603:
salamanders are less adapted to withstand. The unstriped salamanders can forage in drier leaf litter, so they do not need to protect their territory to the extent that striped morphs do. The less pressure the unstriped salamander feels to hold territory does change what type of access of prey it has access to compared to the striped salamander during the drier months. Striped salamanders defend territories underneath objects such as rocks and logs when the conditions are dry. During these dry conditions, arthropods are forced to hide in these same moist areas that the striped salamanders claim as their territory since some arthropods will desiccate in dry periods. These arthropods then become the (red-backed) striped salamander's prey while the unstriped salamanders miss this opportunity. This allows striped salamanders to feed on springtails, mites, ants, and other small invertebrates.
448:
720:
684:(beneath rocks, woody debris, etc. as well as beneath the soil) for long periods of time in order to maintain hydration when surface conditions are inhospitably dry or hot, and are only active on the surface to travel, forage, or reproduce for short periods. The duration of surface activity is directly limited by the rate of cutaneous water loss to the environment, which is influenced by environmental variables such as altitude, forest canopy cover, and the amount of recent precipitation.
42:
764:, like many plethodon species, exhibit homing behavior, with homing of females to their nests, as well as non-attending females and males to a home range. This allows for essential contact between a female and her eggs in order to ensure their survival, as well as for non-attending females and males to explore beyond the home range when under predation pressures, or searching for food or cover, and return to their home range if a more favorable microhabitat is not found.
105:
237:
350:
424:, the common ones being the red-striped morph and the lead-phase. The "red-backed" or "red-stripe" variety has a red dorsal stripe that tapers towards the tail, and the darker variety, known as the "lead-backed" (or simply "lead") phase, lacks most or all of the red pigmentation. The red-backed phase is not always red, but may actually be various other colors (e.g., yellow-backed, orange-backed, white-backed, or a rare
926:
practices are documented which show significantly low abundance and species richness of amphibian creatures in the area. SCE, so-called structural complexity enhancement, aims to promote the vertical development of differentiated canopies and make the horizontal density variable which then can help to rearrange the basal area, snag and log density. It turns out that SCE brings positive effects to the abundance of the
900:
total population each year. From a genetic point of view, roads also reduce gene flow and thus divide animal populations, causing drift and loss of genetic diversity. Eventually, populations separated by roads may become more and more distinct from each other, thus losing the original population. Amongst different sizes of roads, it is known that the interstate highway leads to increased genetic differentiation of
630:. A later study notes that this was because the earlier study only compared diets during the fall season, while the later study compared their diets throughout all of the seasons. The later study concludes that the unstriped morph has a broader diet and encounters prey the striped morph does not. They link this back to unstriped salamanders being able to roam more freely between drier territories during this time.
80:
56:
905:
of interstate highways. Narrow paved roads reduce the movement of redback salamanders by approximately 25–75% but do not eliminate the dynamic of the population. And the detection of genetic differences across the interstate means that the spread on this road is reduced by well over 25–75%. So there is little gene flow across very large roads, and the
832:, whose metabolites can inhibit the growth of pathogens. This finding suggests an idea for providing long-term protection to individual amphibians who are infected with chytridiomycosis. It also provides a research pathway for future drug development that uses novel antifungal compounds for the treatment of human pathogens.
899:
Roads have various negative effects on animal populations. For example, a major source of direct mortality for many species is accidental collisions with moving vehicles. Due to the slow movement of amphibians, it is estimated that the mortality rate of these animals on roads is as high as 10% of the
594:
differ the most in the spring and fall seasons. The striped salamanders have a red-colored dorsal band that runs from the head/neck to their tail, and the unstriped ones lack this red stripe and are instead totally black. These salamanders are at the surface the most during these seasons. Contrasting
642:
are in close contact with the soil on the forest floor. As deciduous forests mature, acid deposition can accelerate the acidification of soils. Acidic conditions can limit the distribution of amphibians and the numbers of sibling species, while the pH value of soil has a strong effect on the density
501:
has also been found to differ between the morphs at certain temperatures, with significantly lower metabolic rates being displayed by the lead-backed form at 15 °C; in the same study, lead-backed individuals were also more active on the ground surface at this temperature. These findings suggest
904:
by microsatellite examination. Genetic distances between regions on either side of an interstate highway were significantly larger than those between equally spaced quadrants on the same side of the highway. However, plots on smaller roads were not genetically different compared to that in the case
675:
as well. During prolonged dry periods, individuals move down into the soil, while during short dry periods they retreat under logs or rocks. They will avoid very warm areas, and when the temperature drops to 4–5 Celsius degrees, they will retreat to the ground as well. The optimum temperature is 10
602:
Some studies have suggested that the unstriped morph has adapted to be better suited for drier and warmer conditions explaining the differences in diets. Unstriped morphs are less aggressive and less likely to hold territories because they are more well suited to find a territory that these striped
874:
Lead-backed individuals are absent in northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. Instead, another phase called erythristic is observed and exclusive in these areas. This phase shows macro- and microgeographic variation in frequency. Regardless of the wide geographic variation, the highest
695:
are more likely to exist in groups of around 2 to 7 individuals under some object covers such as rocks and wood, than in the other seasons, while the density on the forest floor stays constant. This is because that spatial dispute starts in spring. A study in
Blackrock Mountain, Virginia indicates
844:
typically establish separate feeding and/or mating territories underneath rocks and logs. However, some red-backed salamanders are thought to engage in social monogamy, and may maintain co-defended territories throughout their active periods. Breeding occurs in June and July. Females produce from
496:
polymorphism. The red-backed form is found with greater frequency in colder regions at more northerly latitudes and easterly longitudes throughout its range, whereas the opposite is true of the lead-backed form. Additionally, lead-backed morphs withdraw from surface activity earlier in the autumn
752:
cells in the blood, and the results suggest stress levels are higher in the lead-backed phase than in the red-backed phase. This may be a consequence of a higher predation risk experienced in the wild by the lead-backed phase, and may also mean lead-phase salamanders could be more vulnerable in
925:
Moreover, salamanders are largely affected by forest management practices thus impacting the food web dynamics and nutrient cycling of the ecosystem they are residing in. In order to conserve the species, proper forest management practice is essential. For instance, even-aged timber harvesting
921:
have very high population densities, this should reduce the effects of genetic drift in isolated populations. From a conservation standpoint, red-backed salamanders are an important research organism because of their behavioral and physiological similarities to many threatened and endangered
589:
color morphs also differ in diet. The prevalence of certain prey taxa and the overall diversity and quality of prey items have been observed to differ seasonally between the two morphs in the spring and autumn when surface activity is greatest. The diets of striped and unstriped
357:
The red-backed salamander is a small terrestrial salamander, 5.7–10.0 cm (2.2–3.9 in) in total length (including tail), which usually lives in forested areas under rocks, logs, bark, and other debris. It is one of the most numerous salamanders throughout its range.
860:
species, female red-backed salamanders have the ability to store sperm as spermatophore, and have been evidenced in doing so up to eight months prior to the oviposition period in June and July. Sperm or spermatophores are not retained following the oviposition period.
663:
prefers to occupy substrates near neutral pH. A pH value between 2.5 and 3 results in acute mortality, while a pH value between 3 and 4 results in chronic mortality. Low pH will reduce their growth and respiration. Slowed growth and delayed metamorphosis make juvenile
537:
eggs incubated at a higher temperature hatched a greater proportion of lead-backed morphs than eggs incubated at a lower temperature. Temperature-dependent color morph determination may therefore also potentially influence the spatial distribution of
1287:
Brucker, Robert M.; Baylor, Cambria M.; Walters, Robert L.; Lauer, Antje; Harris, Reid N.; Minbiole, Kevin P. C. (2008). "The identification of 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol as an antifungal metabolite produced by cutaneous bacteria of the salamander
822:, has led to a rapid decline in amphibian populations worldwide. Around one-third of amphibians are endangered because of the disease, but some species persist from the infection, and some even clear the pathogen. As evidence, the skin of
460:
Color polymorphism is thought to be an adaptive strategy in a heterogeneous environment, so the maintenance of polymorphism is derived from behavioral and physiological choices. The color polymorphism of The red-striped morph
381:. Permeable skin is susceptible to desiccation and must be kept moist in order to facilitate cutaneous respiration; as a result much of the ecology and behavior of the red-backed salamander is restricted by climatic and
328:). The species inhabits wooded slopes in eastern North America, west to Missouri, south to North Carolina, and north from southern Quebec and the Maritime provinces in Canada to Minnesota. It is one of 56 species in the
909:
population diverges from each other. The indirect effect of smaller roads on genetic population structure is also not a big issue for terrestrial salamanders and is not a direct effect of mortality and habitat change.
1890:
708:
to forage underground causes them to restrict down to areas under and around the cover objects. Aggression and territoriality under resource, food and shelter limitation are the reasons for the observed spacing.
502:
that the lead-backed color variant is less tolerant of cool temperatures than the red-backed color variant, and that the two color forms differ physiologically and behaviorally at certain temperatures.
790:
will increase time spent in aggressive postures when paired with centipedes but did not show increased aggression when paired with conspecifics. The specific test method was to expose male
444:
anomalies. These color morphs are rarer than the red-backed, lead-backed, and erythristic morphs, but still have been reported with consistency among varying populations of this species.
606:
There are some disputes on which morph has the more diverse diet. In one study, the autumn diet of red-backed morphs was more diverse and of higher quality, and found to be dominated by
2617:
696:
that the mean number of salamanders in each quadrant of 100*100 m varies from 1.6 to 3 in spring compared to 0.8 to 1.8 in summer. A significant increase in the spatial distribution of
887:
because they think that red color is a signal of noxiousness and toxicity. Even if people trained the birds to enhance the avoidance by increasing exposure to red efts (juvenile
428:
morph in which the body is completely red). Both morphs have speckled black and white bellies. Additional color anomalies of this species also exist, including iridistic,
2627:
2622:
595:
diets during the fall and spring are due to differences in two types of prey consumed during this time. In the fall, the striped salamanders eat more entomobryomorph
2455:
716:
favor warm habitats or microclimates. So the strong argument is that the geographic distribution of color form is caused by the selection of physiological traits.
700:
from spring to summer is thought to be due to intraspecific interference competition. The cover objects on the ground can be a good choice of moisture refuge for
2632:
2507:
2597:
1932:
Brucker, Robert M.; Harris, Reid N.; Schwantes, Christian R.; Gallaher, Thomas N.; Flaherty, Devon C.; Lam, Brianna A.; Minbiole, Kevin P. C. (2008-11-01).
1189:
Venesky, Matthew D.; Anthony, Carl D. (2007). "Antipredator adaptations and predator avoidance by two color morphs of the eastern red-backed salamander,
2612:
2416:
2369:
488:
color morph frequencies are correlated with climatic variables, suggesting habitat temperature and more broadly climate to be potential sources of
2468:
849:
in a year. The eggs hatch in 6 to 8 weeks. Not much is known about the dispersal of neonates, although neonates and juveniles are thought to be
2079:
Marsh, David M.; Page, Robert B.; Hanlon, Teresa J.; Corritone, Rachael; Little, Elizabeth C.; Seifert, David E.; Cabe, Paul R. (2008-06-01).
2637:
2239:
469:
show different anti-predator responses in behavior, and predator attacks differently based on the color form. Compared to red-striped morph
655:
is rarely found in soils with a pH value of 3.7, and relatively more to be found in soils with a pH value of about 3.8 or higher. Juvenile
775:
usually directs aggressive behavior towards conspecific as well as heterospecific, as long as it is thought to be a potential competitor.
341:
and primarily display two color morph varieties ("red-backed" and "lead-backed"), which differ in physiology and anti-predator behavior.
447:
2192:
1055:
2429:
786:, and there will be no obvious aggressive behavior toward conspecifics and heterospecifics if only chemical cues exist. However,
481:
has the ability to automatically cut off the tail, indicating that the two forms also differ in the frequency of being attacked.
719:
659:
have never been found in soils with a pH value lower than 3.7. Similar conclusions have also been supported in the laboratory.
2364:
814:
801:
Their residence status affects the attack level as well. Even if in different residency statuses, they do attack centipedes.
2473:
771:
actively defends its territory from intrusion by other males and is less aggressive towards invading females and juveniles.
2607:
2219:
1819:
2223:
1039:
2377:
2512:
402:
104:
1128:
828:
366:
779:
positively interacts not only with conspecifics, but also with other potential competitors such as centipedes.
676:
to 15 Celsius degrees. Moreover, intraspecific and interspecific competition also affected the distribution of
599:, the largest species of elongated springtails, as opposed to in the spring when they eat more oribatid mites.
533:
response to thermal conditions during development also contributes to color morph determination; in one study,
274:
1666:"Niche partitioning along the diet axis in a colour polymorphic population of Eastern Red-backed Salamanders,
1206:
671:
Several other factors, such as moisture and temperature, can affect the population density or dispersion of
2342:
812:
coexists with some bacteria. These bacteria help salamanders defend against fungal pathogens. For example,
2304:
2282:
529:
may interact to determine an individual's morph condition. However, more recent research indicates that a
421:
338:
1602:"Developmental temperature influences color polymorphism but not hatchling size in a woodland salamander"
1347:
798:) to determine its behavior in the presence or absence of conspecifics and heterospecific cues reaction.
2546:
2382:
736:
was found to differ between the two color phases; the lead-backed phase has a tendency to run away from
530:
510:
489:
374:
209:
2131:
1763:"Spatial variation in water loss predicts terrestrial salamander distribution and population dynamics"
2403:
2274:
2205:(1818). "Descriptions of several species of North American Amphibia, accompanied with observations".
2147:
2096:
1949:
1774:
1719:
1613:
1463:
1301:
1140:
1129:"Effects of Warming Conditions in Eastern North American Forests on Red-Backed Salamander Morphology"
518:
498:
971:
2180:
390:
297:
69:
41:
2499:
505:
An alternate explanation for the uneven geographic distribution of the red-backed and lead-backed
2602:
2564:
2112:
2058:
2023:
1973:
1914:
1866:
1798:
1735:
1637:
1524:
1423:
1325:
1269:
1210:
1164:
1102:
992:
324:
252:
99:
2551:
794:
to four substrate chemical cue treatments separately: control, self, conspecific, or centipede (
2460:
2290:
1665:
2533:
2390:
2253:
2235:
2227:
2188:
2015:
1965:
1790:
1743:
1629:
1579:
1481:
1373:
1317:
1156:
1051:
1043:
365:, the red-backed salamander has permeable skin. They also lack lungs, a condition which is an
1544:"Geographic Variation in Genetic Dominance of the Color Morphs of the Red-Backed Salamander,
2538:
2155:
2104:
2007:
1957:
1906:
1858:
1782:
1727:
1681:
1621:
1569:
1559:
1516:
1471:
1415:
1363:
1309:
1235:
1202:
1148:
1094:
1048:
A Field Guide to
Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America, Third Edition
966:
819:
526:
406:
304:
2574:
2486:
2520:
1824:
differ in hematological stress indices: A consequence of differential predation pressure?"
1400:"Behavioral and Physiological Differentiation between the Color Morphs of the Salamander,
517:
polymorphic condition are not fully understood, initial studies indicate that color morph
2234:. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 494 pp., 47 color plates, 207 Figures.
1229:
744:
coloration. Stress levels of each color phase were estimated by determining the ratio of
712:
Moreover, the two morphologies have different standard metabolic rates, while lead-phase
2232:
Peterson Field Guide to
Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern North America, Fourth Edition
2151:
2100:
1953:
1778:
1723:
1617:
1467:
1305:
1144:
349:
2249:
2176:
1574:
1543:
996:
883:
to protect themselves. Birds selectively avoid to predate all-red or erythristic color
567:
370:
307:
236:
176:
166:
948:
2591:
2481:
1641:
1476:
1451:
1152:
957:
846:
681:
89:
84:
2258:
Reptiles and
Amphibians: A Guide to Familiar American Species: A Golden Nature Guide
2116:
2081:"Effects of roads on patterns of genetic differentiation in red-backed salamanders,
1918:
1845:
Kleeberger, Steven R.; Werner, J. Kirwin (1982). "Home range and homing behavior of
1802:
1329:
1214:
1079:"Correlation between Climate and Distribution of the Color Morphs of the Salamander
473:
which prefers an "all trunk raised" posture and tends to stay still, the lead-phase
2434:
2395:
1977:
1168:
668:
more vulnerable to predators and has serious consequences for population survival.
382:
378:
17:
782:
It is necessary to have a visual display in order to elicit the threat posture of
55:
2159:
2559:
2494:
2442:
2351:
2336:
2132:"Effects of structural complexity enhancement on eastern red-backed salamander (
1564:
551:
2327:
2202:
1625:
226:
2108:
1961:
1786:
1704:"Soil Acidity Affects Distribution, Behavior, and Physiology of the Salamader
1685:
1313:
850:
749:
745:
741:
611:
579:
156:
2019:
1994:
Sayler, Anne (1966). "The reproductive ecology of the red-backed salamander,
1601:
1377:
1368:
513:
responding to developmental temperature. Although the genetic origins of the
2080:
1933:
1762:
1239:
1019:
Integrated
Taxonomic Information System 2012. Available from: www.itis.gov
737:
571:
563:
559:
522:
437:
425:
398:
395:
362:
333:
186:
146:
116:
2130:
McKenny, Heather C.; Keeton, William S.; Donovan, Therese M. (2006-07-15).
1969:
1794:
1747:
1633:
1583:
1485:
1321:
1160:
2525:
740:, whereas the red-backed phase often stays immobile and possibly exhibits
2321:
2185:
The
Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Reptiles and Amphibians
1934:"Amphibian Chemical Defense: Antifungal Metabolites of the Microsymbiont
441:
429:
136:
1600:
Evans, Annette E.; Urban, Mark C.; Jockusch, Elizabeth L. (2020-04-01).
2421:
2356:
2062:
2042:
2027:
1870:
1739:
1528:
1500:
1427:
1399:
1273:
1257:
1106:
1078:
627:
555:
554:, but prey on a wide assortment of other small invertebrates including
433:
300:
2041:
Tilley, Stephen G.; Lundrigan, Barbara L.; Brower, Lincoln P. (1982).
1910:
1450:
Anthony, Carl D.; Venesky, Matthew D.; Hickerson, Cari-Ann M. (2008).
2447:
1703:
1348:"A review of colour phenotypes of the Eastern Red-backed Salamander,
575:
126:
2298:
2011:
1862:
1731:
1520:
1419:
1258:"Integrating the Ecology and Physiology of Plethodontid Salamanders"
1098:
917:
is far less than in most of the animals previously studied. Because
1820:"Lead-phase and red-stripe color morphs of red-backed salamanders
718:
497:
than red-backed morphs, presumably to avoid cooling temperatures.
446:
348:
329:
1702:
Wyman, Richard L.; Hawksley-Lescault, Dianne S. (December 1987).
623:
607:
2408:
2302:
1452:"Ecological separation in a polymorphic terrestrial salamander"
1003:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 125 pp. (
619:
618:, whereas the most important prey for lead-backed morphs were
615:
484:
As an evidence that polymorphism is to adapt the environment,
1664:
Stuczka, Angela; Hickerson, Cari-Ann; Anthony, Carl (2016).
1891:"Differential Responses of Eastern Red-Backed Salamanders (
322:
to distinguish it from the southern red-backed salamander (
2260:. Revised Edition. New York: Simon and Schuster. 160 pp. (
2207:
Journal of the
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia
1184:
1182:
1180:
1178:
2216:, new species, pp. 356–357). (in English and Latin).
1207:
10.1655/0018-0831(2007)63[450:AAAPAB]2.0.CO;2
451:
Lead-backed phase redback salamander - Plethodon cinereus
2187:. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 743 pp., 657 color plates.
388:
The skin of red-backed salamanders was found to contain
1889:
Burgett, Amber A.; Smith, Geoffrey R. (November 2012).
1814:
1812:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1001:
A Check List of North
American Amphibians and Reptiles
373:. Red-backed salamanders are thus entirely reliant on
337:. Red-backed salamanders are notable for their color
891:), the frequencies of erythrism is never above 25%.
2311:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1025:
477:is significantly more mobile. Moreover, lead-phase
1840:
1838:
647:. When choosing between acidic and neutral soils,
2246:, pp. 78–80 + Plate 5 + Figures 33, 36, 37).
1346:Moore, Jean-David; Ouellet, Martin (2014-10-16).
818:, a fungal pathogen that causes a disease called
385:variables, particularly dryness and temperature.
1761:Peterman, W. E.; Semlitsch, R. D. (2014-10-01).
2618:Fauna of the Great Lakes region (North America)
1884:
1882:
1880:
1445:
1443:
1441:
1439:
1437:
972:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2022-1.RLTS.T59334A193391260.en
1989:
1987:
1393:
1391:
1389:
1387:
2074:
2072:
1697:
1695:
1595:
1593:
1341:
1339:
1072:
1070:
1068:
1066:
1064:
875:frequency is always under 25%. This phase of
8:
1251:
1249:
1127:Gibbs, James P.; Karraker, Nancy E. (2006).
1122:
1120:
1118:
1116:
947:IUCN SSC Amphibian Specialist Group (2022).
456:How color polymorphism arose in this species
2136:) populations in northern hardwood forests"
2299:
680:. Individuals confine themselves to moist
235:
78:
54:
40:
31:
2043:"Erythrism and Mimicry in the Salamander
1573:
1563:
1475:
1367:
970:
826:harbors bacterial microsymbionts such as
1501:"The Inheritance of the Color Phases of
704:during the rainy season. The failure of
687:Spatial distributions of the salamander
2628:Fauna of the Southeastern United States
2623:Fauna of the Northeastern United States
1234:(1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1077:Lotter, Fred; Scott, Norman J. (1977).
939:
691:is observed to be seasonal. In spring,
1015:
1013:
651:prefers to occupy more neutral soils.
2199:, pp. 336–337 + Plates 71, 117).
1938:on the Salamander Plethodon cinereus"
7:
2633:Ecology of the Appalachian Mountains
1050:. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 616 pp.
805:Defense mechanisms against pathogens
353:Red-backed salamander in its habitat
2598:IUCN Red List least concern species
958:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
913:The observed rate of dispersion in
405:and inhibits the growth of certain
865:Protective coloration and behavior
550:Red-backed salamanders are mostly
25:
1895:) to Conspecifics and Centipedes"
1818:Davis AK, Milanovich JR (2010).
1477:10.1111/j.1365-2656.2008.01398.x
1153:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00375.x
103:
2613:Amphibians of the United States
1542:Highton, Richard (1975-06-25).
815:Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
320:northern red-backed salamander
1:
2140:Forest Ecology and Management
1356:The Canadian Field-Naturalist
757:Home range and territoriality
316:eastern red-backed salamander
2638:Amphibians described in 1818
2160:10.1016/j.foreco.2006.04.034
1942:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1294:Journal of Chemical Ecology
1231:The biology of the amphibia
1228:Noble, G. Kingsley (1931).
796:Scolopocryptops sexspinosus
401:that produces the chemical
2654:
1626:10.1007/s00442-020-04630-y
403:2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol
310:. It is also known as the
2109:10.1007/s10592-007-9377-0
1962:10.1007/s10886-008-9555-7
1936:Janthinobacterium lividum
1787:10.1007/s00442-014-3041-4
1686:10.1163/15685381-00003055
1565:10.1093/genetics/80.2.363
1499:Highton, Richard (1959).
1456:Journal of Animal Ecology
1314:10.1007/s10886-007-9352-8
1256:Feder, Martin E. (1983).
889:Notophthalmus viridescens
881:Notophthalmus viridescens
829:Janthinobacterium lividum
732:Antipredator behavior of
258:
251:
243:
234:
215:
208:
100:Scientific classification
98:
76:
67:
62:
53:
48:
39:
34:
1398:Moreno, Gabriel (1989).
1369:10.22621/cfn.v128i3.1603
895:Interactions with humans
836:Reproduction and biomass
2278:at Animal Diversity Web
1849:in northern Michigan".
1240:10.5962/bhl.title.82448
499:Standard metabolic rate
345:Description and ecology
1408:Journal of Herpetology
965:: e.T59334A193391260.
724:
509:color morphs involves
452:
354:
35:Red-backed salamander
2547:Paleobiology Database
2264:, pp. 147, 157).
2089:Conservation Genetics
840:Males and females of
722:
521:is likely subject to
511:phenotypic plasticity
450:
375:cutaneous respiration
352:
288:red-backed salamander
2608:Amphibians of Canada
1133:Conservation Biology
753:captivity settings.
643:and distribution of
525:, and that multiple
296:) is a small, hardy
27:Species of amphibian
2152:2006ForEM.230..186M
2101:2008ConG....9..603M
1954:2008JCEco..34.1422B
1899:Current Herpetology
1779:2014Oecol.176..357P
1724:1987Ecol...68.1819W
1618:2020Oecol.192..909E
1468:2008JAnEc..77..646A
1352:, in North America"
1306:2008JCEco..34...39B
1145:2006ConBi..20..913G
928:Plethodon cincereus
465:and the lead-phase
391:Lysobacter gummosus
298:woodland salamander
70:Conservation status
18:Red back salamander
2370:Plethodon-cinereus
2343:Plethodon cinereus
2313:Plethodon cinereus
2292:Plethodon cinereus
2285:Plethodon cinereus
2276:Plethodon cinereus
2262:Plethodon cinereus
2244:Plethodon cinereus
2214:Salamandra cinerea
2197:Plethodon cinereus
2134:Plethodon cinereus
2083:Plethodon cinereus
2045:Plethodon cinereus
1996:Plethodon cinereus
1893:Plethodon cinereus
1847:Plethodon cinereus
1822:Plethodon cinereus
1706:Plethodon cinereus
1668:Plethodon cinereus
1546:Plethodon cinereus
1503:Plethodon cinereus
1402:Plethodon cinereus
1350:Plethodon cinereus
1290:Plethodon cinereus
1191:Plethodon cinereus
1081:Plethodon cinereus
1005:Plethodon cinereus
951:Plethodon cinereus
902:Plethodon cinereus
810:Plethodon cinereus
777:Plethodon cinereus
773:Plethodon cinereus
769:Plethodon cinereus
762:Plethodon cinereus
725:
693:Plethodon cinereus
689:Plethodon cinereus
490:selective pressure
467:Plethodon cinereus
463:Plethodon cinereus
453:
418:Plethodon cinereus
355:
325:Plethodon serratus
312:redback salamander
293:Plethodon cinereus
270:Plethodon cinereus
262:Salamandra cinerea
219:Plethodon cinereus
2585:
2584:
2534:Open Tree of Life
2305:Taxon identifiers
2295:, Caudata Culture
2283:Parental Care in
2240:978-0-544-12997-9
1948:(11): 1422–1429.
1911:10.5358/hsj.31.78
1674:Amphibia-Reptilia
723:Lead-backed phase
284:
283:
93:
63:"Leadback" phase
16:(Redirected from
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1998:, in Maryland".
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820:chytridiomycosis
638:Distribution of
585:The two primary
407:pathogenic fungi
278:
266:
239:
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201:P. cinereus
108:
107:
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49:"Redback" phase
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2337:Wikispecies
993:Stejneger L
919:P. cinereus
915:P. cinereus
907:P. cinereus
885:P. cinereus
877:P. cinereus
856:As in many
851:philopatric
845:four to 17
842:P. cinereus
824:P. cinereus
792:P. cinereus
788:P. cinereus
784:P. cinereus
734:P. cinereus
714:P. cinereus
706:P. cinereus
702:P. cinereus
698:P. cinereus
666:P. cinereus
661:P. cinereus
657:P. cinereus
653:P. cinereus
649:P. cinereus
645:P. cinereus
640:P. cinereus
612:springtails
592:P. cinereus
587:P. cinereus
540:P. cinereus
535:P. cinereus
515:P. cinereus
507:P. cinereus
494:P. cinereus
486:P. cinereus
479:P. cinereus
475:P. cinereus
471:P. cinereus
438:amelanistic
426:erythristic
265:Green, 1818
246:P. cinereus
173:Subfamily:
2592:Categories
2228:Collins JT
1044:Collins JT
978:20 October
934:References
750:lymphocyte
746:neutrophil
742:aposematic
678:P. cinerea
597:Collembola
580:gastropods
572:harvestmen
564:centipedes
560:millipedes
442:melanistic
363:amphibians
2603:Plethodon
2177:Behler JL
2020:0045-8511
1767:Oecologia
1642:212669210
1606:Oecologia
1378:0008-3550
1007:, p. 15).
997:Barbour T
858:Plethodon
738:predators
523:epistasis
519:dominance
434:leucistic
399:bacterium
396:epibiotic
334:Plethodon
318:, or the
244:Range of
195:Species:
188:Plethodon
123:Kingdom:
117:Eukaryota
2500:2.100626
2461:11163257
2328:Q1092717
2322:Wikidata
2256:(1956).
2254:Smith HM
2230:(2016).
2224:Conant R
2220:Powell R
2183:(1979).
2117:37910209
1970:18949519
1919:85737251
1803:11041103
1795:25154754
1748:29357182
1634:32162072
1584:17248684
1552:Genetics
1486:18479343
1330:27149357
1322:18058176
1215:85842997
1161:16909583
1046:(1998).
1040:Conant R
999:(1917).
728:Behavior
673:Botrytis
253:Synonyms
163:Family:
147:Amphibia
137:Chordata
133:Phylum:
127:Animalia
113:Domain:
90:IUCN 3.1
2422:2431491
2203:Green R
2181:King FW
2148:Bibcode
2097:Bibcode
2063:3892425
2028:1441125
1978:9712168
1950:Bibcode
1871:1444622
1775:Bibcode
1740:1939873
1720:Bibcode
1712:Ecology
1614:Bibcode
1575:1213333
1529:1440097
1464:Bibcode
1428:1564043
1302:Bibcode
1274:3892572
1169:7010231
1141:Bibcode
1107:1443166
870:Mimicry
628:isopods
576:spiders
556:isopods
531:plastic
369:of the
303:in the
301:species
275:Tschudi
229:, 1818)
183:Genus:
157:Urodela
153:Order:
143:Class:
88: (
2572:uBio:
2552:415331
2539:923025
2526:195170
2513:141976
2474:173649
2409:333692
2250:Zim HS
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2061:
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2000:Copeia
1976:
1968:
1917:
1869:
1851:Copeia
1801:
1793:
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1640:
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1582:
1572:
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1509:Copeia
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1087:Copeia
1054:
879:mimic
626:, and
614:, and
578:, and
440:, and
430:albino
305:family
277:, 1838
2575:25905
2565:61522
2487:59334
2456:IRMNG
2448:27186
2396:6W283
2383:27351
2113:S2CID
2059:JSTOR
2024:JSTOR
1974:S2CID
1915:S2CID
1867:JSTOR
1799:S2CID
1736:JSTOR
1638:S2CID
1525:JSTOR
1424:JSTOR
1326:S2CID
1270:JSTOR
1211:S2CID
1165:S2CID
1103:JSTOR
767:Male
624:mites
608:mites
394:, an
330:genus
227:Green
2508:NCBI
2482:IUCN
2469:ITIS
2435:2004
2430:GISD
2417:GBIF
2378:BOLD
2357:4126
2236:ISBN
2189:ISBN
2016:ISSN
2004:1966
1966:PMID
1855:1982
1791:PMID
1744:PMID
1630:PMID
1580:PMID
1513:1959
1482:PMID
1374:ISSN
1318:PMID
1157:PMID
1091:1977
1052:ISBN
980:2023
963:2022
847:eggs
620:ants
616:ants
546:Diet
527:loci
377:for
286:The
2404:EoL
2391:CoL
2365:ASW
2242:. (
2195:. (
2156:doi
2144:230
2105:doi
2008:doi
1958:doi
1907:doi
1859:doi
1783:doi
1771:176
1728:doi
1682:doi
1622:doi
1610:192
1570:PMC
1560:doi
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1472:doi
1416:doi
1364:doi
1360:128
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