1171:, a collaborationist unit that fought for Nazi Germany whose men were either Russian emigres living in Yugoslavia or the sons of these emigres. Thorpe wrote that strictly speaking the term "White Russian" described any Russian who fought on the White side in the Russian Civil War or those anti-Communist Russians who went into exile, but in British official circles in World War Two and in the British Army the term "White Russian" was used indiscriminately to describe any anti-Communist person from the territory of the modern Soviet Union, regardless if they were Russian or not. Thus, the British called the Vlasov Army "White Russians" even through General Andrei Vlasov and his men were all former Red Army POWs who had decided to fight for Germany. Thorpe argued that this blanket use of the term "White Russian" together with a lack of qualified officers who could speak Russian ensured that the British in 1945 did not make much effort to distinguish between those Cossacks living in the Soviet Union who had volunteered to fight for Germany vs. those Cossacks living in exile who had volunteered to fight for Germany. Thorpe further argued that Tolstoy seemed unaware of the way the British used the term "White Russian" in World War Two and as he uses the term "White Russian" in the more limited sense, he assumes that the British were consciously repatriating people whom they knew were not Soviet citizens.
1156:
1944-45 and
British policies on repatriation of people to the Soviet Union was dictated by the fear that Stalin might hold the British POWs as hostages. Morris argued that Churchill had a well founded belief that if the British granted asylum to the Cossacks, then the Soviets would not return the British POWs. Under the Yalta agreement, the Soviets were to repatriate American and British POWs that came into Red Army hands in exchange for the American and British governments repatriating people from the Soviet Union who fell into their hands. Morris argued that if Britain broke the terms of the Yalta Agreement by granting asylum to the Cossacks, then the Soviet Union might likewise break the terms of the Yalta agreement and refuse to repatriate the hundreds of thousands of British POWs whom the Germans had concentrated in POW camps in eastern Germany (it was German policy to build POW camps in eastern Germany as it made it more difficult for POWs who escaped to reach western Europe). Morris also maintained that since the Cossacks had fought for Germany, it was unreasonable to expect Churchill to sacrifice thousands of British POWs just to save them. As it was, the British POWs in Soviet hands were returned to the United Kingdom "humanely and expeditiously".
1136:
Aldington had made
Tolstoy into a "national martyr", and felt that the case showed a need for reforming English libel law. Booker described the British media as suffering from a "Cleverdick Culture", accusing most journalists of being overtly motivated by the need to increase sales in a very competitive business via sensationalistic stories intended to promote public outrage and of being excessively credulous, especially about topics in which the journalists knew little, thus leading journalists to accept the Tolstoy thesis uncritically. Booker noted that the BBC produced nine television or radio documentaries that largely accepted Tolstoy's allegations at face value, which he saw as an example of the "Cleverdick Culture". By contrast, Ian Mitchell in his 1997 book
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evening; some
Cossacks were worried, but the British reassured them that everything was in order. One British officer told the Cossacks, "I assure you, on my word of honour as a British officer, that you are just going to a conference". However, no hard evidence exists for any such guarantees or promises. By then British–Cossack relationships were friendly to the extent that many on both sides had developed feelings for one another. The Lienz Cossack repatriation was exceptional, because the Cossacks forcefully resisted their repatriation to the USSR; one Cossack allegedly noted, "The
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least in part an effort to calm down a very tense situation. Knight maintained that the
British wanted to clear Austria of all the vast number of prisoners they had taken to free up soldiers now struck guarding the prisoners for a possible war with Yugoslavia and to improve relations by returning peoples who were the enemies of the Yugoslav and Soviet governments. Both the Yugoslav and Soviet governments believed the British were intending to use Axis collaborationist forces such as the Cossack corps against them. To help resolve the raging controversy, Brigadier
1048:, whose conclusions largely echoed those reached by Knight in 1986 that British policy in Austria was largely governed by preparations for a possible war with Yugoslavia and perhaps the Soviet Union as well. About Tolstoy's allegations that Macmillan was a major war criminal, the Cowgill committee concluded that Macmillan's role in the repatriations was very small and largely dictated by military considerations. During its investigation, the Cowgill committee found copies of British documents that were not available in the
535:(later Lord Aldington) who was the chief of staff to the British forces issued an order stating "individual cases will not be considered unless particularly pressed ... In all cases of doubt, the individual will be treated as a Soviet national". As result of this policy, citizens of many countries were sent to USSR as "Soviet citizens" in a hasty operation and no right to appeal. In Tolstoy's description, even people displaying a French passport or British First World War medals were handed over to Soviets.
1111:"In Moscow, as among most people who had knowledge and experience of Russia, we were appalled to learn rather late in the day that we were forcibly returning White Russians and others who did not hold Soviet citizenship to the Soviet Union. It was all the more misguided because the Soviet side at first did not lay any claim to them. As far as I recall, Golikov did not initially refer to them at all. On the contrary, the Soviet side at first said and wrote that their concern was
735:, a mass partial amnesty (Amnesty of 1953) was granted for some labor camp inmates on 27 March 1953 with the end of the Gulag system. It was then extended on 17 September 1955. Some specific political crimes were omitted from amnesty: people convicted under Section 58.1(c) of the Criminal Code, stipulating that in the event of a military man escaping Russia, every adult member of his family who abetted the escape or who knew of it would be subject to five to ten years'
867:. The 1970s were a period when détente had become fashionable in some quarters and many on the right believed the West was losing the Cold War. The subject of the repatriations in 1945 were used by a variety of right-wing authors in the 1970s-1980s as a symbol of both of the malevolence of the Soviet Union and of a "craven" policy towards the Soviet Union alleged to have been pursued by the successive American and British governments since the Second World War.
1807:, pp. 124-125: "In a second telegram sent to Combined Chiefs of Staff, Alexander asked for guidelines regarding the final disposition of '50,000 Cossacks including 11,000 women, children and old men; present estimate of total 35,000 Chetniks – 11,000 of them already evacuated to Italy – and 25,000 German and Croat units.' In each of above cases 'return them to their country of origin immediately might be fatal to their health'."
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960:; Tolstoy has suggested several times that Aldington wanted the patronage of Macmillan, a rising star in the Conservative Party, and would do anything that might please Macmillan such as repatriating the Cossacks in accordance with his wishes. In response, Aldington sued Watts for libel, and Tolstoy insisted on being included as a defendant, seeing a chance to promote his cause.
482:, and then executed. On 17 January 1947 Krasnov and Shkuro were hanged in a public square. Gen. Helmuth von Pannwitz of the Wehrmacht, who was instrumental in the formation and leadership of the Cossacks taken from German POW camps to fight the Soviets, decided to share the Cossacks' Soviet repatriation and was executed for war crimes, along with five Cossack generals and
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1127:, in which he wrote: "there was almost no part of the story which we found to be free from serious error, even to the point where atrocities and massacres described at length were found not to have taken place at all. Even the general belief that most of the Cossacks had died after their return to the Soviet Union turned out to be a wild exaggeration". In a review of
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British intellectual whose fund-raising help build the monument accused "the
British government and their advisors of merciless inhumanity", and ignoring the fact that Churchill was a Conservative went on to blame the repatriations on "the hypocrisy and feebleness of progressive leftists who turned a blind eye to the communist enslavement of Eastern Europe."
845:"He turned over to the Soviet command the Cossack corps of 90,000 men. Along with them, he also handed over many wagonloads of old people, women and children who did not want to return to their native Cossack rivers. This great hero, monuments to whom will in time cover all England, ordered that they, too, be surrendered to their deaths."
569:, Austria, there was a memorial commemorating General von Pannwitz and the soldiers of the XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps who were killed in action or died as POWs. This memorial was removed in September 2021 because of the connection between General von Pannwitz and both the SA and the SS, as well as his loyalty to the Nazi regime.
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their bare hands. They started – with considerable success – to destroy the ship's engines. ... A sergeant ... mixed barbiturates into their coffee. Soon, all of the prisoners fell into a deep, coma-like sleep. It was in this condition that the prisoners were brought to another Soviet boat for a speedy return to Stalin's hangmen.
823:, which was also turned into a BBC documentary that aired the same year. Bethell was critical of the repatriation, accusing the British government of "intentionally over-fulfilling" the Yalta agreement by handing over people who were not Soviet citizens, but was careful in his treatment of the evidence.
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Between 2 October-30 November 1989, the much publicised libel trial of
Tolstoy vs. Aldington took place and ended with the jury ruling in the favour of the latter and awarding him £1.5 million. The judgement, which forced Tolstoy into bankruptcy, was widely criticized as excessive and unfair. The way
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in his 1986 article "Harold
Macmillan and the Cossacks: Was There A Klagenfurt Conspiracy?" accused Tolstoy of scholarly misconduct, writing that in May 1945 British policy in Austria was dictated by Operation Beehive, which entitled preparing for a possible war with Yugoslavia and perhaps the Soviet
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that carried out the repatriation. In consultation with
Tolstoy, Watts wrote and published a pamphlet accusing Aldington of war crimes for his involvement in repatriating the Cossacks. In 1945, Toby Low (as Aldington then was known) was planning after leaving the Army to enter politics by running as
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in their magazine published a cover story with a photo of
Macmillan from 1945 with the question "Guilty of War Crimes?" The question was rhetorical as the article accepted Tolstoy's charges against Macmillan and sought to link his "one nation conservatism" with a policy of weakness towards the Soviet
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Reflecting the increased popular interest in the subject of the repatriations, which had become by the early 1980s to be a symbol of western "pusillanimity" towards the Soviet Union, a monument was unveiled in London on 6 March 1982 to "all the victims of Yalta". John
Joliffe, a conservative Catholic
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One of the core controversies that led to popular outcry and protests was the British command attitude to establishing Soviet citizenship per Yalta agreement, as the camp contained a broad mix of citizens of various countries, including those who left USSR long before the war and obtained citizenship
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and the Cossack National Center chairman Vasily Glazkov, all publicly praised the German campaign. Despite this outpouring of support, Hitler and other top officials initially denied Cossack émigrés from having any military or political role in the war against the Soviets. It was not until 1942 when
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The British historian Edwyn Morris in his 2008 essay "The Repatriation of the Cossacks from Austria in 1945" argued that for Churchill a major concern in 1945 was securing the return of all the British POWs in German POW camps who had fallen into Soviet hands as the Red Army advanced into Germany in
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The first to commit suicide, by hanging, was the Cossack editor Evgenij Tarruski. The second was General Silkin, who shot himself...The Cossacks refused to board the trucks. British soldiers with pistols and clubs began using their clubs, aiming at the heads of the prisoners. They first dragged the
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for treason, and hoped for a better outcome by surrendering to the Western Allies, such as to the British and Americans. However, after being taken prisoner by the Allies, they were packed into small trains. Unbeknownst to them, they were sent east to Soviet territories. Many men, women and children
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alleging a conspiracy led by Macmillan to deliberately hand over refugees from the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia knowing full well they would be executed. As Macmillan went on to serve as prime minister between 1957 and 1963, Tolstoy's allegations attracted tremendous attention in Britain while also
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and during the course of the interview Kennedy asked several questions about the Cossack repatriation in 1945. Macmillan seems to have been taken by surprise by Kennedy's questions, and the defensive tone of his answers certainly gave public the impression that he had something to hide. Several of
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First, they refused to leave their barracks when ordered to do so. The military police then used tear gas, and, half-dazed, the prisoners were driven under heavy guard to the harbor where they were forced to board a Soviet vessel. Here the two hundred immediately started to fight. They fought with
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and posts, their administration, churches, schools and military units. There, they fought the partisans and persecuted the local population, committing numerous atrocities. The measures, consisting of clearing the Italian inhabitants of the area from their homes and taking stern steps not to allow
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in 1944–1945, meaning no-one had any sympathy for them. By contrast, Major Hugh Lunghi who served as part of the British Military Mission in Moscow during World War Two and was closely involved in the talks to repatriate British POWs taken prisoner by the Germans who had been liberated by the Red
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while Britain supported retaining Trieste within Italy. As Yugoslavia was a Soviet ally in 1945, there were very real fears at the time that an Anglo-Yugoslav war could easily escalate into an Anglo-Soviet war. Knight argued that the forced repatriations in Austria undertaken in May 1945 were at
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media alike as argument raged over the merits of combatants in a struggle over who might have done what over a few days in 1945. The case of "the Cossacks" has been perhaps the single most prominent example of historical investigation to be turned into journalism, not only in acres of newsprint
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did not deal specifically with the repatriation of the Cossacks, instead dealing with the repatriation of people to the Soviet Union in general, the book increased popular interest in the subject, as did his claim that Anglo-American policy towards the Soviet Union was driven in a fundamentally
543:
On 28 May 1945 the British Army arrived at Camp Peggetz, in Lienz, where there were 2,479 Cossacks, including 2,201 officers and soldiers. They allegedly went to invite the Cossacks to an important conference with British officials, informing them that they would return to Lienz by 18:00 that
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alleged that four of the six massacres of Cossacks by the NKVD described by Tolstoy never took place and: "Of the Cossacks repatriated to Russia, few were actually killed; horrendous as their privations were, the vast majority survived the Gulag." Horne argued that the "absurd" sum awarded to
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wrote on 19 October 1990: "As Cowgill shows, Macmillan was telling the truth; that he had merely advised officers on the ground that Allied policy under the Yalta agreement was to hand back the Cossacks and he had, like everybody else, had been unaware that a large number of them were Russian
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The Cossack officers, more politically aware than the enlisted men, expected that repatriation to the USSR would be their ultimate fate. They believed the British would have sympathised with their anti-Communism, but were unaware that their fates had been decided at the Yalta Conference. Upon
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men out of the crowd, and threw them into the trucks. The men jumped out. They beat them again, and threw them onto the floor of the trucks. Again, they jumped out. The British then hit them with rifle butts until they lay unconscious, and threw them, like sacks of potatoes, in the trucks.
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supplied Aldington with certain documents that were denied to Tolstoy has been an especially controversial aspect of the trial, and Tolstoy continues to maintain that he was a victim of "the Establishment". Tolstoy retained a loyal set of defenders consisting of the Conservative MP
471:—to a nearby Red Army-held town and handed them over to the Red Army commanding general, who ordered them tried for treason. Many Cossack leaders had never been citizens of the Soviet Union, having fled revolutionary Russia in 1920; hence they believed they could not be guilty of
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before the establishment of the USSR, all Cossack prisoners of war were later demanded. After Yalta, Churchill questioned Stalin, asking, "Did the Cossacks and other minorities fight against us?" Stalin replied, "They fought with ferocity, not to say savagery, for the Germans".
1119:
In April 1995, Nigel Watts was sentenced to 18 months in prison for repeating the libel that Aldington was a war criminal in a pamphlet. The sentence was reduced to nine months on appeal. In June 1995, Watts was released from prison after issuing a public apology to Aldington.
925:. The "one nation conservatives" such as Macmillan were often disparaged as the "wets" by the so-called "drys" who represented the right-wing of the Conservative Party. In November 1984, Macmillan gave a much publicized speech in which he called the privatization plans of the
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Macmillan's statements such as he felt no guilt because the Cossacks were "rebels against Russia", "not friends of ours" and most damaging of all "the Cossacks were practically savages" did not help his reputation. In 1986, Tolstoy followed up his 1983 article with the book
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Of those Cossacks who escaped repatriation, many hid in forests and mountainsides, some were hidden by the local German populace, but most hid in different identities as Latvians, Poles, Yugoslavians, Turks, Armenians and even Ethiopians. Eventually they were admitted to
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sinister and conspiratorial way, punishing the alleged friends of the West such as the Vlasov Army and the Cossacks while rewarding its enemies such as the Soviet Union. Solzhenitsyn describes the forced repatriation of the Cossacks by Winston Churchill as follows:
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that the overwhelming feeling shared by himself and other British Army officers in Austria in 1945 was that the Cossacks had willingly fought for Nazi Germany and had committed terrible atrocities against Italian civilians while fighting against
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Another Cossack group whose fate became tied with the Germans consisted of approximately 25,000 Cossack refugees and irregulars who evacuated the North Caucasus alongside the Wehrmacht in 1943. This group, known as "Cossachi Stan", migrated from
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agreement to the repatriation of every so-called "Soviet" citizen held prisoner because the Allied leaders feared that the Soviets either might delay or refuse repatriation of the Allied POWs whom the Red Army had liberated from Nazi POW camps.
809:
featured an image taken from a Nazi propaganda poster showing a demonical ape dressed in a Red Army uniform surrounded by fire and brimstone reaching out towards Europe. The first book about the subject published on official documentation was
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of the Kuban Host, documented the event. Neither the books of Mackiewicz or Naumenko were translated into English for decades after their publication and hence were almost completely ignored in the English-speaking world. The two volumes of
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On 1 June 1945 the UK placed 32,000 Cossacks (with their women and children) into trains and trucks and delivered them to the Red Army for repatriation to the Soviets; similar repatriations occurred that year in the US occupation zones in
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411:
It was in the context of the wish to remain on good terms with Stalin that, according to Edward Peterson, the US chose to hand over several hundred thousand German prisoners to the Soviet Union in May 1945 as a "gesture of friendship".
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accused the Cowgill committee of a "whitewash", and maintained that Tolstoy's claims that Britain had willfully sent thousands of people to their deaths in the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia was still correct. Cowgill sued Harris and the
934:(EEC) as the European Union (EU) was then called. Through Britain did not join the EEC until 1973, it was Macmillan who as a prime minister first applied to have Britain join the EEC in July 1961, which was ended in January 1963 when
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government “selling off the family silver”, which made him into a hate figure for the "dry" Conservatives. Additionally, many people on the right-wing of the Conservative Party were passionately opposed to British membership of the
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Most of those Cossacks and Russians fought the Allies, specifically the Soviets, committing several atrocities, and in some cases, terrorising Soviet civilians while posing as Red Army advance units in Red Army uniforms in the
527:
ordering that "any person who is not (repeat not) a Soviet citizen under British law must not (repeat not) be sent back to the Soviet Union unless he expressly desires", which was ignored by the British command on the ground.
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kept the Cossacks in a hastily established camp. For a few days the British supplied them with food; meanwhile, the Red Army's advance units approached to within a few miles east, rapidly advancing to meet the Allies.
158:. However, forced repatriations included non-combatant civilians. Motivations varied, but the primary reasons were the brutal repression of Cossacks by the Soviet government, e.g., the portioning of the lands of the
858:
in 1977, which was described by a critical historian, D.R. Thrope, as "a work of considerable scholarship". Tolstoy describes this and other events resulting from the Yalta Conference as the "Secret Betrayal" (cf.
1556:, Wayne State Univ Press, 1978, pp. 116, "Some hundreds of thousands who had fled to the Americans to avoid being taken prisoner by the Russians were turned over in May to the Red Army in a gesture of friendship."
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In 1985, a British businessman named Nigel Watts became involved in a lengthy and bitter dispute over an insurance claim for the previous ten years with the Sun Alliance insurance company, whose chairman was
993:, a journalist well known for his conservative views. Cowgill believed that the honour of the British Army had been smeared, but Booker was a supporter of Tolstoy when he joined the committee in 1986.
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of France vetoed the British application. For many people on the British right, Macmillan is viewed as something alike to a traitor because of the 1961 application to join the EEC. In 1986, the
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came close to accusing Tolstoy of scholarly misconduct, stating that the "White Russians" that Macmillan mentioned in his diary in 1945 were not the Cossacks as Tolstoy claimed, but rather the
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and from farther afield Solzhenitsyn, who was living in exile in the United States at the time. The Tolstoy vs. Aldington case attracted much publicity as the British journalist
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Following the departure of troops from Newlands Corner Camp to D-Day landings, those deemed to be Soviet citizens were held at the camp pending their forcible repatriation.
634:, in the United States; three committed suicide in the US and seven were injured, with three being shot. Epstein states that the prisoners put up considerable resistance:
914:, who was never a criminal. The man who deserved hanging was Harold Macmillan for sentencing all those Poles and Russians who were sent back after the war". The novelist
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that Macmillan gave the orders to repatriate all Cossacks regardless if they were Soviet citizens or not. On 11 December 1984, Macmillan was interviewed on the BBC by
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and other Cossack leaders had persuaded Hitler to allow Cossack troops, as well as civilians and non-combatant Cossacks, to permanently settle in the sparsely settled
295:
field commanders had utilized Cossack defectors from the Red Army since the summer of 1941. In early 1943, most of the Cossack units fighting in alliance with the
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discovering that they would be repatriated, many escaped, some probably aided by their Allied captors; some passively resisted, and others killed themselves.
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1057:
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in 1973 by the Austrian-born American author Julius Epstein, which was based on U.S. sources and primarily dealt with the American role in the repatriation.
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The Russian Cossacks of XV Cossack Cavalry Corps, stationed in Yugoslavia since 1943, were part of the column headed for Austria that would take part in the
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claimed that the prisoners were Soviet citizens as of 1939, although there were many of them that had left the country before or soon after the end of the
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has been republished several times in Polish, but has apparently never been translated into English. The first book written in English on the subject was
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719:. Others went to any country that would admit them (e.g., Germany, Austria, France and Italy). Most Cossacks hid their true national identity until the
2824:
Jeremy Murray-Brown, Documentary at Boston University (Describes the extradition event in great detail, focusing on a 7-minute film-clip of the event.)
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1910:"Photo and collated descriptions of Newlands Corner Camp, where Cossacks and Soviet citizens were held till repatriation, by Albury History Society"
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586:, Austria; of those in custody, some ten officers and 50–60 Cossacks escaped the guards' cordon with hand grenades, and hid in the nearby woods.
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and other British officials to hand over the Cossacks. In his article, Tolstoy alleged that on 13 May 1945 in a meeting in the Austrian city of
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1115:. We knew very well what his, that is, Stalin's priority and why. The Cossacks and the others were a late icing on the cake for Stalin"."
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because of "the British betrayal and Stalin's execution squads", the latter of which he and his family had survived, but, tormented by
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Army, remained highly critical of the decision to repatriate the Cossacks. Lunghi who worked closely with the "very ruthless" General
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repatriated by the British and Americans in 1945, a policy which he portrayed as craven and self-defeating. Though Solzhenitsyn in
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The subject of the repatriation was largely unknown in the English-speaking world until 1974 when Lord Bethell published his book
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on 22 June 1941, several anticommunist Cossack leaders, including Kuban ataman Naumenko, Terek ataman Vdovenko, former Don ataman
125:, many Cossacks forces with civilians in tow retreated to Western Europe. Their goal was to avoid capture and imprisonment by the
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2557:[An addition to the research of the problem of Bleiburg and the Way of the Cross (dedicated to their 60th anniversary)].
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There was a political edge to the attacks on Macmillan, who represented the left-wing of the Conservative Party, the so-called "
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The Cost of a Reputation: Aldington versus Tolstoy : the Causes, Course and Consequences of the Notorious Libel Case
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partisans from the hills to “pass through alive” in the area, led the Italians to use the epithet “Barbarian Cossacks.”
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devoted to the story and based upon several books on the subject, but also in a programme in the BBC historical series,
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The British transported the Cossacks to a prison where they were handed over to the waiting Soviets. In the town of
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510:(see below). In total, some two million people were repatriated to the Soviets at the end of the Second World War.
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Thousands of Russians, many of them Cossacks, were transported at the height of armed hostilities in 1944 to
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Knight Robert "Transnational memory from Bleiburg to London (via Buenos Aires and Grozny)" pages 39-53 from
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Knight Robert "Transnational memory from Bleiburg to London (via Buenos Aires and Grozny)" pages 39-53 from
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Knight Robert "Transnational memory from Bleiburg to London (via Buenos Aires and Grozny)" pages 39-53 from
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Knight Robert "Transnational memory from Bleiburg to London (via Buenos Aires and Grozny)" pages 39-53 from
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and the Defence ministry had deprived Tolstoy of documents that had been helpful to him at this trial.
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The Last Secret: The Delivery to Stalin of Over Two Million Russians by Britain and the United States
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Although repatriations mainly occurred in Europe, 154 Cossacks were repatriated to the Soviets from
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On 28 May 1945 the British transported 2,046 disarmed Cossack officers and generals—including the
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178:. General Poliakov and Colonel Chereshneff referred to it as the "massacre of Cossacks at Lienz".
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After four years of investigation, in October 1990 the Cowgill committee published its report,
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1349:(in Russian). Translated by Dritschilo, William. New York City: All Slavic Publishing House.
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argued that there had been an "Establishment" conspiracy against Tolstoy, claiming that the
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399:, determined the fates of the Cossacks who did not fight for the Soviets, because many were
380:
332:
139:
65:
2387:"Two new studies quarrel violently over a wartime tragedy and the legal battle it provoked"
3119:
2694:
2529:
2067:
by Charles Scribner, New York, and has been reissued in a Kindle edition under the title,
1283:
1241:
1011:
982:
973:
895:
851:
599:
507:
768:, which was published in Polish in London in 1957. Subsequently, in two volumes entitled
1187:
In Lienz, Austria, there is an 18-gravestone cemetery commemorating the "Tragedy of the
229:
The Cossacks who remained in Russia endured more than a decade of continual repression,
3061:
2907:
2877:
1309:
1233:
1229:
1213:
1132:
1104:
1056:, a gay American diplomat who donated all of his personal papers from his death to the
1015:
1003:
520:
416:
234:
215:
211:
191:
159:
972:
Union. In May 1945, the Trieste crisis almost caused an Anglo-Yugoslav war as Marshal
3149:
3081:
3076:
3056:
3051:
3041:
2999:
1268:
1237:
1220:), known as "Janus", the son of "Lienz Cossacks". Janus plots the destruction of the
1023:
1007:
915:
864:
732:
648:
Cossacks were included in the hundreds who were repatriated to the Soviet Union from
468:
455:
ordered the Cossacks to leave Carnia and go north to Austria. There, near Lienz, the
448:
428:
392:
280:
238:
198:. As the Soviets emerged victorious in the civil war, many Cossack veterans, fearing
163:
143:
2032:
The Gulag Archipelago 1918–1956: An Experiment in Literary Investigation, Parts I–II
552:
would have slain us with truncheons, the British did it with their word of honour."
415:
Although the agreement for the deportation of all "Soviet" citizens did not include
2984:
2555:"Prilog istraživanju problema Bleiburga i križnih putova (u povodu 60. obljetnice)"
2000:
1584:
1504:
Newland, Samuel, Cossacks in the German Army (Portland: Frank Cass, 1991) 112 - 121
1090:
736:
456:
436:
288:
openly began employing Cossack émigrés for propaganda and administrative purposes.
272:
135:
118:
114:
110:
660:
Several hundred Cossacks were repatriated to the Soviet Union from camps close to
801:, but attracted little attention because of Huxley-Blythe's involvement with the
1160:
253:. The repressions ceased and some privileges were restored after publication of
2667:
Vlasov and the Russian Liberation Movement: Soviet Reality and Émigré Theories.
1179:
906:
causing immense controversy. The architectural historian and interior designer
664:
in 1947. Some 100 Cossacks perished in resistance to forcible repatriations at
218:. In exile, they formed their own anti-communist organisations or joined other
2506:
2477:
1031:
985:
formed a committee consisting of himself; a former diplomat and "Russia hand"
891:
631:
524:
336:
312:
106:
16:
Repatriation of anti-Soviet ethnic Russians and Ukrainians to the Soviet Union
2606:
2574:
2352:
582:
On 1–2 June 18,000 Cossacks were handed over to the Soviets near the town of
1278:
1217:
1208:
1037:
649:
583:
320:
292:
203:
190:(1917–1923), Cossack leaders and their governments generally sided with the
291:
While top Nazi officials were slow to embrace anticommunist Cossacks, some
194:. As a result, the majority of Cossack soldiers were mobilized against the
776:) published in 1962 and 1970 by a Russian language publisher in New York,
874:
In May 1983, Tolstoy published an article "The Klagenfurt Conspiracy" in
681:
627:
566:
440:
344:
199:
195:
126:
102:
98:
1768:
715:
under assumed names and nationalities; many emigrated to the US per the
519:
of other countries long before, or never were Soviet nationals. British
2511:
2482:
1643:, reports various estimates, of which this number is among the highest.
977:
669:
549:
503:
495:
491:
472:
464:
1236:) says of the repatriation, "Not exactly our finest hour", though the
1077:
agreeing to donate to a charity of Cowgill's choice, in this case the
847:
The man who led and supervised the entire operation was Major Davies.
760:(1974). The first book written about the subject appears to have been
684:
in an operation that also led to the sinking of the German battleship
1191:". Many of the gravestones mark mass graves holding unknown numbers.
665:
661:
615:
483:
479:
432:
1026:
wrote: "From 1989 to 1993 a historical investigation became news in
506:, and many died; some, however, escaped, and others lived until the
478:
Some were executed immediately. High-ranking officers were tried in
2063:, Hodder and Stoughton, London, was reprinted in the US in 1978 as
2050:
Solzhenitsyn, A. (2018). The Gulag Archipelago. Random House. p.140
1188:
1178:
499:
352:
348:
131:
53:
1244:) replies "Still, ruthless people – they got what they deserved".
150:
or had been born abroad, hence never holding Soviet citizenship.
2566:
611:
545:
307:. Later that year, the Cossack cavalry division was deployed to
2831:
1713:
Rayment, Tim (1996-04-07). "The Massacre & The Ministers".
1585:"I Cosacchi in Italia, 1944–'45 Atti dei Convegni di Verzegnis"
918:
publicly stated: "Harold Macmillan, he's a murderer you know".
2069:
Victims of Yalta: The Secret Betrayal of the Allies, 1944-1947
1443:
Major General of the General Staff Poliakov (September 1949).
400:
2226:
2224:
2873:
Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia (KONR)
2569:, Croatia: City Museum Senj - Senj Museum Society: 117–193.
598:, and they are estimated to have numbered in the thousands.
134:
prison camps, where some were brutally worked to death. The
951:. In 1945, Lord Aldington had served as chief of staff of
375:: Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin at the Yalta conference.
245:
hosts, forced cultural assimilation and repression of the
170:
hosts, forced cultural assimilation and repression of the
2424:
2422:
2420:
2321:
2319:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2286:
2284:
2270:
2268:
2266:
2161:
2159:
2157:
1073:
for libel and the case was settled out of court with the
2795:
Flucht in die Hoffnungslosigkeit-Die Kosaken in Osttirol
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2130:
2128:
2114:
2112:
2110:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1093:, a veteran turned Conservative MP wrote in his memoirs
2591:"Kaznenopravni i povijesni aspekti bleiburškog zločina"
614:, British forces repatriated around 40,000 Cossacks to
319:. In late 1944, the division was incorporated into the
1587:(in Italian). I libri di Cjargne Online. 30 June 2023.
1274:
Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II
2013:
2011:
2009:
826:
The year 1974 also saw the publication in English of
789:
were first translated into English in 2015 and 2018.
1247:
These events provide the historical context for the
2972:
2916:
2865:
2793:Harald Stadler/Martin Kofler/Karl C.Berger (2005).
2682:
The Cossack Struggle Against Communism, 1917 - 1945
79:
71:
60:
44:
36:
3191:American collusion with Soviet World War II crimes
2818:Gordon Dritschilo, rutlandherald.com, 30 June 2005
1471:The Cossack Struggle Against Communism 1917 – 1945
3161:British collusion with Soviet World War II crimes
1733:The Cossack Struggle Against Communism, 1917-1945
752:The event was documented in publications such as
976:of Yugoslavia laid claim to the Italian city of
2643:. (Translation by William Dritschilo of (1970)
2624:. (Translation by William Dritschilo of (1962)
1391:. (Translation by William Dritschilo of (1970)
636:
558:
2260:, Milton Park, Taylor & Francis 2000 p.240
2247:, Milton Park, Taylor & Francis 2000 p.250
1981:, Milton Park, Taylor & Francis 2000 p.243
1973:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1664:"Repatriation – The Dark Side of World War II"
3156:Aftermath of World War II in the Soviet Union
2859:Russian collaborationism with the Axis powers
2843:
2177:
2175:
2096:
2094:
2092:
2090:
1148:was a book privately printed and paid for by
451:to the Italian Alps, Italian partisans under
8:
2445:, New York: Random House, 2010 pages 220-221
2234:, New York: Random House, 2010 pages 221-222
1513:Mueggenberg, 243 – 244, 252 – 254, 276 - 283
1060:in Washington. In a column published in the
694:Newlands Corner Camp, Surrey, United Kingdom
19:
2218:, New York: Random House, 2010 page 221-221
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1649:
1410:
1408:
1289:German prisoners of war in the Soviet Union
1107:recalled in an interview on 19 March 2009:
910:wrote in his diary: "It was wicked to hang
2850:
2836:
2828:
1438:
1436:
1212:(1995) involves the resentment of villain
18:
2647:, All Slavic Publishing House, New York)
2628:, All Slavic Publishing House, New York)
2601:(85). Zagreb, Croatia: Pravnik: 125–150.
1395:, All Slavic Publishing House, New York)
1232:, leaving Alec orphaned. Bond (played by
3135:National Alliance of Russian Solidarists
2964:30th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS
2432:, New York: Random House, 2010 pages 220
2414:, New York: Random House, 2010 pages 229
2380:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2329:, New York: Random House, 2010 pages 228
2307:, New York: Random House, 2010 pages 225
2294:, New York: Random House, 2010 pages 227
2278:, New York: Random House, 2010 pages 226
2169:, New York: Random House, 2010 pages 221
1769:"Tristach: SS-Gedenkstein wird entfernt"
1368:
1366:
366:
2669:Cambridge: Cambridge University Press;
2205:, New York: Random House, 2010 page 222
2151:, New York: Random House, 2010 page 224
2138:, New York: Random House, 2010 page 223
2122:, New York: Random House, 2010 page 220
2034:. Harper & Row, 1974. pp. 259–260;
1523:
1521:
1519:
1331:
1095:Aftermath of War: Everyone Must Go Home
886:" for the Mediterranean, Field Marshal
1473:(Jefferson: McFarland, 2019) 170 – 189
1316:Swedish extradition of Baltic soldiers
1046:The Repatriations from Austria in 1945
210:policies, fled abroad to countries in
3186:People extradited to the Soviet Union
3181:Soviet Union–United Kingdom relations
2747:Cossacks in the German Army 1941–1945
2701:. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons;
2443:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2430:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2412:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2385:Horne, .Alistair (22 November 1997).
2327:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2305:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2292:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2276:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2232:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2216:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2203:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2167:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2149:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2136:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
2120:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
1997:Supermac The Life of Harold Macmillan
1726:
1724:
1683:
1681:
1495:(London: Macmillan, 1981) pp. 298–302
64:Fulfillment of the conditions of the
7:
2732:The Cossacks: An Illustrated History
2684:Jefferson: McFarland & Company;
1530:The Cossacks: An Illustrated History
1337:
1335:
3176:Post–World War II forced migrations
1662:Hornberger, Jacob G. (April 1995).
1123:In 1997, Booker published his book
940:Federation of Conservative Students
622:Fort Dix, New Jersey, United States
556:described the scene that occurred:
249:, deportation and, ultimately, the
233:the portioning of the lands of the
174:, deportation and, ultimately, the
2883:National Socialist Party of Russia
2589:Vuletić, Dominik (December 2007).
1935:"Russia From Stalin To Khrushchev"
1554:The American Occupation of Germany
1373:Chereshneff, Colonel W.V. (1952),
1240:boss Valentin Zukovsky (played by
878:magazine alleging a conspiracy by
83:45,000–50,000 Cossacks repatriated
14:
3171:History of the Cossacks in Russia
2553:Dizdar, Zdravko (December 2005).
1851:Ledeen, Michael A (1 June 2000).
1816:
1804:
956:a Conservative candidate for the
498:. Most Cossacks were sent to the
351:), and was forced to withdraw to
2816:Return to the scene of the crime
1792:
1532:. London, UK: Gerald Duckworth.
1417:Kazachestvo Istoriya Volnoy Rusi
1304:Russian Monument (Liechtenstein)
863:), for going unpublished in the
447:When the Allies progressed from
419:emigres who had fled during the
123:European theatre of World War II
2959:1st SS Special Regiment Waräger
1445:"Massacre of Cossacks at Lienz"
2949:Russian National People's Army
2535:The Minister and the Massacres
2478:"Goldeneye Valentine Zukovsky"
1690:The Minister and the Massacres
1081:. By contrast, the journalist
965:The Minister and the Massacres
902:The Minister and the Massacres
514:Soviet citizenship controversy
403:of the Nazis. Stalin obtained
301:First Cossack Cavalry Division
130:were subsequently sent to the
1:
3115:Eastern Front of World War II
2903:Russian People's Labour Party
2645:Великое Предательство, Том ІІ
2639:Naumenko, Gen. V. G. (2018).
2620:Naumenko, Gen. V. G. (2011).
1393:Великое Предательство, Том ІІ
1387:Naumenko, Gen. V. G. (2018).
1230:killed his wife, then himself
1052:among the personal papers of
797:(1964) by the British author
602:quotes a telegram by General
303:under the command of General
75:United Kingdom, United States
2939:1st Cossack Cavalry Division
2764:. Lagavulin: Topical Books;
2734:. London: Gerald Duckworth;
1855:. AEI Online. Archived from
1853:"It Didn't Start with Elian"
1253:episode "The Russian House".
363:Yalta and Tehran Conferences
277:invasion of the Soviet Union
91:repatriation of the Cossacks
20:Repatriation of the Cossacks
2944:First Russian National Army
2934:XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps
2665:Catherine Andreyev (1987).
2339:Roth, Andrew (2000-12-09).
1731:Mueggenberg, Brent (2020).
1183:Cossack cemetery in Peggetz
932:European Economic Community
502:in far northern Russia and
467:Generals Pyotr Krasnov and
395:and British Prime Minister
359:, at the close of the war.
325:XV SS Cossack Cavalry Corps
299:were consolidated into the
3209:
2745:Samuel J. Newland (1991).
2680:Brent Mueggenberg (2019).
1419:. Algorithm Expo, Moscow.
1415:Shambarov, Valery (2007).
224:Russian All-Military Union
176:Soviet famine of 1930–1933
3107:
3067:Wilfried Strik-Strikfeldt
2716:. London: Jonathan Cape;
2456:Great Betrayal, Volume 2,
2084:, Volume 38, 2010 p.45-47
1947:Bethell, Nicholas (1974)
1688:Tolstoy, Nikolai (1986).
1377:, Rodina Society Archives
1264:Aftermath of World War II
1152:, an admirer of Tolstoy.
803:European Liberation Front
676:Liverpool, United Kingdom
656:Rimini and Bologna, Italy
387:, signed by US President
121:. Towards the end of the
31:aftermath of World War II
24:
2954:Russian Protective Corps
2762:The cost of a reputation
2712:Nikolai Tolstoy (1981).
2641:Great Betrayal. Volume 2
2258:Investigative Journalism
2245:Investigative Journalism
2030:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn:
1979:Investigative Journalism
1951:, Basic Books, New York.
1641:Great Betrayal, Volume 2
1628:Great Betrayal, Volume 2
1389:Great Betrayal. Volume 2
1228:, his father ultimately
1169:Russian Protective Corps
1146:The Cost of a Reputation
1131:, the British historian
967:, the British historian
923:one nation conservatism"
608:Combined Chiefs of Staff
309:Axis-occupied Yugoslavia
251:Soviet famine of 1932–33
138:were agreed upon at the
109:who were opposed to the
95:betrayal of the Cossacks
2924:Russian Liberation Army
2866:Political organizations
1616:Great Betrayal, Vol. 2.
1375:The History of Cossacks
1343:Naumenko, Vyacheslav G.
1299:Russian Liberation Army
1129:A Looking Glass Tragedy
1125:A Looking Glass Tragedy
1054:Alexander Comstock Kirk
828:Aleksander Solzhenitsyn
721:dissolution of the USSR
713:displaced persons camps
357:Allied-occupied Austria
256:And Quiet Flows the Don
247:Russian Orthodox Church
172:Russian Orthodox Church
49:Allied-occupied Austria
3087:Konstantin Voskoboinik
2749:, London: Franc Cass;
2185:, Volume 38, 2010 p.48
2104:, Volume 38, 2010 p.47
2059:Tolstoy's (1977) book
2021:, Volume 38, 2010 p.46
1830:"Russian Repatriation"
1567:"Occupation of Friuli"
1184:
1163:in his 2010 biography
1159:The British historian
1117:
641:
596:Bleiburg repatriations
563:
379:The agreements of the
376:
323:and expanded into the
3130:Russian Fascist Party
2760:Ian Mitchell (1997).
2626:Великое Предательство
1897:Great Betrayal, Vol 2
1884:Great Betrayal, Vol 2
1871:Great Betrayal, Vol 2
1834:World War II Timeline
1493:German Rule in Russia
1182:
1109:
852:Count Nikolai Tolstoy
840:The Gulag Archipelago
832:The Gulag Archipelago
764:by the Polish writer
717:Displaced Persons Act
389:Franklin D. Roosevelt
370:
3005:Constantine Kromiadi
1933:Cliff, Tony (1956).
1552:Edward N. Peterson:
1469:Mueggenberg, Brent,
1455:(84). Archived from
1079:Army Benevolent Fund
1064:on 21 October 1990,
1050:Public Record Office
856:The Victims of Yalta
787:Velikoe Predatelstvo
770:Velikoe Predatelstvo
421:Bolshevik Revolution
305:Helmuth von Pannwitz
3037:Vyacheslav Naumenko
2822:A footnote to Yalta
2714:Stalin's Secret War
2699:The Secret Betrayal
2507:"GoldenEye - Janus"
2065:The Secret Betrayal
1491:Dallin, Alexander,
1482:Mueggenberg, p. 224
999:Ministry of Defence
936:President de Gaulle
799:Peter Huxley-Blythe
778:Vyacheslav Naumenko
573:Other repatriations
486:in Moscow in 1947.
222:groups such as the
21:
2995:Sultan Klych-Girey
2990:Bronislav Kaminski
2980:Sergei Bunyachenko
2782:. London: Kontra;
2559:The Review of Senj
1756:Operation Keelhaul
1528:Ure, John (2002).
1294:Operation Keelhaul
1195:In popular culture
1185:
1006:, the philosopher
991:Christopher Booker
813:Operation Keelhaul
807:The East Came West
795:The East Came West
774:The Great Betrayal
644:Marseilles, France
590:Near Graz, Austria
578:Judenburg, Austria
385:Tehran Conferences
377:
27:Operation Keelhaul
3143:
3142:
3125:Lienz extradition
3072:Sergey Taboritsky
3010:Antonina Makarova
2917:Combat formations
2690:978-1-4766-7948-8
2545:978-0-09-164010-1
1859:on 17 April 2009.
1699:978-0-09-164010-1
1426:978-5-699-20121-1
1100:Italian partisans
1058:National Archives
1010:, the journalist
884:resident minister
397:Winston Churchill
391:, Soviet Premier
261:Mikhail Sholokhov
208:de-Cossackization
188:Russian Civil War
148:Russian Civil War
87:
86:
3198:
3100:
3047:Anatoly Rogozhin
3032:Mikhail Meandrov
3028:
3015:Vasily Malyshkin
2929:Kaminski Brigade
2899:
2852:
2845:
2838:
2829:
2776:Józef Mackiewicz
2617:
2615:
2613:
2585:
2583:
2581:
2549:
2530:Tolstoy, Nikolai
2517:
2516:
2494:
2488:
2487:
2465:
2459:
2452:
2446:
2439:
2433:
2426:
2415:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2397:
2382:
2363:
2362:
2360:
2359:
2341:"Lord Aldington"
2336:
2330:
2323:
2308:
2301:
2295:
2288:
2279:
2272:
2261:
2254:
2248:
2241:
2235:
2228:
2219:
2212:
2206:
2199:
2186:
2179:
2170:
2163:
2152:
2145:
2139:
2132:
2123:
2116:
2105:
2098:
2085:
2078:
2072:
2061:Victims of Yalta
2057:
2051:
2048:
2042:
2028:
2022:
2015:
2004:
1993:
1982:
1975:
1952:
1945:
1939:
1938:
1930:
1924:
1923:
1921:
1919:
1914:
1906:
1900:
1893:
1887:
1880:
1874:
1867:
1861:
1860:
1848:
1842:
1841:
1836:. Archived from
1826:
1820:
1814:
1808:
1802:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1746:
1728:
1719:
1718:
1715:The Sunday Times
1710:
1704:
1703:
1685:
1676:
1675:
1673:
1671:
1659:
1644:
1637:
1631:
1624:
1618:
1608:
1602:
1595:
1589:
1588:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1569:. Archived from
1563:
1557:
1550:
1544:
1543:
1525:
1514:
1511:
1505:
1502:
1496:
1489:
1483:
1480:
1474:
1467:
1461:
1460:
1440:
1431:
1430:
1412:
1403:
1385:
1379:
1378:
1370:
1361:
1360:
1339:
1321:Western betrayal
1226:survivor's guilt
1200:The plot of the
958:House of Commons
908:James Lees-Milne
888:Harold Alexander
880:Harold Macmillan
861:Western betrayal
766:Józef Mackiewicz
754:Nicholas Bethell
604:Harold Alexander
333:southern Ukraine
267:Second World War
142:; Soviet leader
140:Yalta Conference
66:Yalta Conference
22:
3208:
3207:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3197:
3196:
3195:
3146:
3145:
3144:
3139:
3120:Prague uprising
3103:
3094:
3022:
2968:
2912:
2885:
2861:
2856:
2812:
2695:Nikolai Tolstoy
2662:
2660:Further reading
2611:
2609:
2597:(in Croatian).
2588:
2579:
2577:
2561:(in Croatian).
2552:
2546:
2528:
2525:
2520:
2505:
2502:Wayback Machine
2495:
2491:
2476:
2473:Wayback Machine
2466:
2462:
2453:
2449:
2440:
2436:
2427:
2418:
2409:
2405:
2395:
2393:
2391:The Independent
2384:
2383:
2366:
2357:
2355:
2338:
2337:
2333:
2324:
2311:
2302:
2298:
2289:
2282:
2273:
2264:
2256:Burgh, Hugo de
2255:
2251:
2243:Burgh, Hugo de
2242:
2238:
2229:
2222:
2213:
2209:
2200:
2189:
2180:
2173:
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1222:British economy
1197:
1177:
1150:Lord Portsmouth
1113:Soviet citizens
1012:Chapman Pincher
983:Anthony Cowgill
974:Josip Broz Tito
963:In response to
896:Ludovic Kennedy
882:, the British "
821:The Last Secret
805:. The cover of
750:
745:
733:death of Stalin
729:
704:
696:
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600:Nikolai Tolstoy
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1133:Alistair Horne
1105:Filipp Golikov
1083:Daniel Johnson
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1016:Nigel Nicolson
1004:Bernard Braine
949:Lord Aldington
850:Subsequently,
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1089:In 1992, Sir
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1066:Robert Harris
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1024:Hugo de Burgh
1021:
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1014:, the writer
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1008:Roger Scruton
1005:
1000:
997:in which the
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969:Robert Knight
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748:In literature
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3092:Milety Zykov
2985:Vladimir Gil
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2746:
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2713:
2698:
2681:
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2625:
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2610:. Retrieved
2598:
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2578:. Retrieved
2562:
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2533:
2510:
2498:Ghostarchive
2496:Archived at
2492:
2481:
2469:Ghostarchive
2467:Archived at
2463:
2455:
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2437:
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2411:
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2394:. Retrieved
2390:
2356:. Retrieved
2345:The Guardian
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2018:
2001:Random House
1999:, New York:
1996:
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1948:
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1916:. Retrieved
1904:
1899:, pp. 220-8.
1896:
1891:
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1878:
1870:
1865:
1857:the original
1846:
1838:the original
1833:
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1812:
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1793:Dizdar, 2005
1788:
1777:. Retrieved
1775:. 2021-09-16
1763:
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1668:. Retrieved
1640:
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1571:the original
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1091:Carol Mather
1088:
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457:British Army
453:Gen. Contini
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429:Gen. Krasnov
426:
414:
410:
378:
329:
290:
273:Adolf Hitler
270:
254:
230:
228:
185:
152:
119:World War II
115:Nazi Germany
111:Soviet Union
94:
90:
88:
3095: [
3023: [
2886: [
2805:(in German)
1670:31 December
1250:Foyle's War
1216:(played by
1161:D.R. Thorpe
836:Vlasov Army
341:Byelorussia
297:German Army
186:During the
72:Perpetrator
52:(primarily
40:28 May 1945
3150:Categories
2454:Naumenko,
2358:2023-12-06
1895:Naumenko,
1882:Naumenko,
1869:Naumenko,
1779:2022-03-17
1639:Naumenko,
1626:Naumenko,
1610:Naumenko,
1597:Naumenko,
1327:References
1203:James Bond
1086:emigres."
1032:broadsheet
912:Ribbentrop
892:Klagenfurt
854:published
731:After the
650:Marseilles
632:New Jersey
531:Brigadier
337:Novogrudek
259:(1934) by
243:Semirechye
204:Bolsheviks
182:Background
168:Semirechye
107:Ukrainians
2607:0352-342X
2575:0582-673X
2396:30 August
2353:0261-3077
1279:Cossackia
1218:Sean Bean
1209:GoldenEye
1175:Memorials
1038:Timewatch
876:Encounter
702:Aftermath
652:in 1946.
584:Judenburg
441:stanitsas
435:, in the
373:Big Three
321:Waffen-SS
317:Partisans
311:to fight
293:Wehrmacht
200:reprisals
101:, ethnic
3111:See also
2778:(1993).
2730:(2002).
2728:John Ure
2697:(1978).
2532:(1986).
2500:and the
2471:and the
1918:24 April
1819:, p. 144
1795:, p. 134
1601:, p. 23.
1599:Volume 2
1345:(2015).
1258:See also
1165:Supermac
943:Union.”
927:Thatcher
830:'s book
682:Murmansk
628:Fort Dix
567:Tristach
533:Toby Low
525:telegram
427:In 1944
345:Tolmezzo
226:(ROVS).
202:and the
196:Red Army
127:Red Army
103:Russians
99:Cossacks
45:Location
29:and the
25:Part of
2523:Sources
2512:YouTube
2483:YouTube
2458:p. 119.
1028:tabloid
978:Trieste
953:V Corps
727:Amnesty
687:Tirpitz
670:Bologna
550:Gestapo
548:or the
523:sent a
504:Siberia
496:Germany
492:Austria
484:atamans
473:treason
465:cavalry
212:Central
80:Outcome
2973:People
2801:
2786:
2780:Kontra
2768:
2753:
2738:
2720:
2705:
2688:
2673:
2651:
2632:
2612:28 May
2605:
2595:Lawyer
2580:28 May
2573:
2542:
2351:
2038:
1758:(1973)
1739:
1696:
1536:
1449:Russia
1423:
1399:
1353:
989:, and
791:Kontra
782:ataman
762:Kontra
743:Legacy
666:Rimini
662:Venice
616:SMERSH
500:gulags
480:Moscow
433:Carnia
405:Allied
271:After
61:Motive
3099:]
3027:]
2898:]
2565:(1).
1913:(PDF)
1206:film
1075:Times
1071:Times
539:Lienz
381:Yalta
353:Lienz
349:Italy
235:Terek
231:e.g.,
160:Terek
132:Gulag
54:Lienz
2799:ISBN
2784:ISBN
2766:ISBN
2751:ISBN
2736:ISBN
2718:ISBN
2703:ISBN
2686:ISBN
2671:ISBN
2649:ISBN
2630:ISBN
2614:2012
2603:ISSN
2582:2012
2571:ISSN
2567:Senj
2540:ISBN
2398:2020
2349:ISSN
2036:ISBN
1920:2023
1737:ISBN
1694:ISBN
1672:2016
1614:and
1534:ISBN
1421:ISBN
1397:ISBN
1351:ISBN
1189:Drau
1030:and
865:West
668:and
612:Graz
546:NKVD
494:and
437:Alps
401:POWs
383:and
371:The
313:Tito
241:and
239:Ural
214:and
166:and
164:Ural
105:and
89:The
37:Date
1773:ORF
1041:".
756:'s
475:.
355:in
335:to
315:'s
93:or
3152::
3097:ru
3025:ru
2896:pl
2894:;
2892:uk
2890:;
2888:ru
2599:41
2593:.
2563:32
2509:.
2504::
2480:.
2475::
2419:^
2389:.
2367:^
2347:.
2343:.
2312:^
2283:^
2265:^
2223:^
2190:^
2174:^
2156:^
2127:^
2109:^
2089:^
2008:^
1986:^
1956:^
1832:.
1771:.
1723:^
1692:.
1680:^
1648:^
1518:^
1453:VI
1451:.
1447:.
1435:^
1407:^
1365:^
1334:^
1018:,
690:.
672:.
630:,
618:.
327:.
263:.
237:,
206:’
162:,
2851:e
2844:t
2837:v
2790:.
2772:.
2757:.
2742:.
2724:.
2709:.
2677:.
2655:.
2636:.
2616:.
2584:.
2548:.
2515:.
2486:.
2400:.
2361:.
2071:.
1937:.
1922:.
1782:.
1745:.
1717:.
1702:.
1674:.
1542:.
1429:.
1359:.
772:(
347:(
339:(
56:)
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