
4007:
3984:
3919:
3916:
3892:
3889:
3868:e-mail clients
3851:
3848:
3826:
3825:Reverse lookup
3823:
3798:
3797:Record caching
3795:
3753:
3750:
3690:
3687:
3658:
3655:
3611:
3608:
3606:
3603:
3595:, to indicate
3531:
3528:
3499:
3496:
3371:
3368:
3313:
3310:
3308:
3305:
3253:In 1984, four
3178:
3175:
3147:simultaneously
3135:cloud services
3075:
3072:
3003:address spaces
2984:fault-tolerant
2958:identification
2926:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2897:
2878:
2856:
2834:
2808:
2786:
2764:
2745:
2726:
2703:
2684:
2665:
2646:
2623:
2605:
2586:
2567:
2548:
2529:
2510:
2491:
2472:
2453:
2444:The Pirate Bay
2430:
2411:
2393:
2374:
2355:
2336:
2317:
2298:
2279:
2260:
2241:
2222:
2203:
2184:
2165:
2147:
2128:
2110:
2091:
2072:
2053:
2034:
2015:
1996:
1977:
1958:
1931:
1930:
1907:
1889:
1871:
1853:
1834:
1816:
1798:
1780:
1760:
1759:
1741:
1714:
1696:
1691:Dot-com bubble
1677:
1658:
1636:
1617:
1599:
1580:
1561:
1543:
1521:
1518:decommissioned
1502:
1471:
1470:
1451:
1433:
1414:
1391:
1372:
1353:
1334:
1315:
1310:World Wide Web
1296:
1277:
1258:
1240:
1221:
1203:
1198:UUNET/Alternet
1184:
1165:
1149:
1126:
1108:
1089:
1070:
1051:
1033:
1014:
995:
976:
957:
939:
920:
901:
882:
863:
844:
817:
816:
797:
778:
756:
737:
718:
696:
677:
658:
639:
620:
601:
585:
566:
547:
531:
513:
494:
475:
456:
437:
408:
407:
397:
396:
394:
393:
386:
379:
371:
368:
367:
366:
365:
358:
353:
348:
343:
335:
334:
328:
327:
326:
325:
318:
313:
308:
303:
298:
288:
287:
286:
281:
268:
267:
265:Internet layer
261:
260:
259:
258:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
226:
218:
217:
211:
210:
209:
208:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
136:
131:
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
81:
76:
71:
61:
53:
52:
46:
45:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7871:
7860:
7857:
7855:
7852:
7850:
7847:
7845:
7842:
7841:
7839:
7829:
7828:Mess with DNS
7826:
7823:
7820:
7809:
7802:
7797:
7785:
7784:
7779:
7774:
7770:
7766:
7762:
7757:
7756:
7752:
7748:
7744:
7740:
7738:
7734:
7730:
7728:
7724:
7720:
7717:
7713:
7709:
7708:
7707:
7705:
7697:
7693:
7689:
7685:
7683:
7679:
7675:
7673:
7669:
7665:
7663:
7659:
7655:
7653:
7649:
7645:
7643:
7639:
7635:
7633:
7629:
7625:
7623:
7619:
7615:
7613:
7609:
7605:
7603:
7599:
7595:
7593:
7589:
7585:
7583:
7579:
7575:
7572:
7568:
7564:
7563:
7562:
7556:
7551:
7547:
7543:
7540:
7536:
7532:
7529:
7525:
7521:
7518:
7514:
7510:
7507:
7503:
7499:
7498:
7494:
7490:
7486:
7482:
7481:
7477:
7473:
7469:
7465:
7463:
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7449:
7445:
7443:
7439:
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7413:
7409:
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7399:
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7389:
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7379:
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7340:
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7128:
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7118:
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7112:
7108:
7106:
7102:
7098:
7096:
7092:
7088:
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7082:
7078:
7077:
7073:
7068:
7062:
7060:9780735211759
7056:
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7051:
7045:
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7040:
7024:
7018:
7015:
7002:
6998:
6994:
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6802:
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6757:
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6666:
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6408:
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6380:
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6269:
6262:
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6234:
6233:
6228:
6222:
6220:
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6200:
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6191:
6185:
6177:
6174:
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6159:
6151:
6148:
6143:
6137:
6133:
6126:
6123:
6111:
6108:
6103:
6098:
6094:
6090:
6089:
6084:
6077:
6075:
6071:
6059:
6056:
6051:
6046:
6042:
6038:
6037:
6032:
6025:
6022:
6010:
6007:
6002:
5997:
5993:
5989:
5988:
5980:
5978:
5974:
5969:
5966:
5961:
5956:
5952:
5948:
5947:
5939:
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5927:
5914:
5910:
5903:
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5891:
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5789:
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5777:
5772:
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5727:
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5708:
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5700:
5695:
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5678:
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5659:
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5608:
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5598:
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5563:
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5533:
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5525:
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5509:
5502:
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5477:
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5463:
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5388:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5360:Multicast DNS
5358:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5325:DNS hijacking
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5302:
5297:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5279:
5277:
5273:
5268:
5267:exclusively.
5266:
5262:
5258:
5254:
5250:
5245:
5243:
5239:
5235:
5231:
5225:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5203:
5199:
5191:
5182:
5180:
5176:
5172:
5168:
5164:
5158:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5136:
5134:
5133:advertisement
5130:
5127:
5124:
5123:onion routing
5120:
5116:
5113:
5110:
5107:
5106:
5105:
5102:
5100:
5095:
5093:
5089:
5085:
5081:
5077:
5076:DNS hijacking
5073:
5064:
5062:
5060:
5055:
5053:
5048:
5046:
5042:
5038:
5034:
5030:
5026:
5022:
5009:
5007:
5003:
4999:
4995:
4990:
4988:
4983:
4981:
4977:
4968:
4966:
4963:
4958:
4954:
4946:
4944:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4926:
4924:
4921:
4917:
4909:
4907:
4905:
4901:
4897:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4877:
4875:
4873:
4869:
4865:
4858:
4856:
4854:
4850:
4846:
4841:
4838:UDP reserves
4833:
4831:
4829:
4821:
4819:
4817:
4812:
4805:
4803:
4801:
4793:
4791:
4789:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4711:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4693:
4681:
4677:
4669:
4667:
4665:
4661:
4657:
4652:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4633:
4630:
4626:
4624:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4608:
4604:
4600:
4597:
4588:
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4582:
4581:
4577:
4574:
4571:
4570:
4566:
4563:
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4558:
4557:
4553:
4550:
4547:
4546:
4542:
4539:
4536:
4535:
4531:
4528:
4525:
4524:
4520:
4516:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4503:
4501:
4496:
4494:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4474:
4466:
4464:
4456:
4453:
4450:
4449:
4445:
4442:
4439:
4438:
4434:
4431:
4428:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4416:
4413:
4412:
4406:
4400:
4387:
4384:
4383:
4373:
4370:
4369:
4357:
4352:
4347:
4342:
4334:
4333:
4319:
4315:
4312:
4309:
4306:
4303:
4300:
4297:
4294:
4291:
4288:
4285:
4282:
4279:
4276:
4273:
4270:
4267:
4264:
4261:
4258:
4255:
4252:
4249:
4246:
4243:
4240:
4237:
4234:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4222:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4211:
4196:
4192:
4186:
4178:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4167:
4164:
4161:
4160:
4156:
4153:
4150:
4149:
4145:
4142:
4139:
4138:
4134:
4131:
4128:
4127:
4123:
4120:
4117:
4116:
4112:
4109:
4106:
4105:
4101:
4098:
4095:
4094:
4090:
4086:
4083:
4080:
4079:
4073:
4071:
4067:
4063:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4046:
4044:
4035:
4033:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4021:
4017:
4012:
4005:
3993:
3985:
3982:
3970:
3962:
3961:
3960:
3959:For example:
3957:
3953:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3938:
3936:
3932:
3928:
3923:
3917:
3915:
3913:
3912:Google Chrome
3908:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3890:
3888:
3886:
3881:
3875:
3873:
3869:
3865:
3856:
3850:Client lookup
3849:
3847:
3845:
3839:
3837:
3832:
3824:
3822:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3807:
3803:
3796:
3794:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3779:
3775:
3771:
3767:
3762:
3760:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3741:
3739:
3735:
3731:
3726:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3711:
3709:
3705:
3704:non-recursive
3701:
3696:
3689:DNS resolvers
3688:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3677:
3675:
3674:
3667:
3665:
3656:
3654:
3652:
3647:
3645:
3640:
3634:
3632:
3624:
3619:
3615:
3609:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3598:
3594:
3590:
3586:
3582:
3578:
3577:authoritative
3573:
3570:
3568:
3563:
3559:
3558:
3553:
3549:
3544:
3541:
3537:
3536:authoritative
3529:
3527:
3525:
3521:
3517:
3513:
3509:
3505:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3491:
3486:
3482:
3480:
3474:
3470:
3466:
3463:approved the
3462:
3457:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3417:
3415:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3398:
3396:
3392:
3387:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3369:
3367:
3365:
3357:
3352:
3348:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3329:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3311:
3306:
3304:
3302:
3297:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3279:
3275:
3271:
3267:
3263:
3260:
3256:
3251:
3249:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3232:
3230:
3229:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3210:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3176:
3174:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3155:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3113:
3105:
3101:
3098:93.184.216.34
3093:
3085:
3081:
3073:
3071:
3069:
3065:
3060:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3027:
3023:
3019:
3015:
3010:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2995:
2993:
2989:
2985:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2959:
2955:
2954:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2920:
2916:
2915:video sharing
2912:
2898:
2893:
2879:
2875:
2874:photo sharing
2871:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2826:photo sharing
2823:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2765:
2760:
2746:
2742:search engine
2741:
2727:
2722:
2718:
2704:
2699:
2685:
2680:
2666:
2661:
2647:
2642:
2638:
2624:
2620:
2606:
2601:
2587:
2583:microblogging
2582:
2568:
2564:virtual globe
2563:
2549:
2544:
2530:
2526:video sharing
2525:
2511:
2507:image hosting
2506:
2492:
2487:
2473:
2468:
2454:
2449:
2445:
2431:
2426:
2412:
2408:
2394:
2389:
2375:
2370:
2356:
2351:
2337:
2332:
2318:
2313:
2299:
2294:
2280:
2276:search engine
2275:
2261:
2256:
2242:
2237:
2223:
2218:
2204:
2199:
2185:
2180:
2166:
2162:
2148:
2143:
2129:
2125:
2124:Google Search
2111:
2107:search engine
2106:
2092:
2087:
2073:
2069:search engine
2068:
2054:
2049:
2035:
2030:
2016:
2011:
1997:
1993:web directory
1992:
1978:
1973:
1959:
1954:
1940:
1939:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1926:
1922:
1908:
1904:
1890:
1886:
1872:
1868:
1854:
1849:
1835:
1831:
1817:
1813:
1799:
1795:
1781:
1776:
1762:
1761:
1756:
1742:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1715:
1711:
1697:
1692:
1678:
1673:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1637:
1632:
1618:
1614:
1600:
1595:
1581:
1576:
1562:
1558:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1522:
1517:
1503:
1499:
1496:connected at
1495:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1477:
1476:
1466:
1452:
1448:
1434:
1429:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1392:
1387:
1373:
1368:
1354:
1349:
1335:
1330:
1316:
1311:
1297:
1292:
1278:
1273:
1259:
1255:
1241:
1236:
1222:
1218:
1204:
1199:
1185:
1180:
1166:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1127:
1123:
1109:
1104:
1090:
1085:
1071:
1067:
1052:
1048:
1034:
1029:
1015:
1010:
996:
991:
977:
972:
958:
954:
940:
935:
921:
916:
902:
897:
883:
878:
864:
859:
845:
840:
826:
825:
824:
823:
822:
812:
798:
793:
779:
775:
771:
757:
752:
738:
733:
719:
715:
711:
697:
692:
678:
673:
659:
654:
640:
635:
621:
616:
602:
586:
581:
567:
562:
548:
532:
528:
514:
509:
495:
490:
489:Merit Network
476:
471:
457:
452:
438:
433:
419:
418:
417:
416:
415:
410:
409:
406:
403:
402:
392:
387:
385:
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378:
373:
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370:
369:
364:
363:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
338:
337:
336:
333:
329:
324:
323:
319:
317:
314:
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309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
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292:
289:
285:
282:
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227:
225:
222:
221:
220:
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207:
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192:
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185:
182:
180:
177:
175:
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167:
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145:
142:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
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120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
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102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
89:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
69:
65:
62:
60:
57:
56:
55:
54:
51:
47:
44:
40:
37:
33:
19:
7811:. Retrieved
7807:
7788:. Retrieved
7783:The Guardian
7781:
7746:
7736:
7726:
7715:
7701:
7691:
7681:
7671:
7661:
7651:
7641:
7631:
7621:
7611:
7601:
7591:
7581:
7570:
7560:
7549:
7538:
7527:
7516:
7505:
7488:
7471:
7461:
7451:
7441:
7431:
7421:
7411:
7401:
7391:
7381:
7371:
7361:
7351:
7334:
7324:
7314:
7304:
7294:
7284:
7274:
7264:
7254:
7244:
7234:
7224:
7214:
7204:
7194:
7184:
7174:
7164:
7154:
7144:
7134:
7124:
7114:
7104:
7094:
7084:
7049:
7027:. Retrieved
7017:
7005:. Retrieved
7001:the original
6987:
6971:
6936:
6906:(1): 66โ71.
6903:
6899:
6889:
6877:. Retrieved
6872:
6863:
6853:. DNSCrypt.
6848:
6839:
6826:
6816:
6807:
6787:
6772:
6760:. Retrieved
6750:
6708:
6704:
6691:
6664:
6657:
6648:
6635:
6627:
6615:
6587:
6564:
6553:
6545:
6522:
6517:
6509:
6504:
6495:
6483:. Retrieved
6481:. DNS RCODEs
6469:
6458:. Retrieved
6444:
6432:. Retrieved
6422:
6411:. Retrieved
6397:
6386:. Retrieved
6382:
6373:
6362:. Retrieved
6357:
6348:
6332:. Springer.
6328:
6321:
6301:
6294:
6283:. Retrieved
6271:
6261:
6254:
6231:
6194:
6157:
6150:
6131:
6125:
6113:. Retrieved
6087:
6061:. Retrieved
6035:
6024:
6012:. Retrieved
5986:
5945:
5917:. Retrieved
5902:
5893:
5883:
5874:
5862:. Retrieved
5848:
5837:. Retrieved
5833:
5824:
5813:. Retrieved
5809:the original
5804:
5795:
5783:
5771:
5747:
5726:
5714:
5702:
5684:DNS and BIND
5683:
5677:
5670:
5647:
5637:
5625:. Retrieved
5600:
5569:
5541:November 19,
5539:. Retrieved
5511:
5507:
5494:
5469:
5461:
5456:
5426:(1): 37โ44.
5423:
5419:
5409:
5345:DNS over TLS
5275:
5271:
5269:
5248:
5246:
5241:
5226:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5195:
5160:
5155:
5144:DNS over TLS
5103:
5096:
5068:
5056:
5049:
5028:
5024:
5010:
4991:
4984:
4972:
4950:
4930:
4927:DNS over Tor
4913:
4893:
4881:
4864:DNS over TLS
4862:
4837:
4825:
4809:
4797:
4773:
4763:a.x.example.
4760:a.x.example.
4751:a.x.example.
4748:a.x.example.
4736:a.x.example.
4727:*.x.example.
4724:a.x.example.
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4691:
4679:
4673:
4659:
4653:
4640:
4636:
4634:
4628:
4627:
4622:
4614:
4611:IPv4 address
4606:
4602:
4601:
4595:
4594:
4497:
4480:
4477:time to live
4470:
4462:
4404:
4194:
4184:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4057:
4053:
4049:
4047:
4042:
4039:
4024:
4022:addressing.
4013:
4009:
3999:
3987:
3986:The address
3976:
3964:
3963:The address
3958:
3954:
3939:
3924:
3921:
3909:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3876:
3872:DNS resolver
3864:web browsers
3861:
3840:
3828:
3818:
3808:
3804:
3800:
3782:
3777:
3773:
3769:
3763:
3755:
3744:
3742:
3729:
3727:
3714:
3712:
3707:
3703:
3699:
3692:
3681:
3678:
3673:time-to-live
3671:
3668:
3660:
3648:
3638:
3635:
3630:
3628:
3613:
3600:
3596:
3584:
3580:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3561:
3557:master/slave
3556:
3551:
3550:server or a
3547:
3545:
3535:
3533:
3519:
3512:name servers
3501:
3498:Name servers
3489:
3478:
3458:
3453:
3449:
3445:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3422:
3418:
3413:
3412:domain, and
3409:
3405:
3399:
3394:
3388:
3384:concatenated
3379:
3373:
3363:
3361:
3355:
3344:
3332:
3330:
3325:
3321:
3315:
3298:
3294:Carl Malamud
3252:
3245:
3233:
3226:
3211:
3180:
3156:
3150:
3146:
3128:
3107:
3095:
3077:
3061:
3044:
3011:
2996:
2973:
2965:IP addresses
2953:domain names
2951:
2940:name service
2935:
2931:
2929:
2562:Google Earth
2448:torrent file
2407:iTunes Store
1934:
1933:
1932:
1631:IEEE 802.11b
1474:
1473:
1472:
895:
820:
819:
818:
413:
412:
411:
404:
361:
321:
254:
204:
73:
36:
7790:28 February
7029:18 December
7007:18 December
6115:17 December
6063:17 December
6014:18 December
5864:18 December
5627:18 December
5514:(3): 2โ19.
5370:resolv.conf
5276:registrants
4935:(VPNs) and
4840:port number
4769:2001:db8::1
4708:a.x.example
4704:a.x.example
4700:a.x.example
4660:on the wire
4514:Description
4487:to achieve
4417:Description
4189:DNS Header
4084:Description
4068:(RRs), and
4026:Dynamic DNS
3990:203.0.113.6
3967:203.0.113.5
3734:home router
3695:client side
3376:domain name
3274:Mike Karels
3262:name server
3255:UC Berkeley
3092:example.com
3035:(PTR), and
2778:Kickstarter
2759:Google Docs
2545:link voting
1732:Code Red II
1388:established
1047:Morris worm
813:established
772:news using
470:NPL network
7838:Categories
7822:Zytrax.com
6718:1806.00276
6521:RFC 5395,
6508:RFC 5395,
6460:2010-07-25
6434:20 October
6413:2012-04-07
6388:2022-04-22
6364:2022-03-31
6354:"DNS zone"
6285:2024-07-01
6227:J. Klensin
5839:2020-02-12
5815:2018-11-25
5788:Evans 2018
5776:Evans 2018
5764:Evans 2018
5719:Evans 2018
5707:Evans 2018
5643:J. Klensin
5402:References
5210:registrant
5092:censorship
5059:exfiltrate
5017:paypa1.com
5013:paypal.com
4715:x.example.
4621:, and the
4551:Class code
4454:Class code
3485:registries
3307:Structure
3290:Paul Vixie
3286:Rick Adams
3278:Paul Vixie
3199:Jon Postel
3131:ubiquitous
3080:phone book
2999:namespaces
2980:subdomains
2312:BitTorrent
2142:Babel Fish
2048:Craigslist
1850:registered
1728:Code Red I
734:introduced
332:Link layer
7765:ACM Queue
7741:RFC
7731:RFC
7721:RFC
7710:RFC
7686:RFC
7676:RFC
7666:RFC
7656:RFC
7646:RFC
7636:RFC
7626:RFC
7616:RFC
7606:RFC
7596:RFC
7586:RFC
7576:RFC
7565:RFC
7544:RFC
7533:RFC
7530:(BCP 152)
7522:RFC
7511:RFC
7500:RFC
7483:RFC
7466:RFC
7456:RFC
7446:RFC
7436:RFC
7426:RFC
7416:RFC
7406:RFC
7396:RFC
7386:RFC
7376:RFC
7366:RFC
7356:RFC
7346:RFC
7329:RFC
7319:RFC
7309:RFC
7299:RFC
7289:RFC
7279:RFC
7269:RFC
7259:RFC
7249:RFC
7239:RFC
7229:RFC
7219:RFC
7209:RFC
7199:RFC
7189:RFC
7179:RFC
7169:RFC
7159:RFC
7149:RFC
7139:RFC
7129:RFC
7119:RFC
7109:RFC
7099:RFC
7089:RFC
7079:RFC
6920:1089-7801
5528:207181702
5460:RFC 781,
5440:1751-8717
5390:Zone file
5214:registrar
5041:ISO 10646
4978:and user
4696:x.example
4692:x.example
4688:*.example
4656:zone file
4647:(CH) and
4532:Variable
4435:Variable
4030:hot spots
4002:127.0.0.2
3979:127.0.0.1
3950:MX record
3723:DNS cache
3708:iterative
3700:recursive
3664:root zone
3605:Operation
3552:secondary
3520:resolving
3444:, digits
3402:subdomain
3364:delegated
3337:root zone
3218:telephone
3191:HOSTS.TXT
3084:hostnames
3057:zone file
2944:computers
2822:Instagram
2721:DRM-based
2600:WikiLeaks
2331:Knowledge
2067:AltaVista
1650:Internet2
1291:ANS CO+RE
1142:(without
1064:Complete
7769:Archived
7552:(BCP 40)
7541:(BCP 42)
7519:(BCP 20)
7508:(BCP 16)
6976:Archived
6945:Archived
6928:12230888
6855:Archived
6831:Archived
6801:Archived
6739:Archived
6735:44126163
6560:P. Vixie
6407:Slashdot
6184:citation
5913:Archived
5618:Archived
5532:Archived
5483:Archived
5448:45091791
5395:DNS leak
5282:See also
5261:VeriSign
5206:registry
5184:โ
5171:Facebook
5148:DNSCrypt
5045:phishing
5021:typeface
5002:DNSCurve
4953:DNSCrypt
4947:DNSCrypt
4918:and the
4686:, e.g.,
4641:Internet
4619:DNS zone
4572:RDLENGTH
4517:Length (
4420:Length (
4087:Length (
3698:such as
3473:Punycode
3454:LDH rule
3448:through
3440:through
3432:through
3356:Internet
3341:DNS zone
3163:registry
3074:Function
2988:database
2892:Coursera
2870:Snapchat
2641:e-reader
2467:Facebook
2350:LinkedIn
2333:, the ๐
1577:proposed
1430:released
1386:InterNIC
936:released
792:Ethernet
634:CYCLADES
7813:27 July
7704:Unknown
7698:Unknown
7573:(FYI 5)
7041:Sources
6879:28 July
6781:. IETF.
6762:27 July
6562:(ed.).
6485:14 June
5919:4 April
5253:GoDaddy
5202:OpenNIC
5167:Netflix
5163:Android
5129:Proxies
4962:OpenDNS
4666:(OPT).
4340:OPCODE
4195:Offsets
4020:anycast
3819:minimum
3651:caching
3548:primary
3540:answers
3469:Unicode
3406:example
3201:at the
3183:ARPANET
3177:History
2961:strings
2902: (
2883: (
2861: (
2848:Google+
2839: (
2813: (
2800:Bitcoin
2791: (
2769: (
2750: (
2731: (
2717:Spotify
2708: (
2689: (
2679:Dropbox
2670: (
2651: (
2628: (
2610: (
2591: (
2581:Twitter
2572: (
2553: (
2534: (
2524:YouTube
2515: (
2496: (
2486:Podcast
2477: (
2458: (
2435: (
2416: (
2398: (
2379: (
2369:Myspace
2360: (
2341: (
2322: (
2303: (
2284: (
2265: (
2255:Napster
2246: (
2227: (
2208: (
2189: (
2170: (
2152: (
2133: (
2115: (
2105:RankDex
2096: (
2077: (
2058: (
2039: (
2020: (
2001: (
1982: (
1963: (
1944: (
1912: (
1894: (
1876: (
1858: (
1839: (
1821: (
1803: (
1785: (
1777:founded
1766: (
1746: (
1719: (
1701: (
1682: (
1663: (
1641: (
1622: (
1604: (
1585: (
1566: (
1548: (
1526: (
1507: (
1484: (
1456: (
1438: (
1419: (
1396: (
1377: (
1358: (
1339: (
1320: (
1301: (
1282: (
1263: (
1245: (
1226: (
1208: (
1189: (
1170: (
1154: (
1131: (
1113: (
1094: (
1075: (
1056: (
1038: (
1019: (
1011:founded
1000: (
981: (
962: (
944: (
925: (
906: (
887: (
868: (
849: (
841:(CSNET)
830: (
802: (
783: (
761: (
742: (
732:Minitel
723: (
701: (
691:Telenet
682: (
663: (
644: (
625: (
606: (
590: (
571: (
552: (
536: (
518: (
508:ARPANET
499: (
491:founded
480: (
461: (
442: (
423: (
362:more...
346:Tunnels
322:more...
255:more...
205:more...
194:TLS/SSL
149:ONC/RPC
86: (
7057:
6926:
6918:
6873:GitHub
6850:GitHub
6733:
6622:
6540:
6456:. 2004
6409:. 2005
6336:
6309:
6138:
5690:
5526:
5446:
5438:
5119:.onion
4904:HTTP/3
4870:
4786:
4778:
4649:Hesiod
4613:, the
4519:octets
4422:octets
4366:RCODE
4330:Flags
4107:OPCODE
3946:e-mail
3706:, and
3380:labels
3292:, and
3122:) and
3106:) and
3041:DNSSEC
2911:TikTok
2637:Kindle
2543:Reddit
2505:Flickr
2236:i-mode
2179:PayPal
2010:Amazon
1991:Yahoo!
1734:, and
1693:bursts
1539:TCP/IP
1516:NSFNET
1411:access
1409:USENET
1407:added
1369:(CIDR)
1329:NSFNET
1254:Gopher
1237:(WAIS)
1144:TCP/IP
1103:PSINet
1028:NSFNET
992:(IETF)
971:NSFNET
915:MILNET
879:(SMTP)
858:TCP/IP
811:BITNET
770:USENET
580:Tymnet
444:1962-4
440:1962-4
425:1960-4
421:1960-4
189:Telnet
88:HTTP/3
7804:(PDF)
6997:ICANN
6979:(PDF)
6968:(PDF)
6924:S2CID
6804:(PDF)
6797:(PDF)
6742:(PDF)
6731:S2CID
6713:arXiv
6701:(PDF)
6645:(PDF)
5621:(PDF)
5614:APNIC
5610:(PDF)
5535:(PDF)
5524:S2CID
5504:(PDF)
5486:(PDF)
5479:(PDF)
5444:S2CID
5242:thick
5234:DENIC
5218:WHOIS
5175:Apple
4645:Chaos
4637:CLASS
4629:RDATA
4583:RDATA
4548:CLASS
4511:Field
4451:CLASS
4414:Field
4214:Octet
4173:RCODE
4081:Field
4054:Flags
4043:flags
3948:: An
3910:When
3885:above
3728:In a
3713:In a
3631:hints
3479:ccTLD
3461:ICANN
3426:ASCII
3345:class
3339:. A
3333:zones
3322:label
3222:WHOIS
3171:WHOIS
2662:(EC2)
2425:4chan
2388:Skype
2293:2chan
2274:Baidu
1921:ICANN
1738:worms
1736:Nimda
1672:vBNS+
1535:GOSIP
1312:(WWW)
1274:(CIX)
1181:(ANS)
1140:GOSIP
1086:(BGP)
1009:UUNET
898:(DNS)
753:(IAB)
563:(NIC)
316:IPsec
94:HTTPS
7815:2024
7792:2014
7743:1101
7733:1033
7723:1032
7688:9499
7678:9156
7668:9076
7658:8806
7648:5895
7638:5894
7628:4892
7618:3833
7608:3696
7598:2100
7588:1912
7578:1591
7567:1178
7546:7720
7535:6895
7524:5625
7513:2317
7502:2182
7485:1183
7468:8484
7458:8310
7448:7858
7438:7830
7428:5933
7418:5910
7408:5702
7398:5155
7388:4470
7378:4509
7368:4035
7358:4034
7348:4033
7331:8945
7321:7766
7311:6891
7301:6672
7291:5893
7281:5892
7271:5891
7261:5890
7251:5452
7241:5011
7231:5001
7221:4635
7211:4592
7201:4343
7191:3597
7181:3596
7171:3226
7161:3225
7151:2308
7141:2181
7131:2136
7121:1996
7111:1995
7101:1123
7091:1035
7081:1034
7055:ISBN
7031:2015
7009:2015
6916:ISSN
6881:2022
6764:2022
6709:2019
6683:9250
6624:2671
6608:4035
6606:and
6604:4034
6600:4033
6596:3007
6592:1035
6583:2136
6542:4592
6487:2019
6479:IANA
6436:2014
6334:ISBN
6307:ISBN
6250:3696
6211:2181
6209:and
6207:1035
6203:1034
6199:5890
6190:link
6176:4343
6136:ISBN
6117:2015
6110:1034
6093:IETF
6065:2015
6058:1034
6041:IETF
6016:2015
6009:7719
5992:IETF
5968:1034
5951:IETF
5921:2022
5866:2015
5688:ISBN
5666:3467
5629:2016
5592:1035
5575:IETF
5543:2012
5436:ISSN
5249:thin
5222:RDAP
5146:and
5109:VPNs
5090:and
5082:and
5015:and
5006:TSIG
4957:IETF
4951:The
4900:QUIC
4872:7858
4816:DHCP
4788:1034
4780:4592
4766:AAAA
4664:EDNS
4635:The
4603:TYPE
4596:NAME
4537:TYPE
4526:NAME
4440:TYPE
4429:NAME
4089:bits
3933:and
3880:DHCP
3836:arpa
3770:glue
3743:The
3693:The
3560:and
3522:) a
3266:BIND
3259:Unix
3246:The
3169:and
3167:RDAP
3159:zone
3151:same
3137:and
3120:URLs
3116:IPv6
3104:IPv4
3026:SMTP
3022:AAAA
3020:and
2930:The
2917:and
2904:2016
2900:2016
2885:2012
2881:2012
2863:2011
2859:2011
2841:2011
2837:2011
2828:and
2815:2010
2811:2010
2802:, a
2793:2009
2789:2009
2780:, a
2771:2009
2767:2009
2752:2009
2748:2009
2740:Bing
2733:2009
2729:2009
2719:, a
2710:2008
2706:2008
2691:2008
2687:2008
2672:2008
2668:2008
2653:2008
2649:2008
2630:2007
2626:2007
2612:2007
2608:2007
2593:2007
2589:2007
2574:2006
2570:2006
2555:2005
2551:2005
2536:2005
2532:2005
2517:2005
2513:2005
2498:2004
2494:2004
2479:2004
2475:2004
2460:2004
2456:2004
2450:host
2437:2003
2433:2003
2418:2003
2414:2003
2400:2003
2396:2003
2381:2003
2377:2003
2362:2003
2358:2003
2343:2003
2339:2003
2324:2001
2320:2001
2305:2001
2301:2001
2286:2001
2282:2001
2267:2000
2263:2000
2248:1999
2244:1999
2229:1999
2225:1999
2210:1999
2206:1999
2191:1998
2187:1998
2172:1998
2168:1998
2154:1998
2150:1998
2135:1997
2131:1997
2117:1997
2113:1997
2098:1996
2094:1996
2079:1996
2075:1996
2060:1995
2056:1995
2041:1995
2037:1995
2029:eBay
2022:1995
2018:1995
2003:1995
1999:1995
1984:1994
1980:1994
1972:IMDb
1965:1990
1961:1990
1946:1989
1942:1989
1925:IANA
1914:2016
1910:2016
1896:2014
1892:2014
1878:2013
1874:2013
1860:2012
1856:2012
1841:2010
1837:2010
1823:2006
1819:2006
1805:2005
1801:2005
1787:2004
1783:2004
1768:2003
1764:2003
1748:2003
1744:2003
1721:2001
1717:2001
1703:2001
1699:2001
1684:2000
1680:2000
1665:1999
1661:1999
1643:1999
1639:1999
1624:1999
1620:1999
1606:1998
1602:1998
1587:1996
1583:1996
1575:IPv6
1568:1995
1564:1995
1550:1995
1546:1995
1528:1995
1524:1995
1509:1995
1505:1995
1498:NAPs
1494:ISPs
1486:1995
1482:1995
1458:1994
1454:1994
1440:1994
1436:1994
1421:1993
1417:1993
1398:1993
1394:1993
1379:1993
1375:1993
1360:1993
1356:1993
1341:1992
1337:1992
1322:1992
1318:1992
1303:1991
1299:1991
1284:1991
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774:UUCP
763:1980
759:1980
744:1979
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721:1978
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534:1969
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459:1965
451:ARPA
432:RAND
311:IGMP
291:ICMP
249:QUIC
244:RSVP
239:SCTP
234:DCCP
199:XMPP
179:SNMP
174:SMTP
159:RTSP
134:OSPF
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