Reuse of human excreta - Knowledge (XXG)

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The main application methods are direct usage for crops and fruits as basal or top application after fermentation in a ditch for a certain period, compost with crop stalk for basal application and direct usage as feed for fish in ponds. On the other hand, as much as many people rely on human waste as an agricultural fertilizer, if the waste is not properly treated, the use of night soil may promote the spread of infectious diseases.

815: 1032:(WHO) provided guidelines on safe reuse of wastewater, excreta, and greywater. The multiple barrier concept to reuse, which is the key cornerstone of this publication, has led to a clear understanding of how excreta reuse can be done safely. The concept is also used in water supply and food production, and is generally understood as a series of treatment steps and other safety precautions to prevent the spread of pathogens. 4828: 4818: 4304: 4865: 1498:, although famers were not using fecal sludge, 8% of farmers were using wastewater sludge as a soil amendment. Compost from animal manure and composted household waste are applied by many farmers as soil conditioners. On the other hand, farmers are already mixing their own feed because of limited trust in the feed industry and the quality of products. 1408:

functioning reuse systems; it is important to describe the “institutional landscape” and involve all actors; parallel processes should be initiated at all levels of government (i.e. national, regional and local level); country specific strategies and approaches are needed; and strategies supporting newly developed policies need to be developed).

694:. Important parameters to consider while fertilizing with urine include salinity tolerance of the plant, soil composition, addition of other fertilizing compounds, and quantity of rainfall or other irrigation. It was reported in 1995 that urine nitrogen gaseous losses were relatively high and plant uptake lower than with labelled 1325:

content than Japan’s Hishikari Mine, one of the world’s top gold mines, which contains 20–40 grammes of the precious metal per tonne of ore." This idea was also tested by the US Geological Survey (USGS) which found that the yearly sewage sludge generated by 1 million people contained 13 million dollars worth of precious metals.

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produced at these facilities is sold to farmers, organizations, businesses, and institutions around the country to help finance SOIL's waste treatment operations. Crops grown with this soil amendment include spinach, peppers, sorghum, maize, and more. Each batch of compost produced is tested for the indicator organism

368:, solar drying, membranes, filters, alkaline dehydration of urine, ammonia sanitization/urea treatment, and lime sanitization. Further research involves UV advanced oxidation processes in order to degrade organic pollutants present in the urine before reuse or the dehydration of urine by using acids. 1324:

from sewage sludge, "high percentage of gold found at the Suwa facility was probably due to the large number of precision equipment manufacturers in the vicinity that use . The facility recently recorded finding 1,890 grammes of gold per tonne of ash from incinerated sludge. That is a far higher gold

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Black soldier fly (BSF) bio-waste processing is a relatively new treatment technology that has received increasing attention over the last decades. Larvae grown on bio-waste can be a necessary raw material for animal feed production, and can therefore provide revenues for financially applicable waste

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Small-scale biogas plants are being utilized in many countries, including Ghana, Vietnam and many others. Larger centralized systems are being planned that mix animal and human feces to produce biogas. Biogas is also produced during sewage sludge treatment processes with anaerobic digestion. Here, it

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Fecal sludge is defined as "coming from onsite sanitation technologies, and has not been transported through a sewer." Examples of onsite technologies include pit latrines, unsewered public ablution blocks, septic tanks and dry toilets. Fecal sludge can be treated by a variety of methods to render it

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or municipal organic waste. One limiting factor may be legal restrictions due to the possibility that pathogens remain in the compost. In any case, the use of compost from composting toilets in one's own garden can be regarded as safe and is the main method of use for compost from composting toilets.

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Treatment disposal of human excreta can be categorized into three types: fertilizer use, discharge and biogas use. Discharge is the disposal of human excreta to soil, septic tank or water body. In China, with the impact of the long tradition, human excreta is often used as fertilizer for crops.

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Biogas is an important waste-to-energy resource which plays a huge role in reducing environmental pollution and most importantly in reducing greenhouse gases effect caused by the waste. Utilization of raw material such as human waste for biogas generation is considered beneficial because it does not

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Typical design values for nutrients excreted with urine are: 4 kg nitrogen per person per year, 0.36 kg phosphorus per person per year and 1.0 kg potassium per person per year. Based on the quantity of 1.5 L urine per day (or 550 L per year), the concentration values of macronutrients

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There is an untapped fertilizer resource in human excreta. In Africa, for example, the theoretical quantities of nutrients that can be recovered from human excreta are comparable with all current fertilizer use on the continent. Therefore, reuse can support increased food production and also provide

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There is a large and growing number of treatment options to make excreta safe and manageable for the intended reuse option. Various technologies and practices, ranging in scale from a single rural household to a city, can be used to capture potentially valuable resources and make them available for

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There is still a lack of examples of implemented policy where the reuse aspect is fully integrated in policy and advocacy. When considering drivers for policy change in this respect, the following lessons learned should be taken into consideration: Revising legislation does not necessarily lead to

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Only a fraction of the nitrogen-based fertilizers is converted to produce plant matter. The remainder accumulates in the soil or is lost as run-off. This also applies to excreta-based fertilizer since it also contains nitrogen. Excessive nitrogen which is not taken up by plants is transformed into

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Temperature is a treatment parameter with an established relation to pathogen inactivation for all pathogen groups: Temperatures above 50 °C (122 °F) have the potential to inactivate most pathogens. Therefore, thermal sanitization is utilized in several technologies, such as thermophilic

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According to the 2004 "proposed Swedish default values", an average Swedish adult excretes 0.55 kg nitrogen, 0.18 kg phosphorus, and 0.36 kg potassium as feces per year. The yearly mass is 51 kg wet and 11 kg dried, so that wet feces would have a NPK% value of 1.1:0.8:0.9.

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In Ghana, the only wide scale implementation is small scale rural digesters, with about 200 biogas plants using human excreta and animal dung as feedstock. Linking up of public toilets with biogas digesters as a way of improving communal hygiene and combating hygiene-related communicable diseases

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In Mukuru, Kenya, the slum dwellers are worst hit by the sanitation challenge due to a high population density and a lack of supporting infrastructure. Makeshift pit latrines, illegal toilet connections to the main sewer systems and lack of running water to support the flushable toilets present a

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Minimize odors by adding white vinegar or citric acid to the urine collection container before any urine is added. We use 1-2 cups of white vinegar or 1 tablespoon of citric acid per 5-gallon container. Adding vinegar also helps reduce nitrogen loss (via ammonia volatilization) during short-term

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residues which could in theory enter the food chain via fertilized crops but are currently not fully removed by conventional wastewater treatment plants anyway and can enter drinking water sources via household wastewater (sewage). In fact, the pharmaceutical residues in the excreta are degraded

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The degree of treatment required for excreta-based fertilizers before they can safely be used in agriculture depends on a number of factors. It mainly depends on which other barriers will be put in place according to the multiple barrier concept. Such barriers might be selecting a suitable crop,

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The nutrients in compost from a composting toilet have a higher plant availability than dried feces from a typical urine-diverting dry toilet. The two processes are not mutually exclusive, however: some composting toilets do divert urine (to avoid over-saturation of water and nitrogen) and dried

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began building urine-diverting dry toilets and composting the waste produced for agricultural use in 2006. SOIL's two composting waste treatment facilities currently transform over 20,000 gallons (75,708 liters) of human excreta into organic, agricultural-grade compost every month. The compost

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allows the use of source separated urine only in conventional farming within the EU, but not yet in organic farming. This is a situation that many agricultural experts, especially in Sweden, would like to see changed. This ban may also reduce the options to use urine as a fertilizer in other

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Electricity demand is significantly more than the electricity generation and only a small margin of the population nationally has access to electricity. The pellets produced from fecal sludge are being used in gasification for electricity production. Converting fecal sludge for energy could

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Sludge treatment liquids (after anaerobic digestion) can be used as an input source for a process to recover phosphorus in the form of struvite for use as fertilizer. For example, the Canadian company Ostara Nutrient Recovery Technologies is marketing a process based on controlled chemical

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results in high urea levels in urine. The nitrogen content in urine is proportional to the total food protein in the person's diet, and the phosphorus content is proportional to the sum of total food protein and vegetal food protein. Urine's eight main ionic species (> 0.1 meq L−1) are

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Mineral fertilizers are made from mining activities and can contain heavy metals. Phosphate ores contain heavy metals such as cadmium and uranium, which can reach the food chain via mineral phosphate fertilizer. This does not apply to excreta-based fertilizers (unless the human's food was

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eggs are commonly used as these organisms are the most difficult to destroy in most treatment processes. The multiple barrier approach is recommended where e.g. lower levels of treatment may be acceptable when combined with other post-treatment barriers along the sanitation chain.

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in feces. This risk also extends to consumers of crops fertilized with untreated excreta. Therefore, excreta needs to be appropriately treated before reuse, and health aspects need to be managed for all reuse applications as the excreta can contain pathogens even after treatment.

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with fresh growing medium each season or a 1:8 ratio for more general use), it can be applied directly to soil as a fertilizer. The fertilization effect of urine has been found to be comparable to that of commercial nitrogen fertilizers. Urine may contain pharmaceutical residues

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appreciated urine fertilization as a low-cost, low-risk practice. They found that it could contribute to significant yield increases. The importance of social norms and cultural perceptions needs to be recognized but these are not absolute barriers to adoption of the practice.

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The health risks of using urine as a source of fertilizer are generally regarded as negligible, especially when dispersed in soil rather than on the part of a plant that is consumed. Urine can be distributed via perforated hoses buried ~10 cm under the surface of the

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Guidelines from 2006 have set up a framework describing how this reuse can be done safely by following a "multiple barrier approach". Such barriers might be selecting a suitable crop, farming methods, methods of applying the fertilizer and education of the farmers.

935:") as a soil conditioner or fertilizer is possible but is a controversial topic in some countries (such as USA, some countries in Europe) due to the chemical pollutants it may contain, such as heavy metals and environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants. 1043:

where fecal material is composted at over 50 °C, prolonged storage with a duration of 1.5 to two years, chemical treatment with ammonia from urine to inactivate the pathogens, solar sanitation for further drying or heat treatment to eliminate pathogens.

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The nutrients and organic matter which are contained in human excreta or in domestic wastewater (sewage) have been used in agriculture in many countries for centuries. However, this practice is often carried out in an unregulated and unsafe manner in

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to the urine collection container, so that the urease is inactivated and any ammonia that do form are less volatile. Besides concentration, simple chemical processes can be used to extract pure substances: nitrogen as nitrates (similar to medieval

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the leaves or roots of some plants, causing plant injury, particularly if the soil moisture content is low. The dilution also helps to reduce odor development following application. When diluted with water (at a 1:5 ratio for container-grown

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has been common throughout history, yet the application of pure urine to crops is still quite rare in 2021. This is despite many publications that advocate the use of urine as a fertilizer since at least 2001. Since about 2011, the

618:. Urine typically contains 70% of the nitrogen and more than half the potassium found in sewage, while making up less than 1% of the overall volume. The amount of urine produced by an adult is around 0.8 to 1.5 L per day. 534:

Fertilizing elements of organic fertilizers are mostly bound in carbonaceous reduced compounds. If these are already partially oxidized as in the compost, the fertilizing minerals are adsorbed on the degradation products

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composting and thermophilic anaerobic digestion and potentially in sun drying. Alkaline conditions (pH value above 10) can also deactivate pathogens. This can be achieved with ammonia sanitization or lime treatment.

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sanitation nightmare in all Kenyan slums. The NGO Sanergy seeks to provide decent toilet facilities to Mukuru residents and uses the feces and urine from the toilets to provide fertilizer and energy for the market.

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as follows: 7.3 g/L N; .67 g/L P; 1.8 g/L K. These are design values but the actual values vary with diet. Urine's nutrient content, when expressed with the international fertilizer convention of N:P

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Roubík, Hynek; Mazancová, Jana; Phung, Le Dinh; Banout, Jan (2018). "Current approach to manure management for small-scale Southeast Asian farmers - Using Vietnamese biogas and non-biogas farms as an example".

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toilets. If urine is to be separated and collected for use as a fertilizer in agriculture, then this can be done with sanitation systems that utilize waterless urinals, urine-diverting dry toilets (UDDTs) or

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Reuse options depend on the form of the excreta that is being reused: it can be either excreta on its own or mixed with some water (fecal sludge) or mixed with much water (domestic wastewater or sewage).

906:, and other potable and non-potable uses. These applications, however, focus usually on the water aspect, not on the nutrients and organic matter reuse aspect, which is the focus of "reuse of excreta". 1368:

Debate is ongoing about whether reuse of excreta is cost effective. The terms "sanitation economy" and "toilet resources" have been introduced to describe the potential for selling products made from

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Gardeners of Fada N'Gourma in Burkina Faso apply dry excreta after mixing with other organic fertilizer (donkey manure, cow manure) and pure fertile soil, and after maturing for another 2 to 4 months.

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The most common reuse of excreta is as fertilizer and soil conditioner in agriculture. This is also called a "closing the loop" approach for sanitation with agriculture. It is a central aspect of the

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precipitation of phosphorus in a fluidized bed reactor that recovers struvite in the form of crystalline pellets from sludge dewatering streams. The resulting crystalline product is sold to the

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after applying suitable treatment steps and risk management approaches that are customized for the intended reuse application. Beneficial uses of the treated excreta may focus on using the

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Diener, Stefan; Semiyaga, Swaib; Niwagaba, Charles B.; Muspratt, Ashley Murray; Gning, Jean Birane; Mbéguéré, Mbaye; Ennin, Joseph Effah; Zurbrugg, Christian; Strande, Linda (2014-07-01).

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There are several "human excreta derived fertilizers" which vary in their properties and fertilizing characteristics, for example: urine, dried feces, composted feces, fecal sludge,

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There is a large and growing number of treatment options to make excreta safe and manageable for the intended reuse option. Options include urine diversion and dehydration of feces (

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Diener, Stefan; Semiyaga, Swaib; Niwagaba, Charles B; Muspratt, Ashley Murray; Gning, Jean Birane; Mbéguéré, Mbaye; Ennin, Joseph Effah; Zurbrugg, Christian; Strande, Linda (2014).

1006:") of economical mined phosphorus. Mined phosphorus is a limited resource that is being used up for fertilizer production at an ever-increasing rate, which is threatening worldwide 115:

processes. They all achieve various degrees of pathogen removal and reduction in water content for easier handling. Pathogens of concern are enteric bacteria, virus, protozoa, and

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Pilot scale research in Uganda and Senegal has shown that it is viable to use dry feces as for combustion in industry, provided it has been dried to a minimum of 28% dry solids.

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and others has led to guidelines on how reuse of municipal wastewater in agriculture for irrigation and fertilizer application can be safely implemented in low income countries.

833:(where organic kitchen waste is in some cases also added to the composting toilet) has, in principle, the same uses as compost derived from other organic waste products, such as 2586:

Technology review of urine diversion components - Overview on urine diversion components such as waterless urinals, urine diversion toilets, and urine storage and reuse systems.

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The general limitations to using urine as fertilizer depend mainly on the potential for buildup of excess nitrogen (due to the high ratio of that macronutrient), and inorganic

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For example, in the case of urine-diverting dry toilets secondary treatment of dried feces can be performed at community level rather than at household level and can include

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an alternative to chemical fertilizers, which is often unaffordable to small-holder farmers. However, nutritional value of human excreta largely depends on dietary input.

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Urine is used as organic manure in India. It is also used for making an alcohol-based bio-pesticide: the ammonia within breaks down lignin, allowing plant materials like

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uses two biogas plants to produce what the company calls "poo power"—using sewage sludge to produce energy to generate income. Biogas production has reduced its pre-1996

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from urine-diverting dry toilets after post-treatment can result in increased crop production through fertilizing effects of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and improved

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require additional starters such as microorganism seeds for methane production, and a supply of microorganisms occurs continuously during the feeding of raw materials.

495: 1991:"Factors influencing the recovery of organic nitrogen from fresh human urine dosed with organic/inorganic acids and concentrated by evaporation in ambient conditions" 3865: 2107:

Uran-Umwelt-Unbehagen: Statusseminar am 14. Oktober 2004, Bundesforschungsinstitut für Landwirtschaft (FAL), Institut für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde, Germany.

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Resource recovery from fecal sludge can take many forms, including as a fuel, soil amendment, building material, protein, animal fodder, and water for irrigation.

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resulting from the influx of nutrient rich effluent into aquatic or marine ecosystems) and a higher energy consumption when urine is treated as part of sewage in

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Apart from use in agriculture, there are other possible uses of excreta. For example, in the case of fecal sludge, it can be treated and then serve as protein (

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Simha, Prithvi; Senecal, Jenna; Gustavsson, David J. I.; Vinnerås, Björn (2020-01-01), Kataki, Rupam; Pandey, Ashok; Khanal, Samir Kumar; Pant, Deepak (eds.),

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Roubík, Hynek; Mazancová, Jana; Banout, Jan; Verner, Vladimír (2016). "Addressing problems at small-scale biogas plants: A case study from central Vietnam".

2100: 3804:"Challenges to the use of fertilisers derived from human excreta: The case of vegetable exports from Kenya to Europe and influence of certification systems" 2837: 345: 909:

When wastewater is reused in agriculture, its nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content may be useful for additional fertilizer application. Work by the

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Kuntke, P; Sleutels, T.H.J.A; Saakes, M; Buisman, C.J.N (2014). "Hydrogen production and ammonium recovery from urine by a Microbial Electrolysis Cell".

822: 480: 2118: 726:. Further treatment can be done with collected urine to stabilize the nitrogen and concentrate the fertilizer. One low-tech solution to odor is to add 1002:

In the case of phosphorus in particular, reuse of excreta is one known method to recover phosphorus to mitigate the looming shortage (also known as "

562:. The nutrient concentrations in urine vary with diet. In particular, the nitrogen content in urine is related to quantity of protein in the diet: A 910: 2709: 1312:

It is known that additions of fecal matter up to 20% by dried weight in clay bricks does not make a significant functional difference to bricks.

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in feces. As the helminth eggs are the pathogens that are the most difficult to destroy with treatment processes, they are commonly used as an

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Bijay-Singh; Yadvinder-Singh; Sekhon, G.S (1995). "Fertilizer-N use efficiency and nitrate pollution of groundwater in developing countries".

1198:(biogas from anaerobic digestion, incineration or co-combustion of dried sludge, pyrolysis of fecal sludge, and biodiesel from fecal sludge). 876:

suitable for reuse in agriculture. These include (usually carried out in combination) dewatering, thickening, drying (in sludge drying beds),

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larvae with feces. The mature flies would then be a source of protein to be included in the production of feed for chickens in South Africa.

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With pyrolysis, urine is turned into a pre-doped, highly porous, carbon material termed "urine carbon" (URC). URC is cheaper than current

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Basil plants: The plants on the right are not fertilized, while the plants on the left are fertilized with urine—in a nutrient-poor soil.

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Guide to Sanitation Resource-Recovery Products & Technologies: A supplement to the Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies

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Hygienic measures for handling of the compost must be applied by all those people who are exposed to it, e.g. wearing gloves and boots.

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O, is approximately 7:1.5:2.2. Since urine is rather diluted as a fertilizer compared to dry manufactured nitrogen fertilizers such as

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in reuse schemes. Other health risks and environmental pollution aspects that need to be considered include spreading micropollutants,

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may hinder export and import of agricultural products that have been grown with the application of human excreta-derived fertilisers.

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was utilized at a higher rate than soluble phosphate. Urine can also be used safely as a source of nitrogen in carbon-rich compost.

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Research into how to make reuse of urine and feces safe in agriculture has been carried out in Sweden since the 1990s. In 2006 the

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management systems. In addition, when produced on bio-waste, insect-based feeds can be more sustainable than conventional feeds.

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Application of urine on eggplants during a comprehensive urine application field testing study at Xavier University, Philippines

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but has no jurisdiction over the byproducts of a urine-diverting dry toilet. Oversight of these materials falls to the states.

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Combination outhouses/feeding troughs were used in several countries since ancient times. They are generally being phased out.

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nitrate which is easily leached. High application rates combined with the high water-solubility of nitrate leads to increased

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Demissie, Natnael; Simha, Prithvi; Lai, Foon Yin; Ahrens, Lutz; Mussabek, Dauren; Desta, Adey; Vinnerås, Björn (2023-08-15).

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Applying urine as fertilizer has been called "closing the cycle of agricultural nutrient flows" or ecological sanitation or

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Jackson, Louise E; Burger, Martin; Cavagnaro, Timothy R (2008). "Roots, Nitrogen Transformations, and Ecosystem Services".

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Andersson, K., Rosemarin, A., Lamizana, B., Kvarnström, E., McConville, J., Seidu, R., Dickin, S. and Trimmer, C. (2016).

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WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater - Volume IV: Excreta and greywater use in agriculture

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with urine or other nitrogen fertilizers can result in too much ammonia for plants to absorb, acidic conditions, or other

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Sustainable Sanitation Alliance members take a closer look at the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation's sanitation grants

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Recovering the resources embedded in excreta and wastewater (like nutrients, water and energy) contributes to achieving

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Resource recovery from waste: business models for energy, nutrient and water reuse in low- and middle-income countries

2601: 1252: 1081: 539:) etc. Thus, they exhibit a slow-release effect and are usually less rapidly leached compared to mineral fertilizers. 3248: 2793: 3499: 4454: 4357: 3522:"Decomposition of biowaste macronutrients, microbes, and chemicals in black soldier fly larval treatment: A review" 1827:"Alkaline dehydration of anion–exchanged human urine: Volume reduction, nutrient recovery and process optimisation" 1417: 289: 183:

treatment systems can be called "reuse products" or "other outputs". These reuse products are general fertilizers,

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Technology review of composting toilets - Basic overview of composting toilets (with or without urine diversion).

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Technology review of urine-diverting dry toilets (UDDTs) - Overview on design, management, maintenance and costs.

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Reclaimed water can be reused for irrigation, industrial uses, replenishing natural water courses, water bodies,

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activities. Other reuse applications, which focus more on the organic matter content of the excreta, include use

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Pradhan, Surendra K.; Nerg, Anne-Marja; Sjöblom, Annalena; Holopainen, Jarmo K.; Heinonen-Tanski, Helvi (2007).

2061:"To char or not to char? Review of technologies to produce solid fuels for resource recovery from faecal sludge" 1633: 4325: 3774:

Sanitation policies and regulatory frameworks for reuse of nutrients in wastewater, human excreta and greywater

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Maurer, M; Schwegler, P; Larsen, T. A (2003). "Nutrients in urine: Energetic aspects of removal and recovery".

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A formula for adjustment of excreta N and P values based on dietary characteristics is found in Jönsson 2004.

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The reuse of excreta as a fertilizer for growing crops has been practiced in many countries for a long time.

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among crop plants, thus minimizing risk of odors, loss of nutrients due to votalization, or transmission of

316: 306: 112: 108: 3590: 1926:"Degradation of 75 organic micropollutants in fresh human urine and water by UV advanced oxidation process" 4803: 4602: 4459: 4367: 3520:

Gold, Moritz; Tomberlin, Jeffery K.; Diener, Stefan; Zurbrügg, Christian; Mathys, Alexander (2018-12-01).

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Wald, Chelsea (10 February 2022). "The urine revolution: how recycling pee could help to save the world".

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Kirchmann, H.; Pettersson, S. (1995). "Human urine - Chemical composition and fertilizer use efficiency".

1155: 946: 471: 4167: 4052:"A value proposition: Resource recovery from faecal sludge—Can it be the driver for improved sanitation?" 3249:"A value proposition: Resource recovery from faecal sludge—Can it be the driver for improved sanitation?" 2805:

von Muench, E., Spuhler, D., Surridge, T., Ekane, N., Andersson, K., Fidan, E. G., Rosemarin, A. (2013).

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in sanitation, an alternative term that is being used is "resource flows". The final outputs from the

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is providing funding for research involving sanitation systems that recover the nutrients in urine.

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Callisto, Marcos; Molozzi, Joseline; Barbosa, José Lucena Etham (2014). "Eutrophication of Lakes".

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Harder, Robin; Wielemaker, Rosanne; Larsen, Tove A.; Zeeman, Grietje; Öberg, Gunilla (2019-04-18).

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Pharmaceutical Residues in Urine and Potential Risks related to Usage as Fertiliser in Agriculture

1670:"Recycling nutrients contained in human excreta to agriculture: Pathways, processes, and products" 1225:

Resource recovery of fecal sludge as a solid fuel has been found to have high market potential in

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Reuse of human excreta focuses on the nutrient and organic matter content of human excreta unlike

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Simha, Prithvi; Senecal, Jenna; Nordin, Annika; Lalander, Cecilia; Vinnerås, Björn (2018-10-01).

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Other: other emerging excreta reuse options include producing protein feeds for livestock using

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provides a list of treatment technologies for sanitation resource recovery: Vermicomposting and

1632:

Tilley, Elizabeth; Ulrich, Lukas; Lüthi, Christoph; Reymond, Philippe; Zurbrügg, Chris (2014).

1494:

Reuse of wastewater in agriculture is a common practice in the developing world. In a study in

1055:

Exposure of farm workers to untreated excreta constitutes a significant health risk due to its

491:

Application of urine on a field near Bonn, Germany, by means of flexible hose close to the soil

198:

which focuses on the water content. An alternative term is "use of human excreta" rather than "

4632: 4622: 4567: 4392: 4382: 4330: 4268: 4073: 4016: 3998: 3924: 3859: 3836: 3648: 3569: 3561: 3477: 3222: 3077: 3040: 2920: 2876: 2747: 2674: 2496: 2488: 2424: 2323: 2245: 2171: 2082: 2028: 2020: 1963: 1955: 1899: 1864: 1856: 1809: 1806:

Sanitation, Wastewater Management and Sustainability: from Waste Disposal to Resource Recovery

1699: 1643: 1561: 1297: 1187: 1167: 644: 563: 421: 296: 242: 100: 3776:- Proceedings from SEI/EcoSanRes2 Workshop in Sweden. Stockholm Environment Institute, Sweden 3073: 1036:

farming methods, methods of applying the fertilizer, education of the farmers, and so forth.

671:, the relative transport costs for urine are high as a lot of water needs to be transported. 4793: 4783: 4667: 4642: 4542: 4362: 4335: 4283: 4258: 4248: 4243: 4228: 4119: 4063: 4006: 3988: 3955: 3914: 3815: 3638: 3628: 3551: 3541: 3467: 3456:"A Review of Recycling of Human Excreta to Energy through Biogas Generation: Indonesia Case" 3411: 3383: 3354: 3323: 3292: 3260: 3212: 3204: 3147: 3069: 3032: 2739: 2666: 2478: 2315: 2235: 2227: 2163: 2072: 2010: 1945: 1846: 1778: 1689: 1510: 985: 897: 760: 695: 675: 184: 176: 69: 3975:

Carlton, Elizabeth J.; Liu, Yang; Zhong, Bo; Hubbard, Alan; Spear, Robert C. (2015-01-15).

1751:

McConville, J., Niwagaba, C., Nordin, A., Ahlström, M., Namboozo, V. and Kiffe, M. (2020).

845:

will be part of the compost although some urine will be lost via leachate and evaporation.

398:

for irrigation; using composted excreta (and other organic waste) or appropriately treated

4778: 4743: 4687: 4682: 4662: 4423: 4372: 4293: 4263: 4253: 2841: 1506: 1219: 1003: 997: 950: 893: 814: 809: 715: 710: 687: 679: 626: 395: 332: 230: 195: 61: 57: 3341:

Mohammed, M; Egyir, I.S; Donkor, A.K; Amoah, P; Nyarko, S; Boateng, K.K; Ziwu, C (2017).

3310:

Kim, Jungwon; Choi, Won Joon K; Choi, Jina; Hoffmann, Michael R; Park, Hyunwoong (2013).

2350:

Some Effects of Ammonia on Plant Metabolism and a Possible Mechanism for Ammonia Toxicity

2148: 4035:

Ecological Management of Human Excreta in an Urban Slum: A case study of Mukuru in Kenya

3537: 3191:

Knobeloch, Lynda; Salna, Barbara; Hogan, Adam; Postle, Jeffrey; Anderson, Henry (2000).

3143: 2774: 2662: 2223: 2006: 1989:

Simha, Prithvi; Vasiljev, Anastasija; Randall, Dyllon G.; Vinnerås, Björn (2023-06-25).

1941: 1842: 1685: 4901: 4723: 4617: 4597: 4387: 4352: 4011: 3976: 3643: 3616: 3311: 3217: 3192: 2916:

Wastewater irrigation and health: assessing and mitigating risk in low-income countries

2776:

Ph.D. Thesis: Urine processing for efficient nutrient recovery and reuse in agriculture

2240: 2207: 1429: 1321: 1147: 1060: 942: 797: 756: 338: 281: 234: 116: 3919: 3902: 4885: 4768: 4758: 4627: 4577: 4438: 4408: 4377: 4288: 3151: 2686: 2040: 1975: 1442: 1244: 1238: 1175: 1151: 1007: 922: 834: 691: 625:. Urine fertilizer is usually applied diluted with water because undiluted urine can 452: 365: 171:

Human excreta, fecal sludge and wastewater are often referred to as wastes (see also

147: 4068: 4051: 3265: 2759: 2625:

Freney, J. R., Simpson, J. R., & Denmead, O. T. (1981). AMMONIA VOLATILIZATION.

2508: 2335: 2015: 1876: 4728: 4697: 4557: 3670: 3296: 3089: 2183: 1514: 1396: 958: 954: 683: 631: 81: 4124: 4107: 3820: 3803: 3387: 2231: 1694: 1669: 3993: 3671:"The rise of the sanitation economy: how business can help solve a global crisis" 3546: 3521: 3500:"The Utilization of Human Excreta in Chinese Agriculture and the Challenge Faced" 3472: 3455: 3415: 3327: 2553: 1950: 1851: 424:, recovering organic matter for use as building materials or in paper production. 4702: 4652: 4552: 3036: 2825:

Deutsche Gesellschaft fuer Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH, Eschborn, Germany

1468: 1369: 1283: 1159: 977: 793: 727: 612: 536: 460: 440: 349: 222: 172: 77: 53: 17: 4303: 3788:

Elisabeth Kvarnström, Linus Dagerskog, Anna Norström and Mats Johansson (2012)

3556: 3359: 3343:"Feasibility study for biogas integration into waste treatment plants in Ghana" 3342: 2856:

Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH, Eschborn, Germany

2809:. Sustainable Sanitation Practice (SSP) Journal, Issue 17, EcoSan Club, Austria 2670: 1767:"Towards "Sustainable" Sanitation: Challenges and Opportunities in Urban Areas" 1059:

content. There can be a large amount of enteric bacteria, virus, protozoa, and

4753: 4707: 4607: 1556: 1088: 877: 854: 699: 517: 456: 391: 238: 180: 73: 65: 4077: 4002: 3928: 3565: 3481: 2989:

A rock and a hard place - Peak phosphorus and the threat to our food security

2940: 2492: 2327: 2175: 2086: 2077: 2024: 1959: 1860: 1703: 1597:

For the amount of other elements in urine, see Rose 2015 and Rich Earth 2021.

1170:). The nutrients, especially nitrates, in fertilizers can cause problems for 1076:

The treatment of excreta and wastewater for pathogen removal can take place:

431:

Reuse products that can be recovered from sanitation systems include: Stored

27:

Safe, beneficial use of human excreta mainly in agriculture (after treatment)

4677: 4207: 3312:"Electrolysis of Urea and Urine for Solar Hydrogen (supplementary material)" 2379:

An Ecological Approach to Sanitation in Africa: A Compilation of Experiences

1334: 1171: 932: 926: 736: 605: 575: 559: 399: 4020: 3652: 3573: 3226: 3081: 3000:

Richert, A., Gensch, R., Jönsson, H., Stenström, T., Dagerskog, L. (2010).

2872:

Faecal sludge management: systems approach for implementation and operation

2751: 2678: 2500: 2249: 2167: 2123:

Grounds Maintenance for Golf and Green Industries Professionals (Blog Post)

2032: 1967: 1868: 821:

grown in excreta-based compost (left) and without soil amendments (right),

3454:

Andriani, Dian; Wresta, Arini; Saepudin, Aep; Prawara, Budi (2015-04-01).

2743: 718:

flush toilets. During storage, the urea in urine is rapidly hydrolyzed by

4413: 3208: 2374: 1527:

including cholera and dysentery is also a notable solution within Ghana.

1116: 1056: 850: 752: 740: 579: 551: 394:

and irrigation water in agriculture, and horticulture: for example using

361: 35: 3745:

Two papers from SOIL presented at the 36th WEDC International Conference

2913:

Drechsel P, Scott CA, Raschid-Sally L, Redwood M, Bahri A, eds. (2010).

2634: 2447:

Johansson M, Jönsson H, Höglund C, Richert Stintzing A, Rodhe L (2001).

2289:

Jönsson, H., Richert Stintzing, A., Vinnerås, B. and Salomon, E. (2004)

68:. The intended reuse applications for the nutrient content may include: 4733: 3960: 3431:"Sludge treatment and disposal - efficient & safe | Endress+Hauser" 3169: 2349: 2319: 2267:

Joensson, H., Richert Stintzing, A., Vinneras, B., Salomon, E. (2004).

1536: 1495: 1391: 1195: 1162:. Nitrate levels above 10 mg/L (10 ppm) in groundwater can cause ' 1129: 988:

sectors as fertilizer under the registered trade name "Crystal Green".

903: 818: 731: 723: 648: 598: 586: 531:

contaminated beyond safe limits to start with), which is an advantage.

476: 444: 413:

Energy: for example digesting feces and other organic waste to produce

300: 263:

It can be efficient to combine wastewater and human excreta with other

229:

The resources available in wastewater and human excreta include water,

188: 128: 104: 39: 4148:

Knowledge (XXG)'s health care articles can be viewed offline with the

3633: 2483: 2466: 1783: 1766: 1270:

can be used for heating the digesters and for generating electricity.

4238: 3732:"Haiti Non-Profit Plumbs Solutions to World's Unmet Sanitation Needs" 2149:"Long-term effects of organic amendments on soil fertility. A review" 1551: 1264: 1191: 719: 706: 622: 590: 571: 568: 414: 268: 143: 89: 3615:

Chaudhari, Nitin Kaduba; Song, Min Young; Yu, Jong-Sung (May 2015).

2869:

Strande, Linda; Ronteltap, Mariska; Brdjanovic, Damir, eds. (2013).

2529: 1441:

In the United States, the EPA regulation governs the management of

439:, digestate, nutrient solutions, dry urine, struvite, dried feces, 284:. Some treatment options are listed below but there are many more: 4773: 4657: 4278: 1474: 1385: 1373: 1046: 857:, and up to 70 percent of the potassium present in human excreta. 846: 842: 813: 705:

Human urine can be collected with sanitation systems that utilize

594: 547: 502: 494: 486: 479:

field with (left) and without (right) compost, experiments at the

470: 448: 432: 407: 353: 216: 199: 43: 29: 2418: 1395:

to ensure that complete pathogen kill has taken place during the

763:

compared with when it is used directly as a fertilizer resource.

271:, and food and crop waste for the purposes of resource recovery. 3105:"Preventing Pollution Problems from Lawn and Garden Fertilizers" 981: 748: 640: 555: 280:

safe, productive uses that support human well-being and broader

4180: 2794:

Human urine is shown to be an effective agricultural fertilizer

931:

The use of treated sewage sludge (after treatment also called "

3017:, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden 3015:

Treatment technologies for human faeces and urine – PhD thesis

1137:

better in terrestrial systems (soil) than in aquatic systems.

1084:

is often treated by simple storage at the household level); or

406:

and soil conditioner; using treated source-separated urine as

2420:

Liquid Gold: The Lore and Logic of Using Urine to Grow Plants

2059:

Andriessen, Nienke; Ward, Barbara J.; Strande, Linda (2019).

1765:

Andersson, Kim; Dickin, Sarah; Rosemarin, Arno (2016-12-08).

755:. There are potentially more environmental problems (such as 288:

Urine diversion and dehydration of feces (which is done with

4176: 4091:"Production of Pellets and Electricity from Faecal Sludge". 3948:

RCC Perspectives: Transformations in Environment and Society

2291:

Guidelines on the use of urine and faeces in crop production

2269:

Guidelines on the Use of Urine and Faeces in Crop Production

1247:. Urine was found to be a suitable wastewater for high rate 651:, commonly found in sewage sludge, are much lower in urine. 3837:"Water Efficiency Technology Fact Sheet Composting Toilets" 1502:

contribute toward meeting present and future energy needs.

1433:

countries if they wish to export their products to the EU.

3901:

Liu, Ying; Huang, Ji-kun; Zikhali, Precious (2014-02-01).

1243:

Urine has also been investigated as a potential source of

3002:

Practical guidance on the use of urine in crop production

1606:

For the amount of other elements in feces, see Rose 2015.

3617:"Heteroatom-doped highly porous carbon from human urine" 2212:

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology

2065:

Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development

1896:

Current Developments in Biotechnology and Bioengineering

1674:

Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology

1437:

Dried feces from urine-diverting dry toilets in the U.S.

1080:

at the toilet itself (for example, urine collected from

3944:"The Good Muck: Toward an Excremental History of China" 2293:, EcoSanRes Publications Series, Report 2004-2, Sweden 309:

technologies, which is installed downstream of various

209:

of human excreta, not the second time that it is used.

3802:

Moya, Berta; Parker, Alison; Sakrabani, Ruben (2019).

2206:

Rose, C; Parker, A; Jefferson, B; Cartmell, E (2015).

1731:. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland 2782:. Goteborg, Sweden: Goteborg University. p. 170. 42:

made from human excreta at an experimental garden in

3835:

EPA 832-F-99-066, September 1999 (29 January 2013).

2539: 2537: 1024:

Multiple barrier concept for safe use in agriculture

1014:

Health and environmental aspects of agricultural use

682:, which are also part of the wastes excreted by the 245:

can play an important role in a community's overall

4716: 4535: 4447: 4401: 4311: 4214: 2588:

Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit GmbH

2147:Diacono, Mariangela; Montemurro, Francesco (2010). 443:humus, dewatered sludge, compost, ash from sludge, 2919:(London: Earthscan. ed.). London: Earthscan. 2442: 2440: 766:In developing countries, the use of raw sewage or 637:environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants 85: 4045: 4043: 3193:"Blue Babies and Nitrate-Contaminated Well Water" 3103:C. J. Rosen & B. P. Horgan (9 January 2009). 1639:Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies 1296:Pilot facilities are being developed for feeding 1174:and for human health if they are washed off into 558:), as well as reasonable quantities of dissolved 241:systems that are designed for safe and effective 3029:Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences and Control 2596: 2594: 2381:(CD release ed.). Aquamor, Harare, Zimbabwe 2301: 2299: 1663: 1661: 1659: 387:The most common types of excreta reuse include: 3903:"Use of Human Excreta as Manure in Rural China" 3664: 3662: 3004:. Stockholm Environment Institute (SEI), Sweden 2821:Rieck, C., von Münch, E., Hoffmann, H. (2012). 2796:, Scientific American, Retrieved on 2011-12-07. 2449:"Urine Separation – Closing the Nitrogen Cycle" 3743:Kramer, S., Preneta, N., Kilbride, A. (2013). 3507:South China Agricultural University, EcoSanRes 1320:A Japanese sewage treatment facility extracts 1292:Food source to produce protein for animal feed 1218:plants and generate heat and electricity (the 1178:or leached through the soil into groundwater. 4192: 3844:United States Environmental Protection Agency 3758:"Safety First: The New and Improved SOIL Lab" 3734:, "The Globe and the Mail", November 14, 2014 3278: 3276: 2943:. BBC News Business Section. 16 November 2016 2546:"Urine Separation — Swedish Experiences" 2412: 2410: 1087:at a semi-centralized level (for example, by 8: 3168:. Nofa.org. 25 February 2004. Archived from 2864: 2862: 2285: 2283: 2281: 2279: 2277: 3864:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 2965:. Ostara, Vancouver, Canada. Archived from 2263: 2261: 2259: 2201: 2199: 2197: 2195: 2193: 1800: 1798: 1796: 1794: 1584: 1582: 360:, nitrification and distillation of urine, 346:Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 4199: 4185: 4177: 4095:. 16 / 2015. 2015 – via Sandec News. 3768: 3766: 3493: 3491: 2580: 2578: 2576: 2574: 2572: 2570: 2471:Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2399:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 2348:H. M. Vines, & Wedding, R. T. (1960). 1477:to be more easily fermented into alcohol. 639:). Concentrations of heavy metals such as 4123: 4067: 4010: 3992: 3959: 3918: 3819: 3715:"Human Waste to Revive Haitian Farmland?" 3642: 3632: 3555: 3545: 3471: 3358: 3264: 3242: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3216: 2817: 2815: 2482: 2368: 2366: 2271:. Stockholm Environment Institute, Sweden 2239: 2076: 2014: 1949: 1850: 1782: 1723: 1721: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1693: 1627: 1625: 1623: 1068:Treatment of excreta for pathogen removal 3784: 3782: 3591:"Sewage yields more gold than top mines" 3585: 3583: 3285:International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 3074:10.1146/annurev.arplant.59.032607.092932 2702:"Suggestions for sustainable sanitation" 911:International Water Management Institute 3790:Nutrient reuse as a solution multiplier 2835:J.O. Drangert, Urine separation systems 2644: 2642: 1619: 1578: 1509:in eastern Uganda—a region with severe 319:processes, such as sludge drying beds, 52:is the safe, beneficial use of treated 3857: 2963:"Ostara Nutrient Management Solutions" 2392: 2119:"Food for turf: Slow-release nitrogen" 1424:Urine use in organic farming in Europe 1347:History of water supply and sanitation 88:or as an energy source in the form of 4056:Resources, Conservation and Recycling 3669:Paranipe, Nitin (19 September 2017). 3253:Resources, Conservation and Recycling 2635:https://www.jstor.org/stable/45128671 2520: 2518: 2054: 2052: 2050: 1214:Dried sewage sludge can be burned in 1194:, fish food, building materials, and 447:, nutrient-enriched filter material, 131:in the environment which could cause 7: 4864: 2896:Otoo, Miriam; Drechsel, Pay (2018). 2700:Canaday, Chris (December 21, 2016). 2156:Agronomy for Sustainable Development 1747: 1745: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1737: 1351:Ecological sanitation § History 849:can contain up to 90 percent of the 3882:. U.S. Government Publishing Office 3107:. Extension.umn.edu. Archived from 2941:"The firms turning poo into profit" 1337:catalysts while performing better. 455:, black soldier fly larvae, worms, 3907:Journal of Integrative Agriculture 3747:, Nakuru, Kenya, 2013. SOIL, Haiti 3697:Introducing the Sanitation Economy 2902:. Oxon, UK: Routledge - Earthscan. 2584:von Münch, E., Winker, M. (2011). 25: 4093:Excreta and Wastewater Management 3197:Environmental Health Perspectives 773:Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation 417:; or producing combustible fuels. 202:" as strictly speaking it is the 4863: 4827: 4826: 4816: 4573:Extended producer responsibility 4302: 4142: 3981:PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 3132:Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 2530:https://doi.org/10.15480/882.481 1995:Science of the Total Environment 1094:at a fully centralized level at 435:, concentrated urine, sanitized 352:, black soldier fly composting, 4172:Sustainable Sanitation Alliance 4163:Sustainable Sanitation Alliance 4069:10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.04.005 3760:, "SOIL blog", February 2, 2014 3703:. Toilet Board Coalition. 2017. 3675:Thomson Reuters Foundation News 3266:10.1016/j.resconrec.2014.04.005 2991:. Soil Association, Bristol, UK 2712:from the original on 2021-07-28 2016:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163053 512:Comparison to other fertilizers 3297:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.10.089 3062:Annual Review of Plant Biology 1898:, Elsevier, pp. 205–221, 1100:sewage sludge treatment plants 861:feces can still be composted. 254:Sustainable Development Goal 6 1: 4739:Container-deposit legislation 4159:Documents on reuse of excreta 4125:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.01.070 4112:Journal of Cleaner Production 3920:10.1016/S2095-3119(13)60407-4 3821:10.1016/j.foodpol.2019.05.001 3388:10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.09.114 3376:Journal of Cleaner Production 3347:Egyptian Journal of Petroleum 2375:"10. The Usefulness of urine" 2232:10.1080/10643389.2014.1000761 1695:10.1080/10643389.2018.1558889 1207:Solid fuel, heat, electricity 1128:Excreta from humans contains 898:Sewage treatment § Reuse 550:contains large quantities of 483:farm in Port-au-Prince, Haiti 364:precipitation, incineration, 258:sustainable development goals 3994:10.1371/journal.pntd.0003444 3547:10.1016/j.wasman.2018.10.022 3473:10.1016/j.egypro.2015.03.250 3416:10.1016/j.renene.2017.08.068 3328:10.1016/j.cattod.2012.02.009 3152:10.1016/0169-7722(95)00067-4 2732:Water Science and Technology 2544:Håkan Jönsson (2001-10-01). 1951:10.1016/j.watres.2023.120221 1852:10.1016/j.watres.2018.06.001 961:also have similar projects. 135:and thus potentially affect 111:technologies and a range of 4434:Materials recovery facility 4151:Medical Knowledge (XXG) app 3037:10.1007/978-94-007-7814-6_5 1418:Good Agricultural Practices 1416:Regulations such as Global 1253:microbial electrolysis cell 1082:urine-diverting dry toilets 396:recovered and treated water 290:urine-diverting dry toilets 213:Technologies and approaches 175:). Within the concept of a 97:urine-diverting dry toilets 4928: 4168:Photos on reuse of excreta 3360:10.1016/j.ejpe.2016.10.004 2671:10.1038/d41586-022-00338-6 2454:. Stockholm Water Company. 1466: 1344: 1281: 1262: 1236: 995: 968: 949:expenditure of 20 million 920: 891: 868: 853:, up to 50 percent of the 807: 515: 4812: 4300: 4170:in photo database of the 4106:Andersson, Elina (2015). 2987:Soil Association (2010). 2417:Steinfeld, Carol (2004). 1412:Regulatory considerations 1278:Food source for livestock 1222:process is one example). 1030:World Health Organization 160:World Health Organization 58:plant-available nutrients 3942:Worster, Donald (2017). 3013:Niwagaba, C. B. (2009). 2078:10.2166/washdev.2019.184 1316:Precious metals recovery 965:Sludge treatment liquids 800:through organic carbon. 422:black soldier fly larvae 4764:Reverse vending machine 3719:The National Geographic 2773:Ganrot, Zsofia (2005). 1547:Fecal sludge management 1124:Pharmaceutical residues 1096:sewage treatment plants 1041:thermophilic composting 971:Sewage sludge treatment 871:Fecal sludge management 761:sewage treatment plants 307:Sewage sludge treatment 125:pharmaceutical residues 109:sewage sludge treatment 4804:Water recycling shower 4648:Reuse of human excreta 4618:Recycling (ecological) 4603:Material flow analysis 4161:in the library of the 3713:Christine Dell'Amore, 2373:Morgan, Peter (2004). 2117:J. B. Sartain (2011). 1052: 826: 508: 500: 492: 484: 329:with biogas production 317:Fecal sludge treatment 226: 137:drinking water quality 113:fecal sludge treatment 50:Reuse of human excreta 46: 4593:Interchangeable parts 4588:Industrial metabolism 3498:Shiming, Luo (2002). 2792:Mara Grunbaum (2010) 2744:10.2166/wst.2003.0011 1542:Ecological sanitation 1345:Further information: 1263:Further information: 1237:Further information: 1050: 996:Further information: 969:Further information: 892:Further information: 880:, pelletization, and 869:Further information: 829:Compost derived from 817: 516:Further information: 506: 498: 490: 474: 378:ecological sanitation 243:recovery of resources 225:in Hampshire, England 220: 133:groundwater pollution 33: 4799:Water heat recycling 4789:Waste management law 3209:10.1289/ehp.00108675 2627:Ecological Bulletins 2609:Rich Earth Institute 2602:"Urine in my garden" 2168:10.1051/agro/2009040 2101:Uran in Düngemitteln 1399:composting process. 888:Municipal wastewater 739:) and phosphorus as 669:diammonium phosphate 321:constructed wetlands 311:wastewater treatment 301:composting processes 237:and energy content. 191:, water, or energy. 156:developing countries 105:composting processes 4749:Ethical consumerism 4683:Urban lumberjacking 4613:Product stewardship 4563:Eco-industrial park 3557:20.500.11850/302327 3538:2018WaMan..82..302G 3144:1995JCHyd..20..167S 2969:on 19 February 2015 2852:Berger, W. (2011). 2663:2022Natur.602..202W 2550:EcoEng Newsletter 1 2524:Winker, M. (2009). 2423:. Ecowaters Books. 2308:Fertilizer Research 2224:2015CREST..45.1827R 2007:2023ScTEn.879p3053S 1942:2023WatRe.24220221D 1843:2018WatRe.142..325S 1686:2019CREST..49..695H 1515:smallholder farmers 1359:Society and culture 1249:hydrogen production 1216:sludge incineration 1134:pharmaceutical drug 1107:Indicator organisms 882:anaerobic digestion 358:microbial fuel cell 327:Anaerobic digestion 247:resource management 196:reuse of wastewater 4822:Environment portal 4693:Waste minimisation 4638:Reusable packaging 4583:Industrial ecology 4033:Likoko, E. (2013) 3721:, October 26, 2011 3621:Scientific Reports 3031:. pp. 55–71. 2875:. IWA Publishing. 2840:2014-12-22 at the 2320:10.1007/bf00750100 1567:Vermifilter toilet 1308:Building materials 1227:Sub-Saharan Africa 1164:blue baby syndrome 1115:in reuse schemes, 1113:indicator organism 1053: 939:Northumbrian Water 831:composting toilets 827: 688:Over-fertilization 522:Organic fertilizer 509: 501: 493: 485: 297:composting toilets 227: 121:indicator organism 101:composting toilets 47: 4879: 4878: 4633:Resource recovery 4623:Refill (campaign) 4568:Ecological design 4548:Dematerialization 4358:Fluorescent lamps 3846:. Office of Water 3634:10.1038/srep05221 3111:on 7 October 2010 3046:978-94-007-7813-9 2926:978-1-84407-795-3 2882:978-1-78040-472-1 2657:(7896): 202–206. 2484:10.1021/jf0717891 2477:(21): 8657–8663. 2430:978-0-9666783-1-4 2218:(17): 1827–1879. 2099:Kratz, S. (2004) 1905:978-0-444-64309-4 1814:978-92-807-3488-1 1784:10.3390/su8121289 1649:978-3-906484-57-0 1562:Resource recovery 1298:black soldier fly 1188:black soldier fly 1168:methemoglobinemia 1141:Nitrate pollution 986:ornamental plants 564:high protein diet 275:Treatment options 185:soil conditioners 62:water reclamation 16:(Redirected from 4919: 4867: 4866: 4830: 4829: 4820: 4794:Waste management 4784:Waste collection 4643:Reuse of bottles 4543:Circular economy 4520:Northern Ireland 4306: 4201: 4194: 4187: 4178: 4146: 4130: 4129: 4127: 4103: 4097: 4096: 4088: 4082: 4081: 4071: 4047: 4038: 4031: 4025: 4024: 4014: 3996: 3972: 3966: 3965: 3963: 3961:10.5282/rcc/8135 3939: 3933: 3932: 3922: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3876: 3870: 3869: 3863: 3855: 3853: 3851: 3841: 3832: 3826: 3825: 3823: 3799: 3793: 3786: 3777: 3770: 3761: 3754: 3748: 3741: 3735: 3728: 3722: 3711: 3705: 3704: 3702: 3692: 3686: 3685: 3683: 3681: 3666: 3657: 3656: 3646: 3636: 3612: 3606: 3605: 3603: 3602: 3587: 3578: 3577: 3559: 3549: 3526:Waste Management 3517: 3511: 3510: 3504: 3495: 3486: 3485: 3475: 3451: 3445: 3444: 3442: 3441: 3427: 3421: 3419: 3404:Renewable Energy 3398: 3392: 3391: 3371: 3365: 3364: 3362: 3338: 3332: 3331: 3307: 3301: 3300: 3280: 3271: 3270: 3268: 3244: 3231: 3230: 3220: 3188: 3182: 3181: 3179: 3177: 3172:on 24 March 2004 3162: 3156: 3155: 3127: 3121: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3100: 3094: 3093: 3057: 3051: 3050: 3024: 3018: 3011: 3005: 2998: 2992: 2985: 2979: 2978: 2976: 2974: 2959: 2953: 2952: 2950: 2948: 2937: 2931: 2930: 2910: 2904: 2903: 2893: 2887: 2886: 2866: 2857: 2850: 2844: 2832: 2826: 2819: 2810: 2803: 2797: 2790: 2784: 2783: 2781: 2770: 2764: 2763: 2727: 2721: 2720: 2718: 2717: 2697: 2691: 2690: 2646: 2637: 2623: 2617: 2616: 2606: 2598: 2589: 2582: 2565: 2564: 2562: 2561: 2552:. Archived from 2541: 2532: 2522: 2513: 2512: 2486: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2453: 2444: 2435: 2434: 2414: 2405: 2404: 2398: 2390: 2388: 2386: 2370: 2361: 2354:Plant Physiology 2346: 2340: 2339: 2303: 2294: 2287: 2272: 2265: 2254: 2253: 2243: 2203: 2188: 2187: 2153: 2144: 2138: 2137: 2135: 2134: 2125:. Archived from 2114: 2108: 2097: 2091: 2090: 2080: 2056: 2045: 2044: 2018: 1986: 1980: 1979: 1953: 1921: 1915: 1914: 1913: 1912: 1887: 1881: 1880: 1854: 1822: 1816: 1802: 1789: 1788: 1786: 1762: 1756: 1749: 1732: 1725: 1708: 1707: 1697: 1665: 1654: 1653: 1629: 1607: 1604: 1598: 1595: 1589: 1586: 1511:land degradation 1449:Country examples 1384:The NGO SOIL in 696:ammonium nitrate 457:irrigation water 177:circular economy 86:as a fuel source 70:soil conditioner 21: 18:Reuse of excreta 4927: 4926: 4922: 4921: 4920: 4918: 4917: 4916: 4882: 4881: 4880: 4875: 4808: 4779:Waste-to-energy 4744:Dumpster diving 4712: 4688:Waste hierarchy 4663:Right to repair 4531: 4500:The Netherlands 4455:Rate by country 4443: 4397: 4307: 4298: 4210: 4205: 4155: 4147: 4139: 4134: 4133: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4090: 4089: 4085: 4049: 4048: 4041: 4032: 4028: 3987:(1): e0003444. 3974: 3973: 3969: 3941: 3940: 3936: 3900: 3899: 3895: 3885: 3883: 3878: 3877: 3873: 3856: 3849: 3847: 3839: 3834: 3833: 3829: 3801: 3800: 3796: 3787: 3780: 3771: 3764: 3755: 3751: 3742: 3738: 3730:Jonathan Hera, 3729: 3725: 3712: 3708: 3700: 3694: 3693: 3689: 3679: 3677: 3668: 3667: 3660: 3614: 3613: 3609: 3600: 3598: 3589: 3588: 3581: 3519: 3518: 3514: 3502: 3497: 3496: 3489: 3460:Energy Procedia 3453: 3452: 3448: 3439: 3437: 3429: 3428: 3424: 3400: 3399: 3395: 3373: 3372: 3368: 3340: 3339: 3335: 3316:Catalysis Today 3309: 3308: 3304: 3282: 3281: 3274: 3246: 3245: 3234: 3190: 3189: 3185: 3175: 3173: 3164: 3163: 3159: 3138:(3–4): 167–84. 3129: 3128: 3124: 3114: 3112: 3102: 3101: 3097: 3059: 3058: 3054: 3047: 3026: 3025: 3021: 3012: 3008: 2999: 2995: 2986: 2982: 2972: 2970: 2961: 2960: 2956: 2946: 2944: 2939: 2938: 2934: 2927: 2912: 2911: 2907: 2895: 2894: 2890: 2883: 2868: 2867: 2860: 2851: 2847: 2842:Wayback Machine 2833: 2829: 2820: 2813: 2804: 2800: 2791: 2787: 2779: 2772: 2771: 2767: 2729: 2728: 2724: 2715: 2713: 2699: 2698: 2694: 2648: 2647: 2640: 2624: 2620: 2604: 2600: 2599: 2592: 2583: 2568: 2559: 2557: 2543: 2542: 2535: 2523: 2516: 2464: 2463: 2459: 2451: 2446: 2445: 2438: 2431: 2416: 2415: 2408: 2391: 2384: 2382: 2372: 2371: 2364: 2347: 2343: 2305: 2304: 2297: 2288: 2275: 2266: 2257: 2205: 2204: 2191: 2151: 2146: 2145: 2141: 2132: 2130: 2116: 2115: 2111: 2098: 2094: 2058: 2057: 2048: 1988: 1987: 1983: 1923: 1922: 1918: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1889: 1888: 1884: 1824: 1823: 1819: 1803: 1792: 1764: 1763: 1759: 1750: 1735: 1726: 1711: 1667: 1666: 1657: 1650: 1631: 1630: 1621: 1616: 1611: 1610: 1605: 1601: 1596: 1592: 1587: 1580: 1575: 1533: 1524: 1507:Tororo District 1492: 1483: 1471: 1465: 1456: 1451: 1439: 1426: 1414: 1405: 1382: 1380:Sale of compost 1366: 1361: 1353: 1343: 1331: 1329:Other materials 1322:precious metals 1318: 1310: 1294: 1286: 1280: 1267: 1261: 1241: 1235: 1220:waste-to-energy 1209: 1204: 1184: 1143: 1126: 1109: 1070: 1026: 1021: 1016: 1004:peak phosphorus 1000: 998:Peak phosphorus 994: 992:Peak phosphorus 973: 967: 929: 921:Main articles: 919: 900: 894:Reclaimed water 890: 873: 867: 812: 810:Uses of compost 806: 804:Composted feces 792:Reuse of dried 790: 781: 716:urine diversion 711:urine diversion 698:. In contrast, 680:sodium chloride 666: 662: 658: 627:chemically burn 616: 609: 602: 583: 545: 524: 514: 469: 374: 350:vermifiltration 344:A guide by the 333:Waste-to-energy 277: 231:plant nutrients 215: 169: 99:), composting ( 64:from municipal 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4925: 4923: 4915: 4914: 4909: 4904: 4899: 4894: 4884: 4883: 4877: 4876: 4874: 4873: 4861: 4856: 4855: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4824: 4813: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4806: 4801: 4796: 4791: 4786: 4781: 4776: 4771: 4766: 4761: 4756: 4751: 4746: 4741: 4736: 4731: 4726: 4724:Bottle cutting 4720: 4718: 4714: 4713: 4711: 4710: 4705: 4700: 4695: 4690: 4685: 4680: 4675: 4665: 4660: 4655: 4650: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4630: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4610: 4605: 4600: 4598:Land recycling 4595: 4590: 4585: 4580: 4575: 4570: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4550: 4545: 4539: 4537: 4533: 4532: 4530: 4529: 4524: 4523: 4522: 4515:United Kingdom 4512: 4507: 4502: 4497: 4492: 4487: 4482: 4477: 4472: 4467: 4462: 4457: 4451: 4449: 4445: 4444: 4442: 4441: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4405: 4403: 4399: 4398: 4396: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4380: 4375: 4370: 4365: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4344: 4343: 4333: 4328: 4326:Automotive oil 4323: 4317: 4315: 4309: 4308: 4301: 4299: 4297: 4296: 4291: 4286: 4281: 4276: 4271: 4266: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4246: 4241: 4236: 4231: 4226: 4220: 4218: 4212: 4211: 4206: 4204: 4203: 4196: 4189: 4181: 4175: 4174: 4165: 4141: 4140: 4138: 4137:External links 4135: 4132: 4131: 4098: 4083: 4039: 4026: 3967: 3934: 3913:(2): 434–442. 3893: 3871: 3827: 3794: 3778: 3762: 3749: 3736: 3723: 3706: 3687: 3658: 3607: 3579: 3512: 3487: 3446: 3422: 3393: 3366: 3353:(3): 695–703. 3333: 3302: 3291:(10): 4771–8. 3272: 3232: 3183: 3157: 3122: 3095: 3052: 3045: 3019: 3006: 2993: 2980: 2954: 2932: 2925: 2905: 2888: 2881: 2858: 2845: 2827: 2811: 2798: 2785: 2765: 2722: 2692: 2638: 2618: 2590: 2566: 2533: 2514: 2457: 2436: 2429: 2406: 2362: 2341: 2314:(2): 149–154. 2295: 2273: 2255: 2189: 2162:(2): 401–422. 2139: 2109: 2092: 2071:(2): 210–224. 2046: 1981: 1930:Water Research 1916: 1904: 1882: 1831:Water Research 1817: 1790: 1771:Sustainability 1757: 1733: 1709: 1680:(8): 695–743. 1655: 1648: 1634:"Septic tanks" 1618: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1608: 1599: 1590: 1577: 1576: 1574: 1571: 1570: 1569: 1564: 1559: 1554: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1532: 1529: 1523: 1520: 1491: 1488: 1482: 1479: 1467:Main article: 1464: 1461: 1455: 1452: 1450: 1447: 1438: 1435: 1430:European Union 1425: 1422: 1413: 1410: 1404: 1401: 1381: 1378: 1365: 1362: 1360: 1357: 1342: 1339: 1330: 1327: 1317: 1314: 1309: 1306: 1293: 1290: 1279: 1276: 1260: 1257: 1234: 1231: 1208: 1205: 1203: 1200: 1183: 1180: 1142: 1139: 1125: 1122: 1108: 1105: 1104: 1103: 1092: 1085: 1069: 1066: 1025: 1022: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 993: 990: 966: 963: 953:by about 20%. 943:United Kingdom 918: 915: 889: 886: 866: 863: 808:Main article: 805: 802: 798:soil fertility 789: 786: 780: 777: 757:eutrophication 664: 660: 656: 614: 607: 600: 581: 544: 541: 513: 510: 475:Comparison of 468: 465: 463:, and biogas. 426: 425: 418: 411: 373: 370: 342: 341: 339:Omni processor 336: 330: 324: 314: 304: 293: 282:sustainability 276: 273: 235:organic matter 214: 211: 168: 165: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4924: 4913: 4910: 4908: 4905: 4903: 4900: 4898: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4889: 4887: 4872: 4871: 4862: 4860: 4857: 4853: 4852:organizations 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4840: 4838: 4835: 4834: 4833: 4825: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4814: 4811: 4805: 4802: 4800: 4797: 4795: 4792: 4790: 4787: 4785: 4782: 4780: 4777: 4775: 4772: 4770: 4769:Simple living 4767: 4765: 4762: 4760: 4759:Pallet crafts 4757: 4755: 4752: 4750: 4747: 4745: 4742: 4740: 4737: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4722: 4721: 4719: 4715: 4709: 4706: 4704: 4701: 4699: 4698:Waste picking 4696: 4694: 4691: 4689: 4686: 4684: 4681: 4679: 4676: 4673: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4659: 4656: 4654: 4651: 4649: 4646: 4644: 4641: 4639: 4636: 4634: 4631: 4629: 4628:Repairability 4626: 4624: 4621: 4619: 4616: 4614: 4611: 4609: 4606: 4604: 4601: 4599: 4596: 4594: 4591: 4589: 4586: 4584: 4581: 4579: 4578:Green economy 4576: 4574: 4571: 4569: 4566: 4564: 4561: 4559: 4556: 4554: 4551: 4549: 4546: 4544: 4541: 4540: 4538: 4534: 4528: 4527:United States 4525: 4521: 4518: 4517: 4516: 4513: 4511: 4508: 4506: 4503: 4501: 4498: 4496: 4493: 4491: 4488: 4486: 4483: 4481: 4478: 4476: 4473: 4471: 4468: 4466: 4463: 4461: 4458: 4456: 4453: 4452: 4450: 4446: 4440: 4439:Waste sorting 4437: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4406: 4404: 4400: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4379: 4376: 4374: 4371: 4369: 4368:Mobile phones 4366: 4364: 4361: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4342: 4339: 4338: 4337: 4334: 4332: 4329: 4327: 4324: 4322: 4319: 4318: 4316: 4314: 4310: 4305: 4295: 4292: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4272: 4270: 4267: 4265: 4262: 4260: 4257: 4255: 4252: 4250: 4247: 4245: 4242: 4240: 4237: 4235: 4232: 4230: 4227: 4225: 4222: 4221: 4219: 4217: 4213: 4209: 4202: 4197: 4195: 4190: 4188: 4183: 4182: 4179: 4173: 4169: 4166: 4164: 4160: 4157: 4156: 4153: 4152: 4145: 4136: 4126: 4121: 4117: 4113: 4109: 4102: 4099: 4094: 4087: 4084: 4079: 4075: 4070: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4053: 4046: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4030: 4027: 4022: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3995: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3971: 3968: 3962: 3957: 3953: 3949: 3945: 3938: 3935: 3930: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3897: 3894: 3881: 3875: 3872: 3867: 3861: 3845: 3838: 3831: 3828: 3822: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3805: 3798: 3795: 3791: 3785: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3769: 3767: 3763: 3759: 3756:Erica Lloyd, 3753: 3750: 3746: 3740: 3737: 3733: 3727: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3710: 3707: 3699: 3698: 3691: 3688: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3654: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3626: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3608: 3596: 3592: 3586: 3584: 3580: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3563: 3558: 3553: 3548: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3516: 3513: 3508: 3501: 3494: 3492: 3488: 3483: 3479: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3450: 3447: 3436: 3432: 3426: 3423: 3417: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3397: 3394: 3389: 3385: 3381: 3377: 3370: 3367: 3361: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3344: 3337: 3334: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3306: 3303: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3279: 3277: 3273: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3254: 3250: 3243: 3241: 3239: 3237: 3233: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3214: 3210: 3206: 3202: 3198: 3194: 3187: 3184: 3171: 3167: 3161: 3158: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3126: 3123: 3110: 3106: 3099: 3096: 3091: 3087: 3083: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3067: 3063: 3056: 3053: 3048: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3023: 3020: 3016: 3010: 3007: 3003: 2997: 2994: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2968: 2964: 2958: 2955: 2942: 2936: 2933: 2928: 2922: 2918: 2917: 2909: 2906: 2901: 2900: 2892: 2889: 2884: 2878: 2874: 2873: 2865: 2863: 2859: 2855: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2839: 2836: 2831: 2828: 2824: 2818: 2816: 2812: 2808: 2802: 2799: 2795: 2789: 2786: 2778: 2777: 2769: 2766: 2761: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2726: 2723: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2696: 2693: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2664: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2645: 2643: 2639: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2622: 2619: 2615: 2610: 2603: 2597: 2595: 2591: 2587: 2581: 2579: 2577: 2575: 2573: 2571: 2567: 2556:on 2009-04-27 2555: 2551: 2547: 2540: 2538: 2534: 2531: 2527: 2521: 2519: 2515: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2485: 2480: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2461: 2458: 2450: 2443: 2441: 2437: 2432: 2426: 2422: 2421: 2413: 2411: 2407: 2402: 2396: 2380: 2376: 2369: 2367: 2363: 2360:(6), 820–825. 2359: 2355: 2351: 2345: 2342: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2302: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2286: 2284: 2282: 2280: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2264: 2262: 2260: 2256: 2251: 2247: 2242: 2237: 2233: 2229: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2196: 2194: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2150: 2143: 2140: 2129:on 2019-10-29 2128: 2124: 2120: 2113: 2110: 2106: 2102: 2096: 2093: 2088: 2084: 2079: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2055: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2017: 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1985: 1982: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1952: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1920: 1917: 1907: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1886: 1883: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1801: 1799: 1797: 1795: 1791: 1785: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1768: 1761: 1758: 1754: 1748: 1746: 1744: 1742: 1740: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1724: 1722: 1720: 1718: 1716: 1714: 1710: 1705: 1701: 1696: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1664: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1645: 1641: 1640: 1635: 1628: 1626: 1624: 1620: 1613: 1603: 1600: 1594: 1591: 1585: 1583: 1579: 1572: 1568: 1565: 1563: 1560: 1558: 1555: 1553: 1550: 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1534: 1530: 1528: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1503: 1499: 1497: 1489: 1487: 1480: 1478: 1476: 1470: 1462: 1460: 1453: 1448: 1446: 1444: 1443:sewage sludge 1436: 1434: 1431: 1423: 1421: 1419: 1411: 1409: 1402: 1400: 1398: 1394: 1393: 1387: 1379: 1377: 1375: 1371: 1363: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1348: 1340: 1338: 1336: 1328: 1326: 1323: 1315: 1313: 1307: 1305: 1301: 1299: 1291: 1289: 1285: 1277: 1275: 1271: 1266: 1258: 1256: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1245:hydrogen fuel 1240: 1239:Hydrogen fuel 1233:Hydrogen fuel 1232: 1230: 1228: 1223: 1221: 1217: 1212: 1206: 1201: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1181: 1179: 1177: 1176:surface water 1173: 1169: 1165: 1161: 1157: 1153: 1152:surface water 1149: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1131: 1123: 1121: 1118: 1114: 1106: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1090: 1086: 1083: 1079: 1078: 1077: 1074: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1061:helminth eggs 1058: 1049: 1045: 1042: 1037: 1033: 1031: 1023: 1018: 1013: 1011: 1009: 1008:food security 1005: 999: 991: 989: 987: 983: 979: 972: 964: 962: 960: 956: 952: 948: 944: 940: 936: 934: 928: 924: 923:Sewage sludge 917:Sewage sludge 916: 914: 912: 907: 905: 899: 895: 887: 885: 883: 879: 872: 864: 862: 858: 856: 852: 848: 844: 839: 836: 835:sewage sludge 832: 824: 820: 816: 811: 803: 801: 799: 795: 787: 785: 778: 776: 774: 769: 764: 762: 758: 754: 750: 744: 742: 738: 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 712: 708: 703: 701: 697: 693: 692:phytotoxicity 689: 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