1518:â (en: "No child in Vienna shall be born upon newspaperâ). Among other programs, the total number of kindergartens was increased fivefold, after-school centers were established to offer children activities, subsidised lunches at schools were introduced, and medical and dental examinations were offered by the schools at no cost to the families of enrolled children. Public bathing facilities were also constructed to aid in increasing hygienic standards. Infant mortality dropped below 50% of pre-war levels, and cases of tuberculosis were slightly reduced.
1582:, as well as the Jewish members in the ranks of the SDAP (not least among them Julius Tandler, then the health councillor and head of the âWelfare Departmentâ for the city of Vienna that had backed the crematorium's opening), were intending to subvert the Catholic moral imperatives that had governed Austrian life for centuries prior. After the CSP brought suit against the Bundesland of Vienna over the continued operation of the crematorium, Seitz was forced to defend his insubordination against the federal administration in the
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1384:, a loss from which the SDAP would not recover. The SDAP continued to govern the City of Vienna, where they won a comfortable absolute majority in the 1919 elections. Their goal was to make Vienna a shining example of social democratic politics, and their ensuing reforms attracted great attention from the whole of Europe. Conservatives in Austria were heavily opposed, but were at that time unable to counter the success of the Social Democrats in Vienna elections.
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1455:("Tenant Protection Actâ) in 1917 which had been declared applicable in Vienna immediately. Despite ongoing high inflation, the act ordered apartments rents to be frozen at the level present in 1914. This made new private housing projects unprofitable. After the war, demand for affordable apartments therefore grew extremely high. Creating public housing projects became the main concern of the Social Democrats in Vienna.
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1310:"Vienna achieved one of the most spectacular cultural triumphs of Western history ⊠an unexampled moral and intellectual rise in the condition of a highly developed industrial working class which, protected by the Vienna system, withstood the degrading effects of grave economic dislocation and achieved a level never reached before by the masses of the people in any industrial society."
911:
1315:âBlacksâ in these institutions was never subdued. The Catholic Church itself was hardly uprooted from its role as the primary spiritual force in Austria; even amongst the working class of Vienna, the Church was at most removed from some elements of city policy, but its enduring influence through social programs, holidays and religious worship continued throughout SDAP rule.
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1475:. The tenants of said apartments were chosen on the basis of a ranking system in which persons with disabilities and other societally vulnerable groups got extra points in being chosen first. Forty percent of building costs were taken from the proceeds of the Vienna Housing Tax, the rest from the proceeds of the Vienna
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and from federal funds. Using public money to cover building costs allowed the rents for these apartments to be kept low. The number of
Viennese citizens without homes living in shelters tripled to 80,000 between 1924 and 1934, but the city's building program housed as many as 200,000 people, a tenth
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Prior to the founding of the First
Republic, the Austromarxist current within the SDAP had largely ignored or relegated the matter of public housing to being a problem only solvable with the victory of socialism; nonetheless, as the most pressing issue facing the Gemeinderat after the war, the SDAP
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levied in rising percentages concerning income. The revenue from this tax was used to finance the municipality's extensive housing program. However, these two new tax structures only provided a portion of the total funding for Vienna's municipal welfare, much of which was reliant upon funding from
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in 1919. After the collapse of the relationship between the SDAP and CSP in 1920, the rural provincial areas of Lower
Austria did not want to be tied to a provincial Social Democratic political machine, just as the socialists in Vienna did want to be held back by provincial territory they had long
1418:
regarded as a dilutive force on their proper representation. Therefore, the two major parties soon agreed to separate "Red Vienna" from "Black Lower
Austria". The national parliament passed the constitutional laws to enable this in 1921; on January 1, 1922, Vienna was re-organised into the ninth
1314:
However, SDAP rule in Vienna and influence throughout
Austria did not go unopposed. Despite the best efforts on the part of the Social Democrats to exert influence on academic institutions and the intellectual cliques inside and outside Vienna, the much greater influence of conservative Catholic
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After 1934, Gunther commented: "In Vienna the socialists produced a remarkable administration, making it probably the most successful municipality in the world. The achievements of the Vienna socialists were the most exhilarating social movement of the post-war period in any
European country.
1462:(âHousing Requirement Actâ) was passed in the federal parliament with the intention to ease pressure on the housing situation in Vienna. Low private demand for building land and low building costs proved favorable for the city administration's extensive public housing planning.
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for seven centuries. In the decades preceding the collapse of the monarchy, a substantial industrial base had built up in and around the cities of Vienna and Wiener
Neustadt. With their strong majority in Vienna and the workers' votes in the industrial region around
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and many other scientists, artists, publishers and architects, respectively. While not all socialists participated in the principal opposition of the clerical conservatives, some viewed the development and modernization of Vienna with sympathy. Intellectuals of
1200:. New borders between Austria and the nearby regions cut Vienna off from lands that had traditionally fed Vienna for centuries, thus rendering food supply difficult. Existing apartments were overcrowded, and diseases such as tuberculosis, the
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the national government. As time progressed, the reliance on financing from an uncooperative, if not actively hostile, federal government left the
Gemeinderat vulnerable to pressure from the CSP to roll back some of the municipal programs.
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of
Austrian politics until the rise of Hitler. Vienna was socialist, anti-clerical, and, as a municipality, fairly rich. The hinterland was poor, backward, conservative, Roman Catholic, and jealous of Vienna's higher standard of living."
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of the SDAP invested heavily into the notion of the holistic transformation of the social and physical lives of the
Viennese population, which precipitated a multilayered effort of introducing programs that increased standards for
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as a whole. During this time, the SDAP pursued a rigorous program of construction projects across the city in response to severe housing shortages and implemented policies to improve public education, healthcare, and sanitation.
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Hugo Breitner, in contrast to the Austrian Social Democrats after 1945, consistently refused to take up credits to finance social services, financing all projects and investments directly through taxation, which allowed the
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professor and doctor, as well as close associate of numerous figures within the SDAP. Many of the programs were substantial in scope, requiring several years to roll out on a large scale. Propaganda posters published by the
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to avoid taking up debts. Due to overreliance on funding from the Nationalrat, these services consequently had to be cut down when, in the early thirties, the federal government started to financially starve Vienna.
1545:(en: âThe Flameâ). The opening of the crematorium in 1923 quickly grew into a flashpoint in the cultural struggle between the SDAP and their CSP counterparts. The CSP-led national government under Bundeskanzler
1365:) was founded by law as the workers' official lobby. The enthusiasm for such reforms became smaller and smaller within the CSP in the following two years, particularly after an attempted
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1497:, quality of life improvements through newly created public facilities, and targeted major medical concerns. These new programs were primarily managed by the newly appointed
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The Social Democrats introduced new taxes by state law, which were collected in addition to federal taxes, colloquially referred to as "Breitner Taxes" in reference to then-
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populations in and out of Vienna in the years that followed. The middle classes, many of whom had bought war bonds that were now worthless, were plunged into poverty by
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1586:, which sided with the Vienna state government in 1924 in one of the rare few victories the SDAP was able to score against the pervasive Catholic social apparatus.
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Vienna underwent a host of demographic changes that exacerbated the economic issues in the city in the years during and immediately after the war. Refugees from
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characterized the overall setting of interwar Vienna follows: "The disequilibrium between Marxist Vienna and the clerical countryside was the dominating
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succeeding Renner in his position, the SDAP did not manage to elect another national-level leader for the remainder of the First Republic's existence.
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On the other hand, optimists saw the dire postwar situation as an opportunity for great sociopolitical transformation. Pragmatic intellectuals like
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came to stay in Vienna, while many former Imperial-Royal government ministry officials returned to their native lands, creating a large exchange of
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Initiatives of the SDAP-CSP coalition in the first government of the new Republic of German-Austria resulted in the legal introduction of the
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a year earlier and the subsequent banning of the SDAP in Austria ended the period of the first socialist project in Vienna until after the
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to conclude operations at the facility, but Seitz refused on account of his office necessitating that he duly enforce the wishes of the
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1601:. These taxes were imposed on luxury goods such as riding horses, large private cars, servants in private households, and hotel rooms.
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1084:, officiated on 12 November 1918. During the war, the German current within the Social Democrats expressed an interest in the idea of
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and pan-Germanic nationalists alike, the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye expressly forbade any future union with the newly founded
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1204:, and syphilis raged. In the new Austria, Vienna was considered a capital much too big for the small country, and often called
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elements in Vienna on 15 June 1919. The CSP lost confidence in the coalition, and subsequently aligned with the pan-Germanic
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that had spread to the area—had settled in the capital city. At the end of the war, many former soldiers of the
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1100:) with the rest of Germany could stymie some of the major economic problems the new republic was beginning to face.
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was forced to start initiatives to curb the severity of the problem. The Imperial-Royal Government had passed a
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1121:(en: Municipal Council) elections in the capital, the SDAP gained a majority of seats, with the office of the
1655:, SDAP politician and second Mayor of Vienna during the First Austrian Republic, removed from office in 1934.
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at the behest of several advocacy groups, most notably the "Workers' Cremation Association" and the magazine
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In 1920, the SDAP-CSP coalition broke down, resulting in the SDAP losing its parliamentary majority in the
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1471:("Municipal building") buildings. Large blocks were situated around green courts, for instance at the
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Numerous politicians were associated with Vienna during this period, including but not limited to:
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1875:. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 3â7, 15â16, 20â22, 24â29, 46, 48â49, 61â62, 65â72.
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1663:, Finance Councillor for the City of Vienna, appointed under the administration of Jakob Reumann
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found a lot to do. For them it was a time of awakening, of new frontiers and of optimism.
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The intellectual resources of Red Vienna were remarkable: Socialist intellectuals like
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1133:(40.8% of the popular vote) necessitating a coalition government with the conservative
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The Austrian socialist experiment : social democracy and austromarxism, 1918-1934
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2010:
1669:, Healthcare Councillor for the City of Vienna and professor of anatomy at the
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1036:. Many of the housing complexes built during the period, known in German as
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Reichsgesetzblatt fĂŒr die im Reichsrat vertretenen Königreiche und LĂ€nder
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1514:(en: "clothing packages") to parents in need, with the stated goal that â
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From 1925 to 1934, more than 60,000 new apartments were built in the
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1999:(7th, 1940 ed.). New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 379.
1775:. Boulder: Westview Press. pp. 4, 203, 206â208, 226â227, 232.
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1438:
1396:, the SDAP successfully threw their weight behind the election of
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1129:. Nationally, the success of the SDAP was far less pronounced; it
1111:, leaving Austria with little territory and limited access to the
1051:
18:
1208:(en: "big head") by people living in other parts of the country.
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elections of 4 May 1919, for the first time in Austrian history,
1936:
Black Vienna : The Radical Right in the Red City, 1918â1938
1872:
Red Vienna : experiment in working-class culture, 1919-1934
2105:
1510:
in 1931 also referenced programs that had distributed 53,000
2086:
Red Vienna. Experiment in Working Class Culture, 1919-1934.
2070:
Encyclopedia of Vienna's Social Democratic Party, in German
1608:(en: âHousing Construction Taxâ), was also structured as a
1938:. New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 19, 50â51.
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nationalist movement within Austria, hoping that a union (
2038:
2096:
Red Vienna and the Golden Age of Psychology, 1918-1938
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Kein Wiener Kind darf auf Zeitungspapier geboren werden
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From "Red Vienna" to the "StÀndestaat" (1918 to 1938)
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Result: the clericals bombed them out of existence."
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1115:that had fed Vienna for decades. In the 4 May 1919
1960:
1143:all adult citizens of both sexes had voting rights
2039:Austrian National Library, historical laws online
1693:History of the Social Democratic Party of Austria
1570:Seipel, who had earned a reputation for virulent
1072:was signed between the Empire and the victorious
1308:
1230:relocated to Vienna, joining the city's native
1215:, who drafted the republican constitution, and
1990:
1988:
1905:"WASSERKOPF - Translation in English - bab.la"
1407:as the first democratically elected governor (
1306:Recalling the period, Polanyi wrote in 1944:
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8:
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1708:Red Vienna in the Laundry Room Karl-Marx-Hof
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1535:of Vienna approved the construction of the
1000:Social Democratic Workers' Party of Austria
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2079:The Architecture of Red Vienna. 1919-1934.
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1145:. The Social Democrats elected prominent
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1578:, held steadfast to the belief that the
1387:Vienna had been the political center of
2879:International Trade Union Confederation
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797:International Trade Union Confederation
41:
2884:International Union of Socialist Youth
802:International Union of Socialist Youth
1921:. Simon & Schuster, New York 1973
1444:Wohnhausanlage Friedrich-Engels-Platz
7:
1553:, ordered the then-Mayor of Vienna
1355:
1352:Kammer fĂŒr Arbeiter und Angestellte
1180:seeking to avoid the political and
827:Network of Social Democracy in Asia
3012:Social Democratic Party of Austria
1382:1920 Austrian legislative election
994:) was the colloquial name for the
16:1918â34 socialist period in Vienna
14:
2178:Internationalistâdefencist schism
1165:concluded with the CSP candidate
93:Internationalistâdefencist schism
2243:
2064:Red Vienna: A Workers' Paradise.
1967:. Boston: Beacon Press. p.
1176:—including roughly 25,000
1010:Ultimately, the collapse of the
998:between 1918 and 1934, when the
937:
923:
909:
49:
2215:Reformistârevolutionary dispute
2088:, Oxford University Press, 1991
1682:for the First Austrian Republic
1350:system was implemented and the
1070:Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye
130:Reformistârevolutionary dispute
1917:Allan Janik, Stephen Toulmin:
1:
2469:Socialism of the 21st century
1446:, built between 1930 and 1933
1267:persuasions, such as radical
1103:To the disheartenment of the
392:Socialism of the 21st century
26:, built between 1927 and 1933
3032:Political history of Austria
2889:Party of European Socialists
2347:Negative and positive rights
1135:Christian Social Party (CSP)
1016:after the suspension of the
807:Party of European Socialists
260:Negative and positive rights
1580:Jewish population of Vienna
1574:before he had been elected
1531:In 1921, the SDAP majority
1131:won only 43.4% of the seats
3048:
2098:, Praeger Publishers, 1992
1549:, under pressure from the
1484:Social and health services
1163:national elections in 1920
1082:Republic of German-Austria
2971:
2904:Young European Socialists
2241:
1934:Wasserman, Janek (2014).
1769:Rabinbach, Anson (1985).
1460:Wohnunganforderungsgesetz
1359: Chamber of Workers
822:Young European Socialists
2302:Environmental protection
2037:No. 34 and 36/1917, see
1963:The Great Transformation
1080:was reduced to the rump
1060:After the defeat of the
210:Environmental protection
2899:Socialist International
2374:Revolutionary socialism
1959:Polanyi, Karl (2001) .
1869:Gruber, Helmut (1991).
1647:First Austrian Republic
1190:Imperial and Royal Army
1125:won by SDAP politician
1078:its share of the Empire
1062:Austro-Hungarian Empire
1012:First Austrian Republic
817:Socialist International
287:Revolutionary socialism
2459:Evolutionary socialism
1995:Gunther, John (1933).
1528:
1447:
1409:
1339:
1312:
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382:Evolutionary socialism
27:
2394:Social market economy
2332:Left-wing nationalism
2158:Frankfurt Declaration
2081:, The MIT Press, 1999
1919:Wittgenstein's Vienna
1680:Minister of Education
1641:politician and first
1604:Another new tax, the
1524:
1442:
1337:
1269:Catholic nationalists
1113:Hungarian breadbasket
1055:
307:Social market economy
245:Left-wing nationalism
73:Frankfurt Declaration
22:
2894:Progressive Alliance
2449:Democratic socialism
2153:Age of Enlightenment
1671:University of Vienna
1584:Constitutional Court
1537:Feuerhalle Simmering
1526:Feuerhalle Simmering
1503:University of Vienna
1348:unemployment benefit
1182:antisemitic violence
944:Socialism portal
916:Economics portal
812:Progressive Alliance
372:Democratic socialism
68:Age of Enlightenment
2749:Liebknecht (father)
2225:Revolutions of 1848
1703:Municipal socialism
1480:of the population.
1252:Ludwig Wittgenstein
930:Politics portal
677:Liebknecht (father)
334:Structural violence
225:Institutional abuse
140:Revolutions of 1848
2963:Types of socialism
2952:The Internationale
2384:Social corporatism
2235:Welfare capitalism
1590:Financial policies
1529:
1453:Mieterschutzgesetz
1448:
1340:
1058:
996:capital of Austria
895:Types of socialism
884:The Internationale
297:Social corporatism
150:Welfare capitalism
28:
2994:
2993:
2464:Liberal socialism
2454:Ethical socialism
2230:Utopian socialism
2168:Godesberg Program
2163:French Revolution
1945:978-0-8014-5287-1
1698:History of Vienna
1260:Arnold Schoenberg
1244:Arthur Schnitzler
1186:Russian Civil War
1044:, survive today.
1030:Engelbert DollfuĂ
981:
980:
387:Liberal socialism
377:Ethical socialism
145:Utopian socialism
83:Godesberg Program
78:French Revolution
3039:
3007:Social democracy
2986:Socialism portal
2976:Economics portal
2872:
2754:Liebknecht (son)
2519:Batlle y Ordóñez
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2442:
2317:Internationalism
2297:Environmentalism
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2146:
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2134:Social democracy
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2119:
2112:
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2062:Virtual Vienna:
2054:City of Vienna:
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1302:
1294:Johannes Messner
1291:
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1174:Austrian Galicia
1161:, but after the
1105:Social Democrats
1090:proposed by the
1056:Viktor-Adler-Hof
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682:Liebknecht (son)
442:Batlle y Ordóñez
329:Structural abuse
230:Internationalism
205:Environmentalism
53:
43:Social democracy
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3027:1930s in Vienna
3022:1920s in Vienna
3017:1910s in Vienna
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2981:Politics portal
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2092:Sheldon Gardner
2084:Helmut Gruber:
2050:
2048:Further reading
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2011:"Sever, Albert"
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1592:
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1512:SĂ€uglingspakete
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1400:
1394:Wiener Neustadt
1361:, colloquially
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65:
62:
57:
56:
52:
48:
47:
44:
40:
36:
32:
31:
25:
24:Karl-Marx-Hof
21:
2327:Labor rights
2210:Nordic model
2183:Keynesianism
2095:
2085:
2078:
2063:
2055:
2034:
2030:
2018:. Retrieved
2014:
2005:
1996:
1962:
1954:
1935:
1918:
1913:
1899:
1871:
1771:
1676:Otto Glöckel
1629:
1618:
1615:
1605:
1603:
1595:
1593:
1569:
1562:
1558:
1547:Ignaz Seipel
1540:
1532:
1530:
1515:
1511:
1507:
1487:
1466:
1464:
1459:
1457:
1452:
1449:
1424:
1398:Albert Sever
1386:
1379:
1362:
1351:
1341:
1322:
1319:John Gunther
1317:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1265:conservative
1236:Alfred Adler
1228:Karl Polanyi
1221:
1210:
1205:
1171:
1167:Michael Mayr
1139:Geimeinderat
1116:
1102:
1096:
1092:pan-Germanic
1087:Mitteleuropa
1085:
1059:
1017:
1009:
991:
983:
982:
935:
921:
907:
240:Labor rights
125:Nordic model
98:Keynesianism
2421:Tripartisme
2416:Trade union
2322:Land reform
2203:Revisionist
1711: [
1645:during the
1626:Politicians
1619:Gemeinderat
1567:of Vienna.
1559:Gemeinderat
1533:Gemeinderat
1508:Gemeinderat
1468:Gemeindebau
1401: [
1297: [
1286: [
1275: [
1240:Karl BĂŒhler
1217:Karl BĂŒhler
1213:Hans Kelsen
1202:Spanish flu
1194:multiethnic
1155:Karl Renner
1118:Gemeinderat
1066:World War I
1018:Nationalrat
339:Trade union
235:Land reform
118:Revisionist
3001:Categories
2854:Woodsworth
2679:Hilferding
2539:Betancourt
2529:Ben-Gurion
2404:Capitalism
2379:Secularism
2312:Gradualism
2307:Fair trade
2275:Industrial
1721:References
1653:Karl Seitz
1564:Bundesland
1555:Karl Seitz
1542:Die Flamme
1495:sanitation
1477:Luxury Tax
1338:Felleishof
1256:Adolf Loos
1248:Karl Kraus
1206:Wasserkopf
992:Rotes Wien
984:Red Vienna
597:Hilferding
462:Betancourt
452:Ben-Gurion
344:Tripartism
317:Capitalism
292:Secularism
220:Gradualism
215:Fair trade
188:Industrial
2958:Socialism
2946:Communism
2913:By region
2859:Zhordania
2799:Plekhanov
2764:MacDonald
2759:Luxemburg
2654:Gaitskell
2614:DaszyĆski
2574:Callaghan
2534:Bernstein
2474:Third Way
2409:Socialism
2367:Socialism
2357:Reformism
2292:Dirigisme
2265:Democracy
2220:Socialism
1371:Communist
1283:Hans Eibl
890:Socialism
878:Communism
839:By region
777:Zhordania
722:Plekhanov
692:MacDonald
687:Luxemburg
572:Gaitskell
532:DaszyĆski
497:Callaghan
457:Bernstein
397:Third Way
322:Socialism
280:Socialism
270:Reformism
200:Dirigisme
178:Democracy
135:Socialism
2824:Stauning
2744:LĂ©vesque
2729:Lassalle
2709:Kerensky
2699:Katayama
2664:GonzĂĄlez
2599:Crosland
2579:CĂĄrdenas
2564:Branting
2494:Ambedkar
2441:Variants
2270:Economic
2253:Concepts
2198:Orthodox
2173:Humanism
2075:Eve Blau
2020:12 April
1891:22732137
1791:11784994
1687:See also
1430:Policies
1097:AnschluĂ
1014:in 1934
747:Stauning
672:LĂ©vesque
657:Lassalle
637:Kerensky
627:Katayama
617:Jumblatt
582:GonzĂĄlez
517:Crosland
502:CĂĄrdenas
487:Branting
417:Ambedkar
366:Variants
183:Economic
162:Concepts
113:Orthodox
88:Humanism
35:a series
33:Part of
2939:Related
2925:Germany
2920:Austria
2844:Whitlam
2834:Den Uyl
2814:Sanders
2809:Russell
2779:Morales
2769:Mandela
2704:Kautsky
2689:Jenkins
2669:Goulart
2624:Douglas
2514:Awolowo
2499:Allende
2426:Welfare
2285:Marxist
2193:Marxism
2144:History
1576:in 1923
1356:transl.
1184:of the
1153:member
1074:Entente
1048:History
1004:Austria
872:Related
850:Germany
845:Austria
767:Whitlam
757:Den Uyl
737:Sanders
732:Russell
697:Mandela
632:Kautsky
612:Jenkins
587:Goulart
542:Douglas
437:Awolowo
422:Allende
349:Welfare
108:Marxism
61:History
2849:Wilson
2829:Thomas
2819:Savage
2784:Myrdal
2734:Layton
2714:KĂ©thly
2694:Junmai
2684:JaurĂšs
2674:Hardie
2659:Gandhi
2649:Fraser
2644:Engels
2639:Ecevit
2609:Curtin
2604:Corbyn
2584:ChĂĄvez
2559:Brandt
2544:Bhutto
2509:Attlee
2504:Ardern
2485:People
1975:
1942:
1889:
1879:
1789:
1779:
1367:putsch
1292:, and
1068:, the
988:German
772:Wilson
752:Thomas
742:Savage
707:Myrdal
662:Layton
642:KĂ©thly
622:Junmai
607:JaurĂšs
592:Hardie
577:Gandhi
567:Fraser
562:Engels
557:Ecevit
527:Curtin
522:Corbyn
482:Brandt
467:Bhutto
432:Attlee
427:Ardern
410:People
2804:Prodi
2794:Palme
2789:Nehru
2739:Lenin
2724:Lagos
2634:Ebert
2629:Drees
2594:Craxi
2589:Clark
2569:Brown
2554:Blanc
2549:Blair
2524:Bebel
1715:]
1413:) of
1405:]
1323:Motiv
1301:]
1290:]
1279:]
727:Prodi
717:Palme
712:Nehru
667:Lenin
652:Lagos
602:Ä°nönĂŒ
552:Ebert
547:Drees
512:Craxi
507:Clark
492:Brown
477:Blanc
472:Blair
447:Bebel
2839:Webb
2774:Marx
2719:Kirk
2619:Debs
2362:Left
2022:2021
1973:ISBN
1940:ISBN
1887:OCLC
1877:ISBN
1787:OCLC
1777:ISBN
1639:SDAP
1561:and
1501:, a
1488:The
1375:GDVP
1226:and
1178:Jews
1151:SDAP
1149:and
762:Webb
702:Marx
647:Kirk
537:Debs
275:Left
1969:298
1064:in
1021:by
3003::
2094::
2077::
2013:.
1987:^
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1926:^
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1799:^
1785:.
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1713:de
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1893:.
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