1306:
For each degradation process, design equations are set to evaluate the probability of failure of predefined performances of the structure, where acceptable probability is selected on the basis of the limit state considered. The degradation processes are still described with the models previously defined for carbonation-induced and chloride-induced corrosion, but to reflect the statistical nature of the problem, the variables are considered as probability distribution curves over time. To assess some of the durability design parameters, the use of accelerated laboratory test is suggested, such as the so called Rapid
Chloride Migration Test to evaluate chloride penetration resistance of concrete '. Through the application of corrective parameters, the long-term behaviour of the structure in real exposure conditions may be evaluated.
45:
872:. Chloride binding is another phenomenon affecting the kinetic of chloride penetration. Part of the total chloride ions can be absorbed or can chemically react with some constituents of the cement paste, leading to a reduction of chlorides in the pore solution (free chlorides that are steel able to penetrate in concrete). The ability of a concrete to chloride binding is related to the cement type, being higher for blended cements containing silica fume, fly ash or furnace slag.
1310:
particularly aggressive. Anyway, the applicability of this kind of models is still limited. The main critical issues still concern, for instance, the individuation of accelerated laboratory tests able to characterize concrete performances, reliable corrective factors to be used for the evaluation of long-term durability performances and the validation of these models based on real long-term durability performances.
2240:
1290:
1281:
considered not completely exhaustive in some cases. The simple prescriptions do not allow to optimize the design for different parts of the structures with different local exposure conditions. Furthermore, they do not allow to consider the effects on service life of special measures such as the use of additional protections.
860:. Current regulations forbid the use of chloride contaminated raw materials, therefore one factor influencing the initiation time is chloride penetration rate from the environment. This is a complex task, because chloride solutions penetrate in concrete through the combination of several transport phenomena, such as
191:
reaches the steel surface, altering the local pH value of the environment, the protective thin film of oxides on the steel surface becomes instable, and corrosion initiates involving an extended portion of the steel surface. One of the most simplified and accredited models describing the propagation
1280:
This approach represents an improvement step for the durability design of reinforced concrete structures, it is suitable for the design of ordinary structures designed with traditional materials (Portland cement, carbon steel rebar) and with an expected service life of 50 years. Nevertheless, it is
1305:
Model Code for
Service Life Design, is based on a probabilistic approach, similar to the one adopted for structural design. Environmental factors are considered as loads S(t), while material properties such as chloride penetration resistance are considered as resistances R(t) as shown in Figure 2.
1309:
The use of probabilistic service life models allows to implement a real durability design that could be implemented in the design stage of structures. This approach is of particular interest when an extended service life is required (>50 years) or when the environmental exposure conditions are
1276:
It is the standardized method to deal with durability, also known as deem-to-satisfy approach, and provided by current european regulation EN 206. It is required that the designer identifies the environmental exposure conditions and the expected degradation process, assessing the correct exposure
1267:
The durability assessment has been implemented in
European design codes at the beginning of the 90s. It is required for designers to include the effects of long-term corrosion of steel rebar during the design stage, in order to avoid unacceptable damages during the service life of the structure.
1297:
Performance-based approaches provide for a real design of durability, based on models describing the evolution in time of degradation processes, and the definition of times at which defined limit states will be reached. To consider the wide variety of service life influencing factors and their
27:
has been recently introduced in national and international regulations. It is required that structures are designed to preserve their characteristics during the service life, avoiding premature failure and the need of extraordinary maintenance and restoration works. Considerable efforts have
1383:
Fidjestol, P., & Tutti, K. (1998). Chloride induced corrosion in high performance concrete–lifetime versus diffusivity and resistivity. In
Concrete Under Severe Conditions 2: Environment and Loading: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Concrete Under Severe Conditions,
170:
The identification of initiation time and propagation time is useful to further identify the main variables and processes influencing the service life of the structure which are specific of each service life phase and of the degradation process considered.
64:
values around 13. In these conditions, passivation of steel rebar occurs, due to a spontaneous generation of a thin film of oxides able to protect the steel from corrosion. Over time, the thin film can be damaged, and corrosion of steel rebar starts. The
771:. For intermediate concrete humidity content, corrosion rate increases with increasing the concrete humidity content. Since the humidity content in a concrete can significantly vary along the year, it is general not possible to define a constant
730:
is generally available at the steel surface, except for submerged structures. If pores are constantly fully saturated, a very low amount of oxygen reaches the steel surface and corrosion rate can be considered negligible. For very dry concretes
162:: which is defined as the time from the onset of active corrosion until an ultimate limit state is reached, i.e. corrosion propagation reaches a limit value corresponding to unacceptable structural damage, such as cracking and detachment of the
1229:. There are various influencing factors, such as are the potential of steel rebar and the pH of the solution included in concrete pores. Moreover, pitting corrosion initiation is a phenomenon with a stochastic nature, therefore also
855:
to the steel surface, above a certain critical amount, can locally break the protective thin film of oxides on the steel surface, even if concrete is still alkaline, causing a very localized and aggressive form of corrosion known as
394:
is the key design parameter to assess initiation time in the case of carbonation-induced corrosion. It is expressed in mm/year and depends on the characteristics of concrete and the exposure conditions. The penetration of gaseous
1072:
and D known, the equation can be used to evaluate the temporal evolution of the chloride concentration profile in the concrete cover and evaluate the initiation time as the moment in which critical chloride threshold
458:, several models have been proposed. In a simplified but commonly accepted method, the propagation time is evaluated as function of the corrosion propagation rate. If the corrosion rate is considered constant, t
447:
at hardened state, and is therefore subjected to a higher carbonation rate. The influencing factors concerning the exposure conditions are the environmental temperature, humidity and concentration of CO
1397:
Concrete Under Severe
Conditions 2: Environment and Loading : Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Concrete Under Severe Conditions, CONSEC '98, Tromsø, Norway, June 21-24, 1998
1199:
and D can not be considered constant in time, and that the transport penetration of chlorides can be considered as pure diffusion only for submerged structures. A further issue is the assessment of
344:
531:
1133:
and D can be identified calculating the best-fit curve for measured chloride concertation profiles. From concrete samples retrieved on field is therefore possible to define the values of C
451:. Carbonation rate is higher for environments with higher humidity and temperature, and increases in polluted environments such as urban centres and inside close spaces as tunnels.
130:
and chlorides) to penetrate the concrete cover thickness, reach the embedded steel rebar, alter the initial passivation condition on steel surface and cause corrosion initiation.
89:
degradation process, a simple and accredited model for the assessment of the service life is the one proposed by Tuutti, in 1982. According to this model, the service life of a
980:
875:
Being the modelling of chloride penetration in concrete particularly complex, a simplified correlation is generally adopted, which was firstly proposed by
Collepardi in 1972
225:
44:
2178:
1302:
841:
805:
765:
716:
606:
680:
643:
566:
1257:
1227:
1101:
1197:
1162:
1131:
1070:
1043:
1009:
158:
122:
289:
is the carbonation coefficient. The corrosion onset takes place when the carbonation depth reaches the concrete cover thickness, and therefore can be evaluated as
1106:
However, there are many critical issues related to the practical use of this model. For existing reinforced concrete structures in chloride-bearing environment
392:
366:
287:
267:
247:
126:: from the moment the structure is built, to the moment corrosion initiates on steel rebar. More in particular, it is the time required for aggressive agents (
2279:
1626:
1172:
process) and type of cement used. Furthermore, for the evaluation of long-term behaviour of structure, a critical issue is related to the fact that
1277:
class. Once this is defined, design code gives standard prescriptions for w/c ratio, the cement content, and the thickness of the concrete cover.
1011:
is the chloride concentration at the exposed surface, x is the chloride penetration depth, D is the chloride diffusion coefficient, and t is time.
1575:
Duracrete (2000). "The
European Union - Brite EuRam III, DuraCrete - Probabilistic Performance based Durability Design of Concrete Structures".
2067:
1405:
1741:
36:
structures, to be used during the design stage in order to assess the material characteristics and the structural layout of the structure.
2158:
1436:
1368:
1559:
1293:
Figure 2 - Failure probability and target service life in performance-based service life models for reinforced concrete structures
1926:
2289:
1656:
294:
192:
of carbonation in time is to consider penetration depth proportional to the square root of time, following the correlation
1699:
1619:
1532:
Collepardi, Mario; Marcialis, Aldo; Turriziani, Renato. "Penetration of
Chloride Ions into Cement Pastes and Concretes".
2284:
1298:
variability, performance-based approaches address the problem from a probabilistic or semiprobabilistic point of view.
467:
2173:
2148:
2062:
2029:
1164:
and D. These parameters depend on the exposure conditions, the properties of concrete such as porosity (and therefore
1941:
1015:
2127:
1651:
1137:
and D for residual service life evaluation. On the other hand, for new structures it is more complicated to define
2163:
2024:
1964:
1779:
1694:
1612:
1936:
416:
1721:
1427:
Bertolini, Luca; Elsener, Bernhard; Pedeferri, Pietro; Redaelli, Elena; Polder, Rob B. (26 February 2013).
1165:
645:
must be defined in function of the limit state considered. Generally for carbonation-induced corrosion the
436:
2034:
1911:
1835:
1726:
1045:
is constant in time on the whole surface, and D is constant in time and through the concrete cover. With
2117:
1860:
880:
2153:
2054:
2049:
2009:
1921:
1784:
1483:
1324:
188:
180:
78:
29:
197:
2132:
2100:
2019:
1789:
1731:
1329:
852:
415:
diffusion in concrete. If concrete pores are completely and permanently saturated (for instance in
90:
82:
74:
49:
33:
22:
2274:
2105:
2014:
1931:
1499:
423:
diffusion is prevented. On the other hand, for completely dry concrete, the chemical reaction of
2269:
2243:
2199:
1999:
1994:
1969:
1951:
1865:
1845:
1681:
1666:
1555:
1474:
Bertolini, Luca (2008). "Steel corrosion and service life of reinforced concrete structures".
1432:
1401:
1395:
1364:
857:
810:
774:
734:
685:
575:
652:
615:
538:
2095:
2004:
1870:
1830:
1709:
1671:
1491:
1301:
The performance-based service life model proposed by the
European project DuraCrete, and by
1232:
1202:
1076:
865:
1175:
1140:
1109:
1048:
1021:
987:
136:
100:
16:
Set of processes and factors determining the service life of reinforced concrete structures
2264:
2039:
1890:
1794:
1704:
1487:
2112:
2044:
1885:
1804:
1774:
1769:
1661:
869:
646:
377:
369:
351:
272:
252:
232:
184:
163:
127:
56:
Initially, the chemical reactions that normally occur in the cement paste, generate an
2258:
2085:
1984:
1974:
1880:
1503:
400:
2122:
1989:
1875:
1850:
28:
therefore made in the last decades in order to define useful models describing the
767:
is negligible due to the absence of water which prevents the chemical reaction of
2090:
1809:
1746:
1384:
CONSEC'98, Tromsø, Norway, June 21-24, 1998 (Vol. 1, p. 133). CRC Press. Chicago
424:
411:. The humidity content of concrete is one of the main influencing factors of CO
2194:
1979:
1959:
1751:
1495:
2225:
1517:
Arup, Hans (1983). "The mechanisms of the protection of steel by concrete".
861:
768:
719:
609:
569:
455:
408:
86:
77:
structures worldwide, mainly as a consequence of two degradation processes,
66:
2209:
2204:
1840:
1799:
1761:
1643:
1635:
1319:
1169:
444:
440:
432:
404:
1289:
2168:
1736:
1895:
1855:
1689:
1361:
Materiali da costruzione. 2, Degrado, prevenzione, diagnosi, restauro
727:
723:
57:
1429:
Corrosion of Steel in
Concrete : Prevention, Diagnosis, Repair
1268:
Different approaches are then available for the durability design.
1814:
1716:
1288:
70:
43:
48:
Initiation and propagation periods of steel rebar corrosion in a
454:
To evaluate propagation time in the case of carbonation-induced
60:
environment, bringing the solution in the cement paste pores to
1608:
1452:
Tuutti, Kyösti (1982-10-21). "Corrosion of steel in concrete".
1018:
in the hypothesis that chloride initial content is zero, that
807:. One possible approach is to consider a mean annual value of
1604:
61:
649:
cracking is considered as limit state, and in this case a
1454:
Swedish Cement and Concrete Research Institute, Stockholm
718:
depends on the environmental factors in proximity of the
1235:
1205:
1178:
1143:
1112:
1079:
1051:
1024:
990:
883:
813:
777:
737:
688:
655:
618:
578:
541:
470:
380:
354:
339:{\displaystyle t_{i}=\left({\frac {c}{K}}\right)^{2}}
297:
275:
255:
235:
200:
139:
103:
179:
The initiation time is related to the rate at which
2218:
2187:
2141:
2078:
1950:
1904:
1823:
1760:
1680:
1642:
1519:
Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction
1469:
1467:
1465:
1463:
93:structure can be divided into two distinct phases.
1593:FIB (2006). "Model code for service life design".
1251:
1221:
1191:
1156:
1125:
1095:
1064:
1037:
1003:
974:
835:
799:
759:
710:
674:
637:
600:
560:
525:
386:
360:
338:
281:
261:
241:
219:
152:
116:
73:is one of the main causes of premature failure of
526:{\displaystyle t_{p}={\frac {p_{lim}}{v_{corr}}}}
2179:International Federation for Structural Concrete
1353:
1351:
1349:
1347:
1345:
1521:. Chichester: Hellis Horwood. pp. 151–157.
427:cannot occur. Another influencing factor for CO
40:Service life of a reinforced concrete structure
1620:
8:
1394:Gjørv, O.E.; Sakai, K.; Banthia, N. (1998).
1577:Final Technical Report of Duracrete Project
1103:) is reached at the depth of steel rebar.
1627:
1613:
1605:
1259:can be defined only on statistical basis.
1545:
1543:
1240:
1234:
1210:
1204:
1183:
1177:
1148:
1142:
1117:
1111:
1084:
1078:
1056:
1050:
1029:
1023:
995:
989:
950:
941:
926:
909:
882:
818:
812:
782:
776:
742:
736:
693:
687:
660:
654:
623:
617:
583:
577:
546:
540:
506:
490:
484:
475:
469:
379:
353:
330:
316:
302:
296:
274:
254:
234:
210:
199:
144:
138:
108:
102:
1476:Structure and Infrastructure Engineering
1534:Journal of the American Ceramic Society
1341:
1588:
1586:
1552:Design of durable concrete structures
722:process, such as the availability of
7:
1742:Ground granulated blast-furnace slag
2159:Institution of Structural Engineers
726:and water at concrete cover depth.
1595:Committee Eurointernation du Beton
933:
930:
927:
14:
2280:Concrete buildings and structures
975:{\displaystyle C(x,t)=C_{s}\left}
2239:
2238:
1400:. E & FN Spon. p. 133.
435:. Concrete obtained with higher
1014:This equation is a solution of
682:equal to 100 ÎĽm is considered.
1657:Roman architectural revolution
899:
887:
439:or obtained with an incorrect
220:{\displaystyle x=K{\sqrt {t}}}
1:
175:Carbonation-induced corrosion
2174:Portland Cement Association
2149:American Concrete Institute
1363:(2. ed.). CittaStudi.
431:diffusion rate is concrete
2306:
1652:Ancient Roman architecture
1285:Performance-based approach
1016:Fick's II law of diffusion
847:Chloride-induced corrosion
249:is the carbonation depth,
52:structure (Tutti diagram).
2234:
2164:Indian Concrete Institute
1550:Matthews, Stuart (2014).
1496:10.1080/15732470601155490
572:penetration in steel and
1359:Bertolini, Luca (2012).
836:{\displaystyle v_{corr}}
800:{\displaystyle v_{corr}}
760:{\displaystyle v_{corr}}
711:{\displaystyle v_{corr}}
601:{\displaystyle v_{corr}}
443:process presents higher
370:concrete cover thickness
185:concrete cover thickness
164:concrete cover thickness
83:penetration of chlorides
1431:(2nd ed.). Wiley.
675:{\displaystyle p_{lim}}
638:{\displaystyle p_{lim}}
561:{\displaystyle p_{lim}}
2290:Structural engineering
1942:Alkali–silica reaction
1700:Energetically modified
1294:
1253:
1252:{\displaystyle C_{cl}}
1223:
1222:{\displaystyle C_{cl}}
1193:
1158:
1127:
1097:
1096:{\displaystyle C_{cl}}
1066:
1039:
1005:
976:
837:
801:
761:
712:
676:
639:
602:
562:
527:
388:
362:
340:
283:
263:
243:
221:
154:
118:
53:
1292:
1254:
1224:
1194:
1192:{\displaystyle C_{s}}
1159:
1157:{\displaystyle C_{s}}
1128:
1126:{\displaystyle C_{s}}
1098:
1067:
1065:{\displaystyle C_{s}}
1040:
1038:{\displaystyle C_{s}}
1006:
1004:{\displaystyle C_{s}}
977:
838:
802:
762:
713:
677:
640:
603:
563:
528:
462:can be estimated as:
389:
363:
341:
284:
264:
244:
222:
155:
153:{\displaystyle t_{p}}
119:
117:{\displaystyle t_{i}}
85:. With regard to the
47:
30:degradation processes
21:durability design of
1927:Environmental impact
1785:Reversing drum mixer
1325:Concrete degradation
1263:Corrosion prevention
1233:
1203:
1176:
1141:
1110:
1077:
1049:
1022:
988:
881:
870:hydrostatic pressure
811:
775:
735:
686:
653:
616:
576:
539:
468:
417:submerged structures
378:
352:
295:
273:
253:
233:
198:
137:
101:
2285:Reinforced concrete
1488:2008SIEng...4..123B
1330:Reinforced concrete
612:propagation rate.
160:, propagation time
91:reinforced concrete
75:reinforced concrete
50:reinforced concrete
34:reinforced concrete
23:reinforced concrete
2030:Self-consolidating
1722:Water–cement ratio
1295:
1249:
1219:
1189:
1154:
1123:
1093:
1062:
1035:
1001:
972:
833:
797:
757:
708:
672:
635:
598:
558:
523:
384:
358:
336:
279:
259:
239:
217:
183:propagates in the
150:
124:, initiation time
114:
54:
2252:
2251:
2244:Category:Concrete
2025:Roller-compacting
1846:Climbing formwork
1695:Calcium aluminate
1667:Roman engineering
1407:978-0-419-23860-7
1272:Standard approach
961:
958:
521:
387:{\displaystyle K}
361:{\displaystyle c}
324:
282:{\displaystyle K}
262:{\displaystyle t}
242:{\displaystyle x}
215:
2297:
2242:
2241:
2154:Concrete Society
1965:Fiber-reinforced
1780:Volumetric mixer
1672:Roman technology
1629:
1622:
1615:
1606:
1599:
1598:
1590:
1581:
1580:
1572:
1566:
1565:
1547:
1538:
1537:
1529:
1523:
1522:
1514:
1508:
1507:
1471:
1458:
1457:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1424:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1391:
1385:
1381:
1375:
1374:
1355:
1258:
1256:
1255:
1250:
1248:
1247:
1228:
1226:
1225:
1220:
1218:
1217:
1198:
1196:
1195:
1190:
1188:
1187:
1163:
1161:
1160:
1155:
1153:
1152:
1132:
1130:
1129:
1124:
1122:
1121:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1094:
1092:
1091:
1071:
1069:
1068:
1063:
1061:
1060:
1044:
1042:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1033:
1010:
1008:
1007:
1002:
1000:
999:
981:
979:
978:
973:
971:
967:
966:
962:
960:
959:
951:
942:
936:
914:
913:
866:capillary effect
851:The presence of
842:
840:
839:
834:
832:
831:
806:
804:
803:
798:
796:
795:
766:
764:
763:
758:
756:
755:
717:
715:
714:
709:
707:
706:
681:
679:
678:
673:
671:
670:
644:
642:
641:
636:
634:
633:
607:
605:
604:
599:
597:
596:
567:
565:
564:
559:
557:
556:
532:
530:
529:
524:
522:
520:
519:
501:
500:
485:
480:
479:
393:
391:
390:
385:
367:
365:
364:
359:
345:
343:
342:
337:
335:
334:
329:
325:
317:
307:
306:
288:
286:
285:
280:
268:
266:
265:
260:
248:
246:
245:
240:
226:
224:
223:
218:
216:
211:
159:
157:
156:
151:
149:
148:
123:
121:
120:
115:
113:
112:
2305:
2304:
2300:
2299:
2298:
2296:
2295:
2294:
2255:
2254:
2253:
2248:
2230:
2214:
2183:
2137:
2074:
1946:
1900:
1819:
1795:Flow table test
1756:
1676:
1638:
1633:
1603:
1602:
1592:
1591:
1584:
1574:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1549:
1548:
1541:
1531:
1530:
1526:
1516:
1515:
1511:
1473:
1472:
1461:
1451:
1450:
1446:
1439:
1426:
1425:
1421:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1393:
1392:
1388:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1358:
1356:
1343:
1338:
1316:
1287:
1274:
1265:
1236:
1231:
1230:
1206:
1201:
1200:
1179:
1174:
1173:
1144:
1139:
1138:
1136:
1113:
1108:
1107:
1080:
1075:
1074:
1052:
1047:
1046:
1025:
1020:
1019:
991:
986:
985:
946:
937:
919:
915:
905:
879:
878:
849:
814:
809:
808:
778:
773:
772:
738:
733:
732:
689:
684:
683:
656:
651:
650:
619:
614:
613:
579:
574:
573:
542:
537:
536:
502:
486:
471:
466:
465:
461:
450:
430:
422:
414:
398:
376:
375:
350:
349:
312:
311:
298:
293:
292:
271:
270:
251:
250:
231:
230:
196:
195:
177:
140:
135:
134:
104:
99:
98:
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
2303:
2301:
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2267:
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2250:
2249:
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2235:
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2207:
2202:
2197:
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2176:
2171:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2145:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2113:Concrete block
2110:
2109:
2108:
2103:
2101:voided biaxial
2098:
2093:
2082:
2080:
2076:
2075:
2073:
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2065:
2057:
2052:
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2042:
2037:
2032:
2027:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
1997:
1992:
1987:
1982:
1977:
1972:
1967:
1962:
1956:
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1948:
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1924:
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1838:
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1827:
1825:
1821:
1820:
1818:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1805:Concrete cover
1802:
1797:
1792:
1787:
1782:
1777:
1775:Concrete mixer
1772:
1766:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1755:
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1749:
1744:
1739:
1734:
1729:
1724:
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1707:
1702:
1697:
1686:
1684:
1678:
1677:
1675:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1662:Roman concrete
1659:
1654:
1648:
1646:
1640:
1639:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1624:
1617:
1609:
1601:
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1582:
1567:
1560:
1539:
1524:
1509:
1482:(2): 123–137.
1459:
1444:
1438:978-3527651719
1437:
1419:
1406:
1386:
1376:
1370:978-8825173680
1369:
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1216:
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1209:
1186:
1182:
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1134:
1120:
1116:
1090:
1087:
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1059:
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1032:
1028:
998:
994:
970:
965:
957:
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935:
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830:
827:
824:
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754:
751:
748:
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647:concrete cover
632:
629:
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518:
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396:
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357:
333:
328:
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305:
301:
278:
258:
238:
214:
209:
206:
203:
176:
173:
168:
167:
147:
143:
131:
128:carbon dioxide
111:
107:
41:
38:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2302:
2291:
2288:
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2266:
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2208:
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2203:
2201:
2198:
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2180:
2177:
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2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
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2150:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2142:Organizations
2140:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2107:
2106:slab on grade
2104:
2102:
2099:
2097:
2094:
2092:
2089:
2088:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2081:
2077:
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2060:
2058:
2056:
2053:
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2048:
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2041:
2038:
2036:
2035:Self-leveling
2033:
2031:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2021:
2018:
2016:
2013:
2011:
2008:
2006:
2003:
2001:
1998:
1996:
1993:
1991:
1988:
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1983:
1981:
1978:
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1971:
1968:
1966:
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1961:
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1836:Cast-in-place
1834:
1832:
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1822:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1806:
1803:
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1765:
1763:
1759:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1738:
1735:
1733:
1732:Reinforcement
1730:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
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1623:
1618:
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1611:
1610:
1607:
1596:
1589:
1587:
1583:
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1571:
1568:
1563:
1561:9781848061750
1557:
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1464:
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1423:
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1399:
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1291:
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1282:
1278:
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1262:
1260:
1244:
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1145:
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1114:
1104:
1088:
1085:
1081:
1057:
1053:
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1017:
1012:
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992:
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955:
952:
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923:
920:
916:
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906:
902:
896:
893:
890:
884:
876:
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867:
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859:
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828:
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783:
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749:
746:
743:
739:
729:
725:
721:
703:
700:
697:
694:
690:
667:
664:
661:
657:
648:
630:
627:
624:
620:
611:
593:
590:
587:
584:
580:
571:
568:is the limit
553:
550:
547:
543:
533:
516:
513:
510:
507:
503:
497:
494:
491:
487:
481:
476:
472:
463:
457:
452:
446:
442:
438:
434:
426:
418:
410:
406:
402:
401:porous medium
381:
373:
371:
355:
346:
331:
326:
321:
318:
313:
308:
303:
299:
290:
276:
269:is time, and
256:
236:
227:
212:
207:
204:
201:
193:
190:
186:
182:
174:
172:
165:
161:
145:
141:
132:
129:
125:
109:
105:
96:
95:
94:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
63:
59:
51:
46:
39:
37:
35:
31:
26:
24:
2118:Step barrier
2079:Applications
1990:Nanoconcrete
1916:
1876:Power trowel
1861:Power screed
1851:Slip forming
1824:Construction
1594:
1576:
1570:
1551:
1533:
1527:
1518:
1512:
1479:
1475:
1453:
1447:
1428:
1422:
1411:. Retrieved
1396:
1389:
1379:
1360:
1308:
1300:
1296:
1279:
1275:
1266:
1105:
1013:
983:
877:
874:
850:
534:
464:
453:
374:
347:
291:
228:
194:
187:. Once that
178:
169:
133:
97:
55:
20:
18:
2096:hollow-core
2055:Waste light
2050:Translucent
2010:Prestressed
1937:Segregation
1922:Degradation
1810:Cover meter
1747:Silica fume
1682:Composition
425:carbonation
407:occurs via
189:carbonation
181:carbonation
79:carbonation
2259:Categories
2195:Eurocode 2
2133:Structures
2020:Reinforced
1980:Lunarcrete
1960:AstroCrete
1917:Durability
1912:Properties
1790:Slump test
1762:Production
1752:Metakaolin
1413:2023-09-07
1336:References
32:affecting
25:structures
2275:Corrosion
2226:Hempcrete
2188:Standards
2015:Ready-mix
1932:Recycling
1727:Aggregate
1710:Rosendale
1504:109007701
1166:w/c ratio
924:−
862:diffusion
853:chlorides
769:corrosion
720:corrosion
610:corrosion
570:corrosion
456:corrosion
437:w/c ratio
409:diffusion
87:corrosion
69:of steel
67:corrosion
2270:Concrete
2219:See also
2210:EN 10080
2205:EN 206-1
2200:EN 197-1
2059:Aerated
2000:Polished
1995:Pervious
1970:Filigree
1866:Finisher
1841:Formwork
1705:Portland
1636:Concrete
1320:Concrete
1314:See also
445:porosity
433:porosity
405:concrete
403:such as
58:alkaline
2169:Nanocem
2128:Columns
2005:Polymer
1905:Science
1871:Grinder
1831:Precast
1737:Fly ash
1644:History
1554:. IHS.
1484:Bibcode
858:pitting
608:is the
368:is the
2265:Cement
2091:waffle
2040:Sulfur
1896:Tremie
1891:Sealer
1856:Screed
1800:Curing
1690:Cement
1558:
1502:
1435:
1404:
1367:
1170:curing
984:Where
728:Oxygen
724:oxygen
535:where
441:curing
348:where
229:where
2123:Roads
2045:Tabby
1952:Types
1886:Float
1815:Rebar
1770:Plant
1717:Water
1500:S2CID
399:in a
71:rebar
2086:Slab
2068:RAAC
1985:Mass
1975:Foam
1881:Pump
1556:ISBN
1433:ISBN
1402:ISBN
1365:ISBN
1168:and
868:and
419:) CO
81:and
19:The
2063:AAC
1492:doi
1303:FIB
372:.
2261::
1585:^
1542:^
1498:.
1490:.
1478:.
1462:^
1344:^
864:,
843:.
395:CO
62:pH
1628:e
1621:t
1614:v
1597:.
1579:.
1564:.
1536:.
1506:.
1494::
1486::
1480:4
1456:.
1441:.
1416:.
1373:.
1357:.
1245:l
1242:c
1238:C
1215:l
1212:c
1208:C
1185:s
1181:C
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1058:s
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1031:s
1027:C
997:s
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956:t
953:D
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911:s
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894:,
891:x
888:(
885:C
829:r
826:r
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820:c
816:v
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790:r
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780:v
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744:c
740:v
704:r
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691:v
668:m
665:i
662:l
658:p
631:m
628:i
625:l
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588:o
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488:p
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477:p
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382:K
356:c
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322:K
319:c
314:(
309:=
304:i
300:t
277:K
257:t
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205:=
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146:p
142:t
110:i
106:t
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
