International Whaling Commission

1548:) argue that countries which oppose commercial whaling altogether should not be in the IWC at all and that the anti-whaling side has subverted the purpose of the IWC by exploiting the (lack of) membership requirements. Moreover, they point out that the anti-whaling lobby within the IWC is also led by wealthy developed countries and is equally susceptible to accusations of vote-buying and influence-peddling. They accuse the anti-whaling side within the IWC of using conservation as a cover for its ideological opposition to whaling itself, which mirrors the accusation from the anti-whaling side that Japan's scientific whaling is a cover for commercial whaling. Since 2000, 29 new countries have joined the IWC, 18 of them pro-whaling, 11 anti. Japan notes that major anti-whaling countries such as the U.S., Australia, UK and New Zealand also donate aid to poor countries on the IWC and wield far more influence than Japan alone and thus they could easily be accused of the same tactics. 1303:. Labelling the IWC a "butchers' club", he mounted lobbying campaigns in developed countries with support from the green lobby and anti-whaling block of IWC members to change the composition of the IWC's membership, which was instrumental in obtaining the necessary three-quarters majority vote to implement the moratorium on commercial whaling in 1986. This campaign triggered the first accusations of vote-buying in IWC. According to Scott's biographer, Elspeth Huxley, China's decision to join was influenced by a World Wildlife Fund promise to provide $ 1 million to fund a panda reserve. Michael Tillman, former IWC Commissioner of the United States, said in a radio interview that "there was what we called 'common knowledge,' that a number of countries joined and that their dues and the travel support was reportedly due to conservation groups providing it. So that, in a sense, one could say that the conservation groups set out a strategy that the Japanese copied." 1556:, a country previously accused of having its vote bought and paid for by Japan by a number of countries and NGOs, shifted sides and consistently voted with the anti-whaling block at the 2006 IWC meeting. Anti-whaling governments oppose secret ballot voting on the grounds that it is without precedent in other international bodies and that it would remove accountability and make behind-the-scenes deals between delegations more likely. However, St Kitts and Nevis Commissioner, Cedric Liburd, argued during a debate on the secret ballot vote at the 2006 meeting that it was hypocritical of anti-whaling countries to pontificate on the need for transparency within the IWC by open voting when the same countries happily voted via secret ballot in 1103:, Brazil, where they discussed and rejected a proposal by Japan to renew commercial whaling. Through the "Florianópolis Declaration", it was concluded that the purpose of the IWC is the conservation of whales and that they would now safeguard the marine mammals in perpetuity and would allow the recovery of all whale populations to pre-industrial whaling levels. It also concluded that the use of lethal research methods is unnecessary. The non-binding agreement was backed by 40 countries, with 27 pro-whaling states voting against. Under this resolution, limited hunts by some indigenous communities are still permitted. 1277: 1647:, and Norway under the Agreement on Cooperation in Research, Conservation and Management of Marine Mammals in the North Atlantic. The document clearly responded to what the drafters regarded as the inappropriate whale protectionist tendencies of the IWC. Guðmundur Eiríksson of Iceland stated at NAMMCO's inaugural meeting that the organisation was established in part out of dissatisfaction with the IWC's zero-catch quota. Although NAMMCO does not conflict directly with the obligations of membership states under the IWC, it nonetheless presented a challenge to the legitimacy of the IWC. 164:

sanctuaries; set limits on the numbers and size of whales which may be taken; prescribe open and closed seasons and areas for whaling; and prohibit the capture of suckling calves and female whales accompanied by calves. The Commission also mandates the compilation of catch reports and other statistical and biological records, and is actively involved in whale research, including funding and promoting studies, publishing the results of scientific research, and encouraging studies into related matters, such as the humaneness of the killing operations.

189: 1515: 1365:"Every month I'm on the water somewhere," he says. "I've grown a close affinity, not just for whales, but for dolphins and porpoises. So it wasn't difficult for me to approach the Belizean authorities with such a brief." He discovered that Belize's annual subscription to the IWC—£10,000—had lapsed and came up with the cash. That backing yielded swift results when a crucial vote was won by the anti-whaling nations by a majority of one. 1245:

approximately 761,000 minke whales in Antarctic waters, 87,000 in the northeast Atlantic, and 25,000 in the North Pacific. With such populations, it was submitted, 2000 minke whales could be harvested annually without endangering the population. Despite this, the IWC Plenary Committee voted to maintain the blanket moratorium on whaling, arguing that formulas for determining allowable catches had not yet been adequately evaluated.

1673: 1659: 1176: 1124:

state may opt out of any specific IWC regulation by lodging a formal objection to it within 90 days of the regulation coming into force (such provisions are common in international agreements, on the logic that it is preferable to have parties remain within the agreements than opt out altogether). Third, the IWC has no ability to enforce any of its decisions through penalty imposition.

1623: 1407:) These issues have global relevance which is not restricted only to whaling and whaling countries. Moreover, public opinion in many anti-whaling countries is solidly behind the governmental position on whaling within the IWC. Pro-whaling countries, on the other hand, argue that the public's anti-whaling stance is often based on misinformation – a 2003 article in 1352:. Caribbean countries have consistently sided with Japan in each IWC vote since 2001 though the Caribbean governments admit the rules may possibly impact on their fishing activities as well. Pacific countries' voting patterns vary even for each motion, as they are lobbied by neighbouring pro-whaling Japan and anti-whaling New Zealand and Australia. 40: 1375:

commission." In Australia, National Nine News reported that "New Zealand is questioning pro-whaling support among Pacific Island states with the opposition calling for a rethink of foreign aid." It is expected that more countries in the future will join the IWC including some landlocked countries. Currently, there are nine landlocked IWC members.

2514:" amendment shall become effective with respect to all Contracting Governments which have not presented objection but shall not become effective with respect to any Government which has so objected until such date as the objection is withdrawn." Id., para. 3. Contracting states also may withdraw from the organization. Id., Art. XI. 1065:

1992), but this reservation is not recognised as a valid objection by many IWC members. In addition, Italy, Mexico, and New Zealand do not consider the ICRW to be in force between their countries and Iceland. None of these countries, however, has mounted any legal challenge to Iceland's membership of the IWC.

1605:

must reduce that country's fishing allocation in U.S. waters by at least 50%. Certification under the Packwood-Magnuson Amendment also serves as certification under the Pelly Amendment. The threatened application in 1980 of the Packwood-Magnuson and Pelly Amendments led South Korea to agree to follow

1416:

Moreover, coastal countries have a vested interest in conserving their fish stocks which may be threatened by whales (this claim is strongly contested by the anti-whaling lobby). Japan, particularly when lobbying African governments, argues that diversification of the anti-whaling argument outside of

1374:

reported that "Some countries recently admitted to the European Union have been advised by a "word in the ear" that it would be "a good idea" for them to join the IWC. Some activists believe that Britain and its fellow EU old-timers such as France and Germany should recruit all member states into the

1356:

alleges that Japan's aid activities and these countries' voting patterns are correlated. These allegations of tying aid to votes are based on public admissions by government officials both inside and outside Japan, as well as an analysis of voting patterns compared to Japanese Fisheries Aid received.

1311:

has carried out a programme of "vote-buying"—i.e. offering aid to poorer countries in return for them joining the IWC and supporting Japanese positions on whaling. Japan claims, however, that this accusation itself is politically motivated because Japan's overseas aid is not only given to pro-whaling

1306:

Since the moratorium was adopted, the support for it has dropped from a 75% majority to a 50–50 split, with many of the countries initially recruited by the anti-whaling side now voting with the pro-whaling block. (A 75% majority is needed to overturn the moratorium.) Anti-whaling campaign groups and

1248:

In 1991, acting on the recommendation of the Scientific Committee, the IWC adopted a computerized formula, the Revised Management Procedure (RMP), for determining allowable catches of some whale species. Despite the fact that the RMP indicated that it would be possible to authorize a catch that year,

1043:

At the same time, a number of non-whaling and anti-whaling states began to join the IWC and eventually gained a majority over the whaling states. Some countries who were previously major whaling forces, like the United States, became strong proponents of the anti-whaling cause. These countries called

1402:

Both pro- and anti-whaling countries claim that their recruiting activities are restricted to lobbying and persuasion based on the merits of their cause. Anti-whaling campaigners argue that scientific studies are not currently clear enough to warrant resumption of commercial whaling. Moreover, there

1369:

Both sides accuse each other of using underhanded tactics to pack the commission with countries sympathetic to their position. Edwin Snagg, the IWC commissioner for St Vincent and the Grenadines stated, "It's a question of respect,....Because you are small and because you are underdeveloped there is

1083:

obtained by scientific whaling not go to waste. Japan, on the other hand, has raised objections to U.S. aboriginal subsistence whaling, generally seen to be in retaliation to anti-whaling states' (including the United States') objections to aboriginal subsistence whaling for several Japanese fishing

1051:

Notwithstanding the other provisions of paragraph 10, catch limits for the killing for commercial purposes of whales from all stocks for the 1986 coastal and the 1985/86 pelagic seasons and thereafter shall be zero. This provision will be kept under review, based upon the best scientific advice, and

233:

and Greenland), Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Eritrea, Estonia, Finland, France, Gabon, the Gambia, Germany, Ghana, Grenada, Republic of Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Hungary, Iceland, India, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Kenya, South Korea, Kiribati, Laos, Liberia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mali, Republic

1568:

The effectiveness of IWC decisions (at least on smaller whaling states) may be explained in large part by the fact that the United States has been willing to act unilaterally in support of them. The pro-whaling countries often see the U.S.'s propensity to act outside the IWC framework as "bullying"

1236:

The pro-whaling governments accuse the IWC of basing these decisions upon "political and emotional" factors rather than upon scientific knowledge given that the IWC prohibits all whaling, even though its own Scientific Committee has concluded since 1991 that quotas on some species of whale would be

1068:

As the moratorium applies only to commercial whaling, whaling under the scientific-research and aboriginal-subsistence provisions of the ICRW is still allowed. However, environmental groups dispute the claim of research "as a disguise for commercial whaling, which is banned." Since 1994, Norway has

1064:

within US waters if the objection was not withdrawn. However, by 1988 the US had eliminated Japanese fishing quotas anyway. It was after this that the Japanese began scientific whaling.). In 2002, Iceland was allowed to rejoin IWC with a reservation to the moratorium (Iceland withdrew from IWC in

228:

Participation in the IWC is not limited to states involved in whaling. Membership in the IWC has doubled since 2001 with an average of almost six states per year joining the IWC from 2002 to 2008. As of February 2024 there were 88 members. Current (2024) members are: Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina,

167:

Through the "Florianópolis Declaration" of 2018, members of the organization concluded that the purpose of the IWC is the conservation of whales and that they would now safeguard the marine mammals in perpetuity and would allow the recovery of all whale populations to pre-industrial whaling levels.

1430:

Owing to the economic power of the US and the UK, CITES was forced to list perfectly healthy species of whales (over the objections of its secretariat), along with legitimately endangered species, on its banned list. This has severely eroded CITES' credibility, especially in the world's developing

1252:

The IWC Plenary committee adopted the RMP in 1994, but decided not to implement it before an inspection and control scheme had been developed. This scheme, together with the RMP, is known as the Revised Management Scheme (RMS). Since then it has been all but impossible for the member countries in

1078:

countries and lobbies accuse Japan's scientific whaling of being a front for commercial whaling. The Japanese government argues that the refusal of anti-whaling states to accept simple head counts of whale population as a measure of recovery of whale species justifies its continuing studies on sex

2348:

The countries voting in favour of the moratorium included Antigua, Australia, Belize, Costa Rica, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, India, Kenya, Mexico, New Zealand, Oman, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Senegal, the Seychelles, Spain, Sweden, the United Kingdom and the United States. The seven countries

1576:

determines that the nationals of a foreign country are diminishing the effectiveness of an international fishery conservation program (including the IWC's program), the Secretary shall certify this fact to the President. The President then has the discretion to ban importation of fishing products

1534:

have flowed to countries that joined the IWC from both pro- and anti-whaling countries. "It already brings back the time when we were colonised," says Clarice Charles, of Grenada. "Would these rich nations give a poor fisherman a revolving loan or a grant or a gift so that he can buy to go whale

1294:

The purpose of the IWC as specified in its constitution is "in safeguarding for future generations the great natural resources represented by the whale stocks;" and the original members consisted only of the 15 whale-hunting countries. However, since the late 1970s and early 1980s, many countries

1123:

IWC is a voluntary international organization and is not backed up by treaty, therefore, the IWC has substantial practical limitations on its authority. First, any member countries are free to simply leave the organization and declare themselves not bound by it if they so wish. Second, any member

257:

Since 2012 the IWC has met in even-numbered years, in September or October. Meetings are composed of one voting representative (called a Commissioner) from each state party who may be accompanied by experts and advisors. They are generally extremely divisive—demonstrating a complete split on all

209:

by setting the protection of certain species; designating areas as whale sanctuaries; setting limits on the numbers and size of catches; prescribing open and closed seasons and areas for whaling; methods and intensity of whaling, types of gear to be used, methods of measurement and maximum catch

1244:

After the moratorium came into force in 1986, the Scientific Committee was commissioned to review the status of the whale stocks and develop a calculation method for setting safe catch limits. At the IWC's annual meeting in 1991, the Scientific Committee submitted its finding that there existed

269:

In 2012, the Commission agreed to move from annual to biennial Commission Meetings. The Scientific Committee continues to meet annually. In years where both meetings are held, a period of at least 100 days separates the two. This is to allow time to read and digest the reports of the Scientific

1267:

Ray Gambell, then the Secretary of the IWC, agreed at least in part with the argument of the pro-whaling countries: "In all reasonableness, we would have to say that a commercial catch could be taken without endangering stocks." In June 1993 the Chairman of the Scientific Committee, Dr Philip

1106:

On 26 December 2018, Japan announced that since the IWC failed its duty to promote sustainable hunting, which is one of its stated goals, Japan was withdrawing its membership. Japanese officials also announced they would resume commercial hunting within its territorial waters and its 200-mile

163:

As the decision-making body of the convention, the IWC reviews and revises measures laid down in the "Schedule to the Convention", which govern the conduct of whaling throughout the world. These measures include: confer complete protection of certain species; designate specific areas as whale

1059:

Japan, Norway, Peru, and the Soviet Union (later replaced by Russia) lodged formal objections, since the moratorium was not based on advice from the Scientific Committee. Japan and Peru later withdrew their objections (Japan's withdrawal was precipitated by the US threatening to reduce their

1551:

Japan is pushing to have secret ballot voting introduced at IWC meetings. Secret ballot voting would weaken accusations of Japanese vote-buying by making it impossible to monitor so-called client members' votes. From Japan's point of view, secret ballot voting would also reduce the powerful

1153:

There has been concern that the conflict between those who seek renewed utilisation of whales and those who seek protection for every whale has placed a dangerous strain on the IWC. Oran Young and eight other noted scholars in the field assert that "changes in the current arrangements are

200:

which is an international environmental agreement signed in 1946 in order to "provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry" and to implement its economic and environmental goals. The role of the commission is to

1158:, or seek to establish a hybrid system". The BBC also reports that "onservationists argue that the IWC should be devoting far more of its attention to issues such as whales being hit by ships, the effects of pollution and climate change, and the pressures that drive species such as the 1240:

Non-IWC whaling countries have expressed similar sentiments. Canada withdrew from the IWC after the vote to impose the moratorium, claiming that "he ban was inconsistent with measures that had just been adopted by the IWC that were designed to allow harvests of stocks at safe levels."

1073:

began hunting commercially in September 2006. Since 1986, Japan has been whaling under scientific research permits. The US and several other countries are whaling under aboriginal whaling auspices. Norway lodged a protest to the zero catch limits in 1992 and is not bound by them.

1614:) placed a complete ban on whaling in 1981. Without United States support, it is possible that the 1986 moratorium would have been substantially limited, as countries such as Iceland, Japan, Norway and the Soviet Union would have opted out and continued commercial whaling. 1600:

These measures were further strengthened by the 1979 Packwood-Magnuson Amendment to the Fishery Conservation and Management Act of 1976. It provides that, when the Secretary of Commerce certifies that a country is diminishing the effectiveness of the work of the IWC, the

1132:

In 1971, Australia and South Africa agreed to supply observers to each other (International Observer Scheme, IOS) to ensure their land-based whaling stations were in compliance of the IWC. A similar agreement was drawn up between Canada, Iceland and Norway covering the

1268:

Hammond, resigned in protest to what he saw as contempt of the Scientific Committee's recommendations. The same year Norway became the only state in the world to resume commercial whaling, on the grounds that they had objected to, and thus opted out, of the moratorium.

210:

returns. Under its constitutive document, the IWC is given the task of adopting regulations "to provide for the conservation, development, and optimum utilization of the whale resources" with the condition that such regulations "shall be based on scientific findings."

1237:

sustainable. They argue the IWC has swayed from its original purpose and is attempting, under the guise of conservation, to essentially grant whales an entitlement to life via an absolute protection from being killed by humans for commercial purposes.

229:

Australia, Austria, Belgium, Belize, Benin, Brazil, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Cameroon, Chile, China, Colombia, Republic of the Congo, Costa Rica, Ivory Coast, Croatia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark (which also acts as the Kingdom with the

1421:

of the Revised Management Scheme and diversification of arguments outside of conservation by the anti-whaling side are claimed to be signs that anti-whaling countries no longer adhere to this principle (of sustainable management and

1249:

the moratorium was not lifted. The IWC noted the need to agree on minimum standards for data, to prepare guidelines on the conduct of population surveys, and to devise and approve a system of measures for monitoring and inspection.

1465:

Komatsu also said that Caribbean countries naturally supported pro-whaling resolutions as they are whaling countries themselves (mostly of smaller cetaceans) and that the New Zealand commissioner was inventing "fairy stories".

1817: 1630:

The moratorium on commercial whaling led Iceland to withdraw in protest from the IWC, as it had threatened to do if the moratorium was extended. Japan and Norway also threatened to leave the organisation. In April 1992, the

3208:

Preparations for the 34th International Whaling Commission Meeting: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Human Rights and International Organizations of the House Committee on Foreign Affairs, 97th Congress, 2d Session 11

1370:

this view and there is this feeling that you can easily be bought and you can easily be sold. We in the Caribbean feel highly offended." Moreover, there are no developing countries who support an anti-whaling stance. The

1455:, Mexico and others who receive far more aid than the Caribbean nations If Japan was buying votes, you would see 150 nations in the IWC and as a consequence the unnecessary moratorium would have been lifted years ago. 225:, reports, press releases, and a calendar of meetings. The commission has three main committees—Scientific, Conservation, and Finance and Administration. A Technical Committee is established, but has stopped meeting. 2525:"Agreement between the Government of the Commonwealth of Australia and the Government of the Republic of South Africa concerning an International Observer Scheme for Land-Based Whaling Stations [1971] ATS 22" 1052:

by 1990 at the latest the Commission will undertake a comprehensive assessment of the effects of this decision on whale stocks and consider modification of this provision and the establishment of other catch limits.

1417:

conservation is a threat to their national interest. Exploitation of wildlife resources (such as elephant ivory, sea turtles or primates) is restricted supposedly on the ground of sustainable management. Alleged

1501:

So as long as the whales are not an endangered species, I don't see any reason why if we are able to support the Japanese and the quid pro quo is that they will give us some assistance. I'm not going to be a

3942: 1426:). The Japanese argue that the African countries and whaling countries have a shared interest in preventing the principle of sustainable management being exploited as a cover for animal rights arguments: 1577:

from the offending country. The United States has threatened sanctions under the Pelly Amendment on a number of occasions. In November 1974, pressure from the United States contributed to Japan and the

1530:

reported that he further stated "lacking military might, his country had to use the tools of diplomacy and promises of development aid to "get appreciation of Japan's position" on whaling. Billions of

1552:

collective influence of the anti-whaling lobby on IWC members. One of the new 2006 members, Israel, which had been asked specifically to join by the US, voted consistently with the anti-whaling bloc.

1154:

inevitable" and that "the killing of whales for human consumption will continue, whether whalers operate within a reconstructed international whaling regime, opt to join alternative arrangements like

3937: 262:

to attend the meetings and to be represented by observers if they have submitted a written request to the Secretary thirty days before the meeting or if they have attended previous meetings.

234:

of the Marshall Islands, Mauritania, Mexico, Monaco, Mongolia, Morocco, Nauru, Netherlands, New Zealand, Nicaragua, Norway, Oman, Palau, Panama, Peru, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia,

1256:

Australia is the only member country of IWC which has officially announced its opposition to any RMS and is therefore not participating in the discussions. Anti-whaling NGOs, such as

1037: 1825: 278:

Members of the International Whaling Commission have met every year since 1949, in addition to having occasional intersessional 'special meetings' (these are not 'annual meetings').

3837: 1572:

The United States first incorporated the IWC's régime into domestic law in the 1971 Pelly Amendment to the Fisherman's Protective Act of 1967. This amendment provides that when the

197: 157: 1361:

approached Lord Ashcroft of the UK to use his influence in Belize to assure support for the anti-whaling camp. It was reported that Ashcroft paid Belize's IWC subscription fees:

1413:

noted that surveys in Australia, the United Kingdom, and the United States had found that a majority of respondents incorrectly believe that all whale species are endangered.

2323:

Berger-Eforo, Judith, "Sanctuary for the Whales: Will This be the Demise of the International Whaling Commission or a Viable Strategy for the Twenty-First Century?" (1996) 8

1024:

From 2012 onwards, it was decided that the annual Commission Meetings would go to biennial Commission Meetings, while the IWC Scientific Committee would still meet annually.

1033: 1197: 2349:

voting against the measure were Brazil, Iceland, Japan, Norway, Peru, South Korea and the USSR. Chile, China, the Philippines, South Africa and Switzerland abstained.

3927: 1295:

which have no previous history of whaling (some of which are landlocked such as Switzerland and Mongolia) have joined the IWC. This shift was first initiated by

2470: 2650:, Steve J. Langdon, Mats Ris & Peter J. Usher, "Subsistence, Sustainability, and Sea Mammals: Reconstructing the International Whaling Regime" (1994) 23 2486: 3917: 258:

major issues between the pro-whaling governments and their supporters and the anti-whaling countries. The IWC's Rules of Procedure allow non-parties and

1593:

acceded to the IWC after the United States certified them under the Amendment. The threatened certification of Spain also led that country to observe a

1047:

On 23 July 1982, members of the IWC voted by the necessary three-quarters majority to implement a pause on commercial whaling. The relevant text reads:

3912: 1145:, despite no significant change in regulations, indicating false reporting may have been prevalent in the Japanese whaling industry prior to the IOS. 3642: 153: 68: 3303: 2844: 1632: 1155: 1036:

at Stockholm adopted a proposal that recommended a ten-year moratorium on commercial whaling to allow whale stocks to recover. The reports of the

2703: 2405: 3054: 2741: 3429: 3285: 2524: 196:

The IWC was created by voluntary agreement among the member states to function as the sole governing body with authority to act under the

3168:

See "Not Saving the Whales: President Ford Refuses to Ban Fish Imports from Nations Which Have Violated International Whaling Quotas", 5

3084: 1849: 1573: 160:(ICRW) to "provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry". 3001: 2875: 3271: 3218:

Caron, David D., "International Sanctions, Ocean Management and the Law of the Sea: A Study of Denial of Access to Fishing" (1989) 16

1518:

Japanese whaling since 1985. The catch in 1985, 1986, and about half of 1987 were "under objection"; the rest are "scientific permit".

1358: 1044:

for the IWC to reform its policies and to incorporate newly discovered scientific data regarding whales in its proposed regulations.

3352: 1479:

They make it clear, that if you don't vote for them, they will have to reconsider the aid. They use money crudely to buy influence.

1423: 1257: 1223: 1276: 3028: 1602: 1475:

newspaper in May 2001, Atherton Martin, Dominica's former Environment and Fisheries Minister who publicly opposes whaling, said:

1341: 243: 1764: 2949: 2592:"Stretching the truth: length data highlight falsification of Japanese sperm whale catch statistics in the Southern Hemisphere" 2236: 2225: 2214: 2203: 2192: 2167: 2155: 2144: 2133: 2122: 2111: 2100: 2089: 1790: 2314:

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, Mar. 6 1973, 27 U.S.T. 1087, 993 U.N.T.S. 243

3890: 3844: 2769: 2428: 1887: 1686: 1201: 1088: 259: 1439:, the New Zealand delegate to the commission, accused Japan of buying votes. The Japanese delegate denied the allegations: 88:"provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry" 1522:

In an interview with Australian ABC television in July 2001, Japanese Fisheries Agency official Maseyuku Komatsu described

281:

In recent years, the meetings have attracted international media attention due to the growth of the anti-whaling movement.

3883: 3543: 3112: 1490: 1111:

starting in July 2019, but it would cease whaling activities in the Antarctic Ocean, the northwest Pacific Ocean, and the

263: 254:, South Africa, Spain, Suriname, Sweden, Switzerland, Tanzania, Togo, Tuvalu, United Kingdom, United States, and Uruguay. 3876: 3550: 3445: 3399: 3320: 1443:

Japan gives foreign aid to more than 150 nations around the world and that includes strong anti-whaling nations such as

1162:(or Yangtse river dolphin) to extinction. As things stand, it cannot. The logjam of hunting has to be overcome first." 3932: 3922: 2467: 1186: 3869: 3508: 3487: 1300: 1112: 78: 1205: 1190: 3408: 1091:. The vote to adopt the sanctuary resolution was twenty-three in favour, one opposed (Japan) and six abstaining. 1903:

Article I(1) of the ICRW incorporates the Schedule (as amended) into the Convention as an integral part thereof.

188: 1868: 595: 17: 3275: 3536: 1818:"Almost Saving Whales: The Ambiguity of Success at the International Whaling Commission [Full Text]" 1141:. The introduction of the IOS had a positive effect on quality of the reported catch data, according to the 1108: 177: 1606:

IWC guidelines restricting the use of cold (i.e. non-explosive) harpoons. Faced with similar pressure, the

1403:

are various other issues such as welfare of whales which is beyond the simple matter of conservation. (See

1079:

and age of population distributions, and further points out that IWC regulations specifically require that

3494: 1011: 986: 961: 936: 911: 886: 861: 831: 806: 3621: 3575: 3529: 3480: 3345: 3089: 2818: 2436: 477: 235: 2852: 2413: 1489:

Greenpeace also quotes Tongan parliamentarian Samiu K Vaipulu as saying at a workshop on the proposed

1469:

Anti-whaling groups cite several statements in response to this rebuttal. In an interview reported in

3459: 3392: 3385: 3062: 2795: 2603: 1692: 2296:

Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment, U.N. Doc. A/Conf.49/14/Rev.1, 11 I.L.M. 1416 (1972).

3522: 2647: 1313: 1138: 781: 756: 169: 3139: 3851: 3614: 3466: 3452: 3370: 3117: 2532: 1697: 1569:

tactics, while environmentalists and the conservation lobby tend to applaud the U.S.'s approach.

1345: 168:

In response, Japan announced on 26 December 2018, that since the IWC failed its duty to promote

3249: 2168:"Details for The International Whaling Commission's 59th annual meeting in Anchorage, USA 2007" 3568: 3515: 3501: 3422: 3267: 3263: 2646:

Oran R. Young, Milton M. R. Freeman, Gail Osherenko, Raoul R. Anderson, Richard A. Caulfield,

2629: 1707: 1607: 1436: 801: 2975: 3596: 3589: 3582: 3473: 3438: 3338: 3005: 2619: 2611: 2305:

Stockholm Action Plan, Recommendation 33, UN Doc. A/CONF.49/14/Rev.1, 11 I.L.M. 1421 (1972).

1752:

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, with Schedule of Whaling Regulations

1702: 1664: 1308: 1137:

area. This was shortly followed by an agreement between Japan and the United States in the

1100: 317: 266:

that maintain offices in more than three countries may also attend the meetings of the IWC.

173: 2689:

See Anthony D'Amato and Sudhir K. Chopra, "Whales: Their Emerging Right to Life" (1991) 85

3823: 2474: 1891: 1514: 1349: 1087:

In May 1994, the IWC also voted to create the 11,800,000-square-mile (31,000,000 km)

1021:

The IWC also holds occasional "special meetings" (there were five between 1949 and 2007).

826: 540: 496: 251: 3674: 3308: 2924: 2607: 2360: 172:, which is one of its stated goals, Japan is withdrawing its membership and will resume 3681: 2727:

T. R. Reid, "World Whaling Body Riven by Dispute; Norway Threatens to End Moratorium",

2624: 2591: 1997: 1540: 1384: 1134: 1084:

communities, which traditionally hunted whales until the imposition of the moratorium.

3032: 2071:

Rules of Procedure of the International Whaling Commission, IWC, P B(2)(a)-(b) (2000).

1622: 3906: 3755: 3635: 3181:

Pub. L. No. 96-61, § 3(a), 93 Stat. 407 (codified at 16 U.S.C. § 1821(e) (2) (1988)).

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Norwegian minke whale quotas (blue line, 1994–2006) and catches (red line, 1946–2005)

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in 1977 and 1981 identified many species of whales as being in danger of extinction.

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Summary of the 67th meeting of the International Whaling Commission - Final Outcome

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Pub. L. No. 92-219, 85 Stat. 786 (codified as amended at 22 U.S.C. § 1978 (1988)).

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Peter Bridgewater, Rakhyun E. Kim, Robert Blasiak, and Nikolas Sellheim. 2024.

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from July 2019, but will cease whaling activities in the Southern Hemisphere.

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The 1970s saw the beginning of the global anti-whaling movement. In 1972 the

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Dismantle ‘zombie’ wildlife protection conventions once their work is done

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The Sounding of the Whale: Science and Cetaceans in the Twentieth Century

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Eiriksson, Gudmundur, "The Legal and Political Position of NAMMCO", in

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countries, where hundreds of animal species are mortally endangered.

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complying with the 1974–1975 quotas. Similarly, in December 1978,

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IWC rejects Japan's proposal to lift commercial whale hunting ban

2477:. Denis Barnett. AFP. Published by Yahoo News. 13 September 2018. 2463: 2461: 2459: 3286:

The Origin of the U.S.–Japan Dispute over the Whaling Moratorium

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In Japan, conservative media outlets (the most vocal ones being

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The measure passed by 25 votes to seven, with five abstentions.

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http://news.inq7.net/world/index.php?index=1&story_id=41024

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Clapham, Phillip J.; Ivashchenko, Yulia V. (1 September 2016).

1869:"Japan to Resume Commercial Whaling, Defying International Ban" 192:

Member states of the International Whaling Commission (in blue)

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countries. Japan has given US$ 320 million in overseas aid to

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International Whaling Commission annual meetings since 2000

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List of the venues of the IWC's annual and special meetings

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Committee Meeting, before the Commission Meeting begins.

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Report of the Inaugural Meeting of the Council of NAMMCO

2742:"Insight: Conservationists' tactics now used by whalers" 3943:

International organisations based in the United Kingdom

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Greenpeace's claims of Japan's "vote-buying" on the IWC

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Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species

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International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

250:, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Slovakia, Slovenia, 198:

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

158:

International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling

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Intergovernmental organizations established by treaty

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voted with other pro-whaling countries. Austria, the

3029:"The future has to be that we create ONE Caribbean!" 69:

Specialised regional fishery management organization

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Euan McKirdy, Emiko Jozuka, Junko Ogura. 1618:The North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission 1204:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 223:Journal of Cetacean Research and Management 3353: 3339: 3331: 3321:People profiting from the issue of Whaling 2259: 2257: 2255: 1998:"The Finance and Administration Committee" 1253:the Plenary committee to agree on an RMS. 156:, established under the terms of the 1946 38: 31: 2623: 2337:International Whaling Commission Schedule 1894:. Iwcoffice.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-23. 1725: 1723: 1399:voted with other anti-whaling countries. 1224:Learn how and when to remove this message 221:, England. The Secretariat publishes the 3643:Subsistence hunting of the bowhead whale 1731:"IWC Member countries and commissioners" 1621: 603: 283: 187: 154:regional fishery management organisation 3266:. University of Chicago Press, 793 pp. 2819:"Japan admits buying allies on whaling" 1719: 1633:North Atlantic Marine Mammal Commission 1264:, are also generally against the RMS. 2666:"Time for peace in the whaling world?" 2278:. The International Whaling Commission 3928:Organisations based in Cambridgeshire 2691:American Journal of International Law 1405:The arguments for and against whaling 27:International body regulating whaling 7: 1202:adding citations to reliable sources 201:periodically review and revise the 3085:"So long, thanks for all the fish" 3004:. Vancouver Review. Archived from 2851:. 18 February 2007. Archived from 1822:Ethics & International Affairs 1435:At the London IWC meeting in 2001 1359:Environmental Investigation Agency 1166:Allegation of politicising science 213:The headquarters of the IWC is in 25: 3918:Organizations established in 1946 2361:"Did Greens help kill the whale?" 1424:exploitation of natural resources 3913:International Whaling Commission 3831:International Whaling Commission 3309:Caribbean call to resume whaling 2925:"How did the anti-whalers lose?" 2817:Watts, Jonathan (19 July 2001). 2404:Byers, David (8 February 2008). 1792:Catch Limits & Catches taken 1671: 1657: 1635:(NAMMCO) was established by the 1597:quota to which it had objected. 1342:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 1307:some governments claim that the 1174: 244:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 146:International Whaling Commission 33:International Whaling Commission 3113:"Whaling and gnashing of teeth" 2923:Black, Richard (19 June 2006). 2664:Black, Richard (19 June 2008). 2023:"Scientific Committee Handbook" 1824:. 29 March 2012. Archived from 260:intergovernmental organisations 3891:Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary 3845:Institute of Cetacean Research 3235:, App. III (10 September 1992) 3190:16 U.S.C. §§ 1801-1882 (1988). 3159:22 U.S.C. §§ 1979-1980 (1988). 3061:. 24 July 2001. Archived from 2952:. 20 June 2006. Archived from 2874:Hasell, Nick (23 April 2007). 2359:Black, Richard (16 May 2007). 1687:Institute of Cetacean Research 1095:2018 Florianópolis Declaration 1089:Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary 1069:been whaling commercially and 264:Non-governmental organisations 176:in its territorial waters and 1: 3884:South Pacific Whale Sanctuary 2798:. Living on Earth. 8 May 1998 2325:Pace International Law Review 2080:Note 6, P B(2)(a)-(b) (2000). 1564:The role of the United States 1560:, a similar management body. 1526:as "cockroaches of the sea". 1491:South Pacific Whale Sanctuary 1128:International Observer Scheme 205:, controlling the conduct of 3877:Indian Ocean Whale Sanctuary 3299:Official homepage of the IWC 2652:Ocean and Coastal Management 2602:(9). Royal Society: 160506. 2427:Stuart Biggs (30 May 2007). 1973:"The Conservation Committee" 1290:, a Japanese whaling vessel. 2529:Australian Treaties Library 3959: 3870:Australian Whale Sanctuary 3199:16 U.S.C. § 1821(e)(2)(A). 3055:"Whaling ban under threat" 2596:Royal Society Open Science 1113:Australian Whale Sanctuary 406:Cambridge, United Kingdom 398:Cambridge, United Kingdom 390:Cambridge, United Kingdom 203:Schedule to the Convention 79:International organization 3368: 3284:Masaru Nishikawa. 2020. " 1528:The Sydney Morning Herald 1309:Japanese Fisheries Agency 1119:Enforcement under the IWC 488:San Diego, United States 425:Brighton, United Kingdom 37: 3170:Environmental Law Report 2976:"Whaling - A bloody war" 2904:. Blogspot. 19 June 2006 2412:. London. Archived from 1912:ICRW, note 1, Art. V(2). 1890:26 December 2018 at the 1109:exclusive economic zones 184:Structure and membership 1299:, the then head of the 1284:are dragged aboard the 1280:An adult and sub-adult 360:London, United Kingdom 352:London, United Kingdom 344:London, United Kingdom 336:London, United Kingdom 328:London, United Kingdom 309:London, United Kingdom 178:exclusive economic zone 3121:. London. 19 June 2006 2731:, 15 May 1993, at A17. 2473:17 August 2022 at the 1948:"Scientific Committee" 1627: 1519: 1512: 1487: 1463: 1433: 1367: 1291: 1054: 193: 52:; 77 years ago 3622:Dolphin drive hunting 3576:Jarmann harpoon rifle 3288:." Diplomatic History 3220:Ecology Law Quarterly 3090:Sydney Morning Herald 2845:"Japan's vote buying" 1625: 1574:Secretary of Commerce 1517: 1279: 773:Saint Kitts and Nevis 236:Saint Kitts and Nevis 191: 3002:"Cetacean Fetishism" 2577:University of Oregon 2559:University of Oregon 2493:. 14 September 2018. 2453:, 4 June 1994, at 7. 1693:Whaling in Australia 1198:improve this section 50:2 December 1946 3035:on 22 November 2005 2956:on 11 February 2007 2648:Robert L. Friedheim 2616:10.1098/rsos.160506 2608:2016RSOS....360506C 2174:on 10 November 2018 1875:. 26 December 2018. 1856:. 26 December 2018. 1828:on 27 December 2017 1771:on 21 February 2007 1314:Antigua and Barbuda 1301:World Wildlife Fund 1139:North Pacific Ocean 1012:IWC meeting in 2018 987:IWC meeting in 2016 962:IWC meeting in 2014 937:IWC meeting in 2012 912:IWC meeting in 2011 887:IWC meeting in 2010 862:IWC meeting in 2009 832:IWC meeting in 2008 807:IWC meeting in 2007 782:IWC meeting in 2006 757:IWC meeting in 2005 606: 290:Host city, country 170:sustainable hunting 152:) is a specialised 118:Executive Secretary 34: 3933:Whale conservation 3923:Fisheries agencies 3852:Whale conservation 3615:Aboriginal whaling 3371:History of whaling 3118:Guardian Unlimited 3065:on 1 November 2007 2982:. 30 December 2003 2439:on 9 October 2007. 1873:The New York Times 1799:on 5 February 2012 1698:Whaling in Iceland 1628: 1603:Secretary of State 1520: 1395:, Switzerland and 1346:St Kitts and Nevis 1292: 604: 194: 174:commercial hunting 3900: 3899: 3569:Explosive harpoon 3430:Pacific Northwest 3400:Western Australia 3264:D. Graham Burnett 3172:10,044-47 (1975). 3008:on 6 January 2008 2776:on 7 October 2006 1708:Whaling in Norway 1608:Republic of China 1437:Sandra Lee-Vercoe 1234: 1233: 1226: 1019: 1018: 602: 601: 576:, United Kingdom 565:, United Kingdom 521:, United Kingdom 469:, United Kingdom 447:, United Kingdom 436:, United Kingdom 417:, United Kingdom 382:, United Kingdom 301:, United Kingdom 142: 141: 16:(Redirected from 3950: 3893: 3886: 3879: 3872: 3854: 3847: 3840: 3833: 3826: 3808: 3793: 3786: 3779: 3772: 3765: 3758: 3751: 3744: 3737: 3730: 3712: 3705: 3698: 3691: 3684: 3677: 3670: 3663: 3645: 3638: 3631: 3624: 3617: 3599: 3597:Two-flue harpoon 3592: 3590:Toggling harpoon 3585: 3583:One-flue harpoon 3578: 3571: 3553: 3546: 3539: 3532: 3525: 3518: 3511: 3504: 3497: 3490: 3483: 3476: 3469: 3462: 3455: 3448: 3441: 3432: 3425: 3418: 3411: 3402: 3395: 3388: 3355: 3348: 3341: 3332: 3236: 3229: 3223: 3216: 3210: 3206: 3200: 3197: 3191: 3188: 3182: 3179: 3173: 3166: 3160: 3157: 3151: 3148: 3142: 3137: 3131: 3130: 3128: 3126: 3109: 3103: 3102: 3100: 3098: 3081: 3075: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3051: 3045: 3044: 3042: 3040: 3031:. 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London 2825:. London 2670:BBC News 2634:27703712 2539:16 April 2471:Archived 1888:Archived 1854:CNN News 1651:See also 1505:— 1482:— 1458:— 1393:Slovakia 1381:Mongolia 1348:and the 1318:Dominica 1149:Politics 982:Portorož 978:Slovenia 957:Portorož 953:Slovenia 925:2–6 July 848:Portugal 827:Santiago 730:Sorrento 642:Adelaide 635:3–6 July 563:Aberdeen 532:, Japan 415:Brighton 369:Canberra 3749:Blubber 3735:Ambrein 3710:Trywork 3703:Try pot 3467:Iceland 3453:Germany 3362:Whaling 3209:(1982). 3059:CNN.com 2625:5043332 2604:Bibcode 2052:iwc.int 2027:iwc.int 2002:iwc.int 1977:iwc.int 1952:IWC.int 1927:iwc.int 1689:(Japan) 1645:Iceland 1330:Morocco 1322:Grenada 1206:removed 1191:sources 1071:Iceland 878:Morocco 856:Madeira 852:Funchal 704:Germany 587:, Oman 519:Glasgow 217:, near 207:whaling 127:Website 85:Purpose 55: ( 3763:Muktuk 3742:Baleen 3516:Russia 3502:Norway 3423:Canada 3416:Brazil 3276:Review 3270: 3254:Nature 2713:15 May 2632: 2622: 2389:10 May 2367:16 May 1775:8 July 1612:Taiwan 1554:Belize 1453:Brazil 1334:Panama 1326:Guinea 1156:NAMMCO 1003:Brazil 928:Panama 903:Jersey 882:Agadir 708:Berlin 664:London 585:Muscat 552:Dublin 299:London 107:(2020) 3791:Tabua 3474:Japan 3439:Chile 2886:5 May 2675:5 May 2385:. 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