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259:, an independent research institute that aims to conceptualize and measure democracy, serves as one of the worldâs most well-known continuous measures of democracy. V-Dem formally describes their data utilizing a notation that contains ratings of numerous indicators. Such indicators include access to justice, electoral corruption, and freedom from government sponsored violence. V-Dem then relies on country experts who supply subjective ratings of said latent or concealed regime indicators over any given period of time.
122:, etc., that regulate the operation of a government or institution and its interactions with society. The two broad categories of regimes that appear in most literature are democratic and autocratic. However, autocratic regimes can be broken down into a subset of many different types (dictatorial, totalitarian, absolutist, monarchic, oligarchic, etc.). The key similarity between all regimes are the presence of rulers, and either formal or informal institutions.
37:
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political science professor
Philippe C. Schmitter and associate professor Terry Lynn Karl, such matrices take into consideration factors such as consensus, participation, access, responsiveness, majority rule, parliamentary sovereignty, party government, pluralism, federalism, presidentialism, and checks and balances.
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While some argue that unless a government is âxâ or generates âxâ, then such an institution is not worthy of being declared a democracy, academics establish that there is no single set of practices that embody democracy, but rather a matrix of various outcomes and combinations. According to
Stanford
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Institutions as we describe them are publicly enacted, relatively-enduring bodies of practice, procedures and norms, ranging from formalized legal entities such as the WTO to more informal but legally-buttressed and abiding sets of practices and regimes such as the liberal capitalist market. The key
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Contemporary academic usage of the term "regime" is broader than popular and journalistic usage, meaning "an intermediate stratum between the government (which makes day-to-day decisions and is easy to alter) and the state (which is a complex bureaucracy tasked with a range of coercive functions)."
248:
There are two primary ways in which regimes are measured: continuous measures of democracy (e.g. Freedom House (FH), Polity, and the
Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem)) and binary measures of democracy (e.g. Regimes of the World). A continuous measure of democracy creates categorical classifications
235:
Other regime theorists argue that there are also more localized urban regimes that are categorized by interests, institutions, and ideas in a city. Urban regimes are defined as the relations between local state and polity elites with particular institution forms and policy goals.
674:
Pemstein, D., Marquardt, K.L., Tzelgov, E., Wang, Y., Medzihorsky, J., Krusell, F., von Romer, J. (2023). âThe V-Dem
Measurement Model: Latent Variable Analysis for Cross-National and Cross-Temporal Expert-Coded Dataâ, The Varieties of Democracy Institute. Series 2023:21.
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Urban regime theorist Jill Clark argues that these regime types are categorized by economic actors and policy-making within a community. The six urban regime types are: entrepreneurial, caretaker, player, progressive, stewardship, and the demand-side.
626:
Lauth, H., & Schlenkrich, O. (2018). Making Trade-Offs
Visible: Theoretical and Methodological Considerations about the Relationship between Dimensions and Institutions of Democracy and Empirical Findings. Politics and Governance, 6(1), 78-91.
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Regimes can thus be defined as sets of protocols and norms embedded either in institutions or institutionalized practices â formal such as states or informal such as the "liberal trade regime" â that are publicly enacted and relatively enduring.
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based on gradations of democracy and autocracy though previously, primarily focused on the differentiation of democracies and autocracies. A binary measure of democracy classifies a country as either a democracy or not.
217:), which lie outside of the control of national governments. Some authors thus distinguish analytically between institutions and regimes while recognizing that they are bound up with each other:
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phrases here are 'publicly enacted' and 'relatively enduring'. The phrase 'publicly enacted' in this sense implies active projection, legal sanction, and often as not, some kind of opposition.
648:
Przeworski, A. (1999). âMinimalist
Conception of Democracy: A Defenseâ, In I. Shapiro, & C. Hacker-Cordon (Eds.), Democracyâs Value Cambridge University Press. 12-17.
617:
Elkins, Zachary. 2000. "Gradations of
Democracy? Empirical Tests of Alternative Conceptualizations. American Journal of Political Science. 44(2): 293-300.
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Clark, Jill (2001). "Six Urban Regime Types: The
Effects of State Laws and Citizen Participation on the Development of Alternative Regimes".
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Karl, Terry, and
Philippe Schmitter. âWhat Democracy IsâŠand Is Notâ. Journal of Democracy 2, no. 3 (January 1970): 75-88.
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Rhomberg, Chris (1995). ""Collective Actors and Urban
Regimes: Class Formation and the 1946 Oakland General Strike"".
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Herre, B. (2021). âThe âRegimes of the Worldâ data: how do researchers measure democracy?â, Our World in Data
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World citizens living under different political regimes, as defined by
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is also used to name international regulatory agencies (see
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there are three main types of political regimes today:
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352:Karl, Terry; Schmitter, Phillippe (Summer 1991).
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500:Ufheil-Somers, Amanda (December 2, 2014).
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