2131:& Melinda Gates Foundation from 2015 to 2022. Results from this project showed that capacity development best happens on the job and in a learning organization culture. In a government capacity development initiative, it is critical to have an enabling policy and program funding to translate capacity development input into program and infrastructure outputs. Capacity development aims to empower staff and institutions, develop a learning strategy, learning content and training modules, as well as strengthened partnerships and institutions of learning. The Capacity Development Effectiveness Ladder Framework (CDEL) identifies five critical steps for capacity development interventions: Developing original learning content, partnerships for learning and outreach, learning strategy, visioning change and designing solutions, contribution to capacity development discourse.
826:
1367:
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818:
613:"For the purposes of this manual, the word 'sanitation' alone is taken to mean the safe management of human excreta. It therefore includes both the 'hardware' (e.g. latrines and sewers) and the 'software' (regulation, hygiene promotion) needed to reduce faecal-oral disease transmission. It encompasses too the re-use and ultimate disposal of human excreta. The term environmental sanitation is used to cover the wider concept of controlling all the factors in the physical environment which may have deleterious impacts on human health and well-being. In developing countries, it normally includes drainage, solid waste management, and vector control, in addition to the activities covered by the definition of sanitation."
515:
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59:
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accessing, loss of productivity, additional costs for healthcare among others. Inadequate sanitation also leads to loss from potential tourism revenue. This study also found that impacts are disproportionately higher for the poor, women and children. Availability of toilet at home on the other hand, positively contributes to economic well-being of women as it leads to an increase in literacy and participation in labor force.
893:, and delivers empty containers when picking up full ones. The service transports and safely disposes of or reuses collected excreta. The cost of collection of excreta is usually borne by the users. With suitable development, support and functioning partnerships, CBS can be used to provide low-income urban populations with safe collection, transport and treatment of excrement at a lower cost than installing and maintaining
27:
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1779:) related diseases. It usually involves a participatory approach of engaging people to take responsibility of WASH services and infrastructure including its operation and maintenance. The three key elements of promoting hygiene are; mutual sharing of information and knowledge, the mobilization of affected communities and the provision of essential material and facilities.
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all DALYs globally." Of the four health outcomes studied, it was diarrheal disease that had the most striking correlation, namely the highest number of "attributable burden of disease": over 1 million deaths and 55 million DALYs from diarrheal diseases was linked with lack of WASH. Of these deaths, 564,000 deaths were linked to unsafe sanitation in particular.
1192:(FSM) (or faecal sludge management in British English) is the storage, collection, transport, treatment and safe end use or disposal of fecal sludge. Together, the collection, transport, treatment and end use of fecal sludge constitute the "value chain" or "service chain" of fecal sludge management. Fecal sludge is defined very broadly as what accumulates in
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245:
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is regarded as an important mechanism to achieve progress in the sanitation sector. For example, in India the
Sanitation Capacity Building platform (SCBP) was designed to "support and build the capacity of town/cities to plan and implement decentralized sanitation solutions" with funding by the Bill
1873:
In 2023, WHO summarized the available data with the following key findings: "In 2019, use of safe WASH services could have prevented the loss of at least 1.4 million lives and 74 million disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) from four health outcomes. This represents 2.5% of all deaths and 2.9% of
1306:
Onsite sanitation (or on-site sanitation) is defined as "a sanitation system in which excreta and wastewater are collected and stored or treated on the plot where they are generated". Another term that is used for the same system is non-sewered sanitation systems (NSSS), which are prevalent in many
808:
For developing countries, the economic costs of inadequate sanitation is a huge concern. For example, according to a World Bank study, economic losses due to inadequate sanitation to The Indian economy are equivalent to 6.4% of its GDP. Most of these are due to premature mortality, time lost in
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A study was carried out in 2018 to compare the lifecycle costs of full sanitation chain systems in developing cities of Africa and Asia. It found that conventional sewer systems are in most cases the most expensive sanitation options, followed, in order of cost, by sanitation systems comprising
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In many settings, provision of sanitation facilities alone does not guarantee good health of the population. Studies have suggested that the impact of hygiene practices have as great an impact on sanitation related diseases as the actual provision of sanitation facilities. Hygiene promotion is
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facility which is not shared with other households, and where the excreta produced is either treated and disposed in situ, stored temporarily and then emptied and transported to treatment off-site, or transported through a sewer with wastewater and then treated off-site. In other words, safely
1820:
530:"Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal."
2054:
There are numerous reasons for this gap. A major one is that sanitation is rarely given political attention received by other topics despite its key importance. Sanitation is not high on the international development agenda, and projects such as those relating to
495:
1378:. It is measured under the Sustainable Development Goal 6.2, Indicator 6.2.1, as the "Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water". The current value in the 2017 baseline estimate by
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eggs are a commonly used indicator. With helminth egg analysis, eggs are extracted from the sample after which a viability test is done to distinguish between viable and non viable eggs. The viable fraction of the helminth eggs in the sample is then counted.
2205:. Throughout history people have devised systems to get water into their communities and households, and to dispose (and later also treat) wastewater. The focus of sewage treatment at that time was on conveying raw sewage to a natural body of water, e.g. a
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practices. It focuses on spontaneous and long-lasting behavior change of an entire community. The term "triggering" is central to the CLTS process: it refers to ways of igniting community interest in ending open defecation, usually by building simple
1654:
1027:. When properly designed and operated, ecosan systems provide a hygienically safe system to convert human excreta into nutrients to be returned to the soil, and water to be returned to the land. Ecosan is also called resource-oriented sanitation.
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1422:(SuSanA) includes five features (or criteria) in its definition of "sustainable sanitation": Systems need to be economically and socially acceptable, technically and institutionally appropriate and protect the environment and natural resources.
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and wastewater. This is referred to as the "sanitation value chain" or "sanitation economy". The people responsible for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying a sanitation technology at any step of the sanitation chain are called
2074:(JMP) has been publishing reports of updated estimates every two years on the use of various types of drinking-water sources and sanitation facilities at the national, regional and global levels. The JMP report for 2015 stated that:
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countries. NSSS play a vital role in the safe management of fecal sludge, accounting for approximately half of all existing sanitation provisions. The degree of treatment may be variable, from none to advanced. Examples are pit
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in 2020, the fight for clean water and sanitation is more important than ever. Handwashing is one of the most common prevention methods for
Coronavirus, yet two out of five people do not have access to a hand-washing station.
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Lack of sanitation refers to the absence of sanitation. In practical terms it usually means lack of toilets or lack of hygienic toilets that anybody would want to use voluntarily. The result of lack of sanitation is usually
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control. According to World health organization (WHO) Environmental sanitation was defined as the control of all those factors in the physical environment which exercise a harmful effect on human being physical development,
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facilities that are not shared with other households. A lower level of service is now called "limited sanitation service" which refers to use of improved sanitation facilities that are shared between two or more households.
491:
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per year or 4.7% of global anthropogenic methane emissions, which are comparable to the greenhouse gas emissions from wastewater treatment plants. This means that the GHG emissions from the NSSS as a non-negligible source.
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The latest innovations in the field of public health sanitation, currently in the testing phase, comprise - use of 'locally produced alcohol-based hand rub'; 'novel latrine improvement'; and 'container-based sanitation'.
2102:
launched the "Reinvent the Toilet
Challenge" to promote safer, more effective ways to treat human waste. The program is aimed at developing technologies that might help bridge the global sanitation gap (for example the
1614:. Daily cover also minimizes odor emissions and reduces windblown litter. Likewise, developed countries typically have requirements for perimeter sealing of the landfill with clay-type soils to minimize migration of
4596:(RTTC, Round 1 and 2), Grand Challenges Explorations (Round 6 and 7) - Request for proposals, grant conditions, Seattle exhibition fair program and exhibitor guide. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, USA
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The benefits to society of managing human excreta are considerable, for public health as well as for the environment. As a rough estimate: For every US$ 1 spent on sanitation, the return to society is US$ 5.50.
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about one's own open defecation behaviors. CLTS takes an approach to rural sanitation that works without hardware subsidies and that facilitates communities to recognize the problem of open defecation and take
1823:
1827:
1826:
1822:
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is a sanitation system designed to meet certain criteria and to work well over the long-term. Sustainable sanitation systems consider the entire "sanitation value chain", from the experience of the user,
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in sealable, removable containers (also called cartridges) that are transported to treatment facilities. This type of sanitation involves a commercial service which provides certain types of
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The WHO has investigated which proportion of death and disease worldwide can be attributed to insufficient WASH services. In their analysis they focus on the following four health outcomes:
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being discharged into the environment. Industries often discharge wastewater into municipal sewers, which can complicate wastewater treatment unless industries pre-treat their discharges.
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2111:). In 2015, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation published their "Water, sanitation, and hygiene strategy portfolio update and overview" called "Building demand for sanitation".
2410:
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service") is a term used to categorize types of sanitation for monitoring purposes. It refers to the management of human feces at the household level. The term was coined by the
2020:(MDGs) aimed at poverty eradication and sustainable development. The specific sanitation goal for the year 2015 was to reduce by half the number of people who had no access to
825:
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in children, can be reduced through adequate sanitation. There are many other diseases which are easily transmitted in communities that have low levels of sanitation, such as
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2028:(UNDP) Human Development Report in 2006 has shown, progress meeting the MDG sanitation target is slow, with a large gap between the target coverage and the current reality.
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3165:
2735:
490:
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UNDERSTANDING EFFECTIVENESS OF CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: Lessons from
Sanitation Capacity Building Platform, Part 1: Journey of Urban Sanitation Capacity Development in India
1984:(SDG 6). The target is about "clean water and sanitation for all" by 2030. It is estimated that 660 million people still lacked access to safe drinking water as of 2015.
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Some grassroots organizations have trialled community-managed toilet blocks whose construction and maintenance costs can be covered by households. One study of Mumbai
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significance, and in substantially reducing numbers of other undesirable microorganisms, but without adversely affecting the food or its safety for the consumer (
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and pour-flush pit latrines. The main determinants of urban sanitation financial costs include: Type of technology, labour, material and utility cost, density,
2051:", in recognition of the slow progress being made towards the MDGs sanitation target. The year aimed to develop awareness and more actions to meet the target.
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3429:. Berkeley, California, USA: The Hesperian Foundation in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Sida. p. 6. Archived from
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Sanitation within the food industry means the adequate treatment of food-contact surfaces by a process that is effective in destroying vegetative cells of
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Several sanitation "levels" are being used to compare sanitation service levels within countries or across countries. The sanitation ladder defined by the
4719:
Jyoti Dash and
Depinder Kapur (2021) UNDERSTANDING EFFECTIVENESS OF CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT : Lessons from Sanitation Capacity Building Platform (SCBP)
817:
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Sanitation includes all four of these technical and non-technical systems: Excreta management systems, wastewater management systems (included here are
1824:
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plant. The "sanitation chain" involves the experience of the user, excreta and wastewater collection methods, transporting and treatment of waste, and
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2390:
2320:
2315:
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602:
Despite the fact that sanitation includes wastewater treatment, the two terms are often used side by side as "sanitation and wastewater management".
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2310:
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1294:(and open urination but this is of less concern) with associated serious public health issues. It is estimated that 2.4 billion people still lacked
606:
3537:
Gius, Mark; Subramanian, Ramesh (2015). "The
Relationship between Inadequate Sanitation Facilities and the Economic Well-Being of Women in India".
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82% of the global urban population, and 51% of the rural population is using improved sanitation facilities in 2015, as per the JMP definition of "
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2730:
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2645:
2630:
2570:
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2430:
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2013:
229:
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The term sanitation is connected with various descriptors or adjectives to signify certain types of sanitation systems (which may deal only with
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2000:
514:
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5211:
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2780:
2770:
2740:
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2620:
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2520:
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2415:
2405:
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2325:
2295:
2188:
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Hygiene promotion is a planned approach of enabling people to act and change their behavior in an order to reduce and/or prevent incidences of
3048:
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managed sanitation is a basic sanitation service where in addition excreta are safely disposed of in situ or transported and treated offsite.
5953:
5860:
4499:
4455:
4425:
4354:
3818:
3599:
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2755:
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2720:
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2665:
2640:
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2540:
2530:
2510:
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found that US$ 1.58 per adult would be sufficient for construction, and less than US$ 1/household/month would be sufficient for maintenance.
557:
on "Humanitarian
Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response" which describes minimum standards in four "key response sectors" in
2082:
rates have decreased from 38% to 25% globally. Just under one billion people (946 million) still practise open defecation worldwide in 2015.
1871:("Good Health and Wellbeing"): Indicator 3.9.2 reports on the "mortality rate attributed to unsafe water, sanitation, and lack of hygiene".
765:. Sanitation technologies may also take the form of relatively simple onsite sanitation systems. This can in some cases consist of a simple
5943:
4573:
4187:"Indicator 6.2.1 - Proportion of population using safely managed sanitation services, including a handwashing facility with soap and water"
3421:
3306:
2785:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2600:
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2535:
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2475:
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2420:
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2375:
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208:
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is the management and technical processes required to provide sanitation in emergency situations. Emergency sanitation is required during
734:
Sanitation infrastructure has to be adapted to several specific contexts including consumers' expectations and local resources available.
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4001:
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customarily rely upon less stringent protocols. The importance of daily cover lies in the reduction of vector contact and spreading of
697:
446:
280:
4699:
Kapur, D. (2021) UNDERSTANDING EFFECTIVENESS OF CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT : Lessons from
Sanitation Capacity Building Platform (SCBP),
669:
The overall purposes of sanitation are to provide a healthy living environment for everyone, to protect the natural resources (such as
4968:
4505:
3855:
2811:
There is a vast number of professions that are involved in the field of sanitation, for example on the technical and operations side:
2099:
1280:(Target 6.2, Indicator 6.2.1) from 2015 onwards. Here, they are a component of the definition for "safely managed sanitation service".
1071:. There are three phases of emergency response: Immediate, short term and long term. In the immediate phase, the focus is on managing
849:
management or with the entire sanitation system, i.e. also greywater, stormwater and solid waste management) – in alphabetical order:
3896:"The elimination of open defecation and its adverse health effects: a moral imperative for governments and development professionals"
3834:
Velkushanova, Konstantina; Strande, Linda; Ronteltap, Mariska; Koottatep, Thammarat; Brdjanovic, Damir; Buckley, Chris, eds. (2021).
3772:
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2894:
5958:
5484:
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4298:
3995:
3750:
2926:
1680:
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The world can't wait for sewers; Advancing container-based sanitation businesses as a viable answer to the global sanitation crisis
3403:
980:
The term "dry sanitation" is not in widespread use and is not very well defined. It usually refers to a system that uses a type of
4483:
1031:
2951:
2048:
2036:
1015:. It is an approach, rather than a technology or a device which is characterized by a desire to "close the loop", mainly for the
6068:
3157:
727:
cycle (for example in the case of fecal-borne diseases). This aspect is visualised with the F-diagram where all major routes of
5601:
5229:
5206:
3337:
3280:
Lived
Realities of Women Sanitation Workers in India: Insights from a Participatory Research Conducted in Three Cities of India
2868:
2044:
1500:
1419:
1335:
1108:
1007:, commonly abbreviated as ecosan (also spelled eco-san or EcoSan), is an approach to sanitation provision which aims to safely
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911:
701:
450:
224:
189:
3017:
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5295:
5196:
5109:
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1981:
1959:
1893:
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during cleaning is insufficient to remove product deposits. In general, to improve cleanability, this equipment is made from
1375:
1277:
930:
924:
709:
458:
383:
273:
146:
136:
4720:
4194:
780:
Providing sanitation to people requires attention to the entire system, not just focusing on technical aspects such as the
5708:
5479:
4606:
4586:
4134:
4108:
3072:
2973:
1973:
1216:, but also anything else that may go into an onsite containment technology, such as flushwater, cleansing materials (e.g.
20:
4626:
3925:
3259:
5573:
5300:
4161:
3103:
2017:
1269:
984:
and no sewers to transport excreta. Often when people speak of "dry sanitation" they mean a sanitation system that uses
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3195:
5720:
5613:
5524:
5337:
5325:
5234:
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2196:
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most wastewater is still discharged untreated into the environment. Alternatives to centralized sewer systems include
1276:" has been termed "unimproved sanitation" in the JMP definitions. The same terms are used to monitor progress towards
1100:
1068:
535:
4049:
Cheng, Shikun; Long, Jinyun; Evans, Barbara; Zhan, Zhe; Li, Tianxin; Chen, Cong; Mang, Heinz-Peter; Li, Zifu (2022).
2201:
Major human settlements could initially develop only where fresh surface water was plentiful, such as near rivers or
2004:
Example for lack of sanitation: Unhygienic pit latrine with ring slab in
Kalibari community in Mymensingh, Bangladesh
4892:
58:
5790:
5715:
5620:
5156:
2229:
2149:
1867:, and soil-transmitted helminthiases (STHs). These health outcomes are also included as an indicator for achieving
1645:
consequences are considered. Composting value will ultimately be limited by the market demand for compost product.
1205:
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898:
882:
876:
830:
387:
344:
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1977:
1265:
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523:
454:
141:
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Farnsworth Gray, Harold. "Sewerage in Ancient and Mediaeval Times." Sewage Works Journal Vol.12.5 (1940): 939-46
3791:
Ecosan - closing the loop - Proceedings of the 2nd international symposium, 7th–11th April 2003, Lübeck, Germany
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5750:
5449:
5161:
5057:
4834:
4607:
Building demand for sanitation - a 2015 portfolio update and overview - Water, sanitation, and hygiene strategy
2031:
1607:
69:
331:
with soap. Sanitation systems aim to protect human health by providing a clean environment that will stop the
1706:(CIP) and sterilization-in-place (SIP) procedures: that is fully drainable from cleaning solutions and other
1323:(FSM) systems where the fecal sludge that is generated onsite is treated at an offsite location. Wastewater (
617:
Sanitation can include personal sanitation and public hygiene. Personal sanitation work can include handling
6021:
5948:
5780:
3334:
2108:
1542:
1508:
1320:
1189:
1183:
1116:
785:
646:
332:
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3835:
3793:. Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH and International Water Association (IWA).
3635:"Container-based sanitation: assessing costs and effectiveness of excreta management in Cap Haitien, Haiti"
6044:
6016:
5795:
5005:
4916:
3955:
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Tilmans, Sebastien; Russel, Kory; Sklar, Rachel; Page, Leah; Kramer, Sasha; Davis, Jennifer (2015-04-13).
3140:
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1400:
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1024:
403:
219:
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42:
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958:. CLTS involves actions leading to increased self-respect and pride in one's community. It also involves
945:
in mainly rural people by a process of "triggering", leading to spontaneous and long-term abandonment of
6001:
5785:
5320:
5221:
5114:
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3813:. Loughborough: Loughborough university. Water, engineering and development centre (WEDC). p. 250.
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1004:
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762:
630:
554:
391:
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Breaking the sanitation barriers; WHO Guidelines for excreta use as a baseline for environmental health
723:
Effective sanitation systems provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a way as to break the
522:
There are some variations on the use of the term "sanitation" between countries and organizations. The
336:
2119:, the national public health agency of the United States has recognized the stated three initiatives.
5976:
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5591:
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508:
395:
180:
161:
96:
91:
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Patel, Sheela (2015-04-01). "The 20-year sanitation partnership of Mumbai and the Indian Alliance".
3757:. IRC Symposium: Sanitation for the urban poor – partnerships and governance, Delft, The Netherlands
1695:. Similarly, in Japan, food hygiene has to be achieved through compliance with food sanitation law.
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1964:
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and moves upwards using the terms "unimproved", "limited", "basic", with the highest level being "
5608:
5191:
5040:
4816:
4721:
Part II : Sanitation Capacity Building Platform: Understanding the Process and Effectiveness
4555:
4349:. Leicestershire, UK: Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University.
4016:
3613:
3497:
2812:
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collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, treatment, and reuse or disposal. The
934:
717:
650:
439:
3430:
3299:
1168:
1128:
Environmental sanitation encompasses the control of environmental factors that are connected to
3884:. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 2017
3704:"Community-Led Total Sanitation: A Mixed-Methods Systematic Review of Evidence and Its Quality"
3147:. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017
1023:
between sanitation and agriculture in a safe manner. One of the aims is to minimise the use of
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4808:
4765:
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4309:
4090:
4051:"Non-negligible greenhouse gas emissions from non-sewered sanitation systems: A meta-analysis"
3991:
3917:
3851:
3814:
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3664:
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was quite extensive. These systems consisted of stone and wooden drains to collect and remove
2127:
1988:
1699:
1496:
1476:
Sanitation systems in urban areas of developed countries usually consist of the collection of
1446:
1316:
1193:
968:
738:
705:
420:
195:
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Towards sustainable sanitation: evaluating the sustainability of resource-oriented sanitation
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5688:
5647:
5459:
5434:
5246:
5176:
5020:
4800:
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Burden of disease attributable to unsafe drinking-water, sanitation and hygiene, 2019 update
4219:. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland
4080:
4070:
3983:
3907:
3841:
3719:
3711:
3654:
3646:
3546:
3462:. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland
2873:
2165:
1898:
1796:
1558:
1481:
1450:
1225:
1137:
1064:
1056:
1008:
793:
746:
728:
618:
596:
578:
558:
539:
407:
185:
116:
111:
106:
86:
31:
1298:
facilities including 660 million people who lack access to safe drinking water as of 2015.
1228:
products, grey water (i.e. bathing or kitchen water, including fats, oils and grease), and
5996:
5698:
5501:
5494:
5429:
5369:
5251:
5241:
5171:
5144:
5129:
5084:
5074:
5025:
4727:
4707:
4682:
4633:
4613:
4593:
4138:
4112:
4028:
3959:
3776:
3767:
3754:
3683:
3459:
3407:
3388:
3341:
3286:
3266:
3246:
3239:
3226:
3144:
3079:
2930:
2902:
2853:
2816:
2202:
2079:
1715:
1470:
1291:
1160:
1141:
1096:
1072:
946:
890:
431:
406:. A sanitation system includes the capture, storage, transport, treatment and disposal or
372:
320:
249:
126:
4229:
3808:
3747:
3591:
The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource
3475:
The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource
2923:
2251:
1768:
therefore an important part of sanitation and is usually key in maintaining good health.
1374:
Safely managed sanitation is the highest level of household sanitation envisioned by the
4796:
4543:
4408:
4066:
3400:
3220:
The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response
1702:
industries, the term "sanitary equipment" means equipment that is fully cleanable using
5683:
5469:
5406:
5391:
5374:
5332:
5134:
5015:
4123:
4085:
4050:
3724:
3703:
3659:
3634:
3380:
Right to water and sanitation derive from the right to an adequate standard of living.
3249:. Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), Geneva, Switzerland, p. 35
2943:
2858:
2104:
2021:
2009:
1864:
1703:
1623:
1534:
1530:
1338:
which refers in particular to the wastewater part of on-site sanitation. Similarly, an
1209:
1020:
1016:
750:
574:
518:
Urban improved sanitation facilities versus rural improved sanitation facilities, 2015.
348:
308:
261:
26:
2839:
List of countries by proportion of the population using improved sanitation facilities
1637:
components is an attendant adverse outcome. Recycling and biofuel conversion are the
16:
Public health conditions related to clean water and proper excreta and sewage disposal
6084:
5991:
5870:
5678:
5652:
5529:
5489:
5454:
5444:
5424:
5166:
5124:
5099:
5047:
5035:
5030:
4939:
4820:
4559:
4527:
4243:
2237:
1918:
1727:
1692:
1676:
1672:
1630:
1411:
1154:
1088:
886:
846:
774:
670:
638:
504:
470:
356:
304:
157:
131:
121:
50:
6011:
5439:
5288:
5278:
5256:
5186:
5079:
4993:
4265:
3748:
Alternatives to waterborne sanitation – a comparative study – limits and potentials
3382:
http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E
3009:
2056:
1804:
1328:
1221:
1217:
1112:
1084:
955:
713:
634:
570:
328:
101:
4528:"Promoting global access to water and sanitation: A supply and demand perspective"
1892:
are used to check for fecal pollution of the sample. Commonly used indicators for
4646:
4075:
3882:
Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines
3138:
Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines
3010:"The rise of the sanitation economy: how business can help solve a global crisis"
629:. Public sanitation work can involve garbage collection, transfer and treatment (
6006:
5703:
5401:
5310:
5273:
4186:
2241:
2176:
2169:
2145:
2141:
1832:
A video shedding light on the unsafe and undignified working conditions of many
1812:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1666:
1638:
1619:
1603:
1579:
1526:
1520:
1312:
1213:
1201:
1197:
1104:
1012:
766:
674:
582:
543:
312:
4131:
4105:
3868:
3702:
Venkataramanan, Vidya; Crocker, Jonathan; Karon, Andrew; Batram, Jamie (2018).
499:
Animated video to underline the importance of sanitation (here with a focus on
5632:
4627:
Capacity development for sustainable sanitation - Factsheet of Working Group 1
4551:
4491:
3895:
2244:
in Rome. The first sewers of ancient Rome were built between 800 and 735 BCE.
2233:
2225:
2221:
2153:
1926:
1731:
1723:
1711:
1658:
1653:
1642:
1641:
options that generally have superior lifecycle costs, particularly when total
1538:
1504:
1477:
1469:), disposal or reuse of treated wastewater. The latter is also referred to as
1437:
1415:
1133:
981:
861:
defined a new term: "basic sanitation service". This is defined as the use of
770:
758:
553:
Another example of what is included in sanitation is found in the handbook by
352:
256:
4812:
4804:
4769:
4760:
4743:
4477:
4153:
3921:
3912:
3650:
3560:
3095:
561:
situations. One of them is "Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion" (
5730:
5549:
5119:
5000:
4127:
3219:
3187:
1922:
1907:
1587:
1454:
1382:
is that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation.
595:
defines sanitation as "The collection, transport, treatment and disposal or
415:
382:
A range of sanitation technologies and approaches exists. Some examples are
364:
4094:
3810:
Excreta disposal in emergencies a field manual: an inter-agency publication
3733:
3668:
1563:
4876:
4701:
Part III : Capacity Development Effectiveness Ladder (CDEL) Framework
4616:, June 2015. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington, USA
3846:
1787:
1345:
The global methane emissions from NSSS in 2020 was estimated to as 377 Mt
599:, domestic wastewater and solid waste, and associated hygiene promotion."
550:
sector only include excreta management in their definition of sanitation.
5596:
5349:
4983:
4953:
4902:
4283:
4249:
4215:
Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, Ph. and Zurbrügg, C. (2014).
3551:
3451:
Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, Ph. and Zurbrügg, C. (2014).
3335:
http://www.right2water.eu/sites/water/files/UNHRC%20Resolution%2015-9.pdf
2895:"sanitation | Definition of sanitation in English by Oxford Dictionaries"
1930:
1856:
1735:
1710:. The design should have a minimum amount of deadleg, or areas where the
1615:
1611:
1583:
1150:
894:
885:(abbreviated as CBS) refers to a sanitation system where toilets collect
754:
742:
686:
642:
411:
376:
340:
4411:. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2023. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO.
1153:. One of the primary function of environmental sanitation is to protect
821:
Percentage of population served by different types of sanitation systems
5268:
4132:"Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)
4100:
3863:
3073:
Health, Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers: An Initial Assessment
2220:
in Asia is an example of public water supply and sanitation during the
1808:
1747:
1595:
1591:
1308:
1080:
1060:
963:
938:
690:
682:
626:
588:
566:
474:
360:
4230:
Towards more sustainable sanitation solutions - SuSanA Vision Document
4217:
Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised Edition
3453:
Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised Edition
3240:
Public Funding for Sanitation - The many faces of sanitation subsidies
1362:
Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities in 2015
731:
begin with the letter F: feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids, food.
649:, etc. Workers who provide these services for other people are called
5563:
2192:
2071:
1800:
1707:
1571:
1567:
1546:
1324:
1261:
1146:
1076:
951:
834:
781:
622:
609:
guidance manual on water supply and sanitation programmes from 1998:
500:
316:
30:
The sanitation system: collection, transport, treatment, disposal or
4842:
3715:
3697:
3695:
1537:
are usually found in the central, older parts or urban areas. Heavy
3987:
1541:
and inadequate maintenance can lead to combined sewer overflows or
1232:. Fecal sludge that is removed from septic tanks is called septage.
5725:
4216:
3952:
3802:
3800:
3452:
2210:
2206:
2030:
1999:
1963:
1818:
1792:
1786:
1751:
1719:
1652:
1634:
1562:
1485:
1445:
1357:
1319:
of wastewater). On-site sanitation systems are often connected to
1268:
in 2002 to help monitor the progress towards Goal Number 7 of the
1167:
1159:
1030:
959:
824:
816:
660:
513:
484:
368:
324:
25:
1132:. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and
591:
promotion is seen by many as an integral part of sanitation. The
410:. Reuse activities within the sanitation system may focus on the
5657:
4908:
2157:
2024:
and sanitation in the baseline year of 1990. As the JMP and the
2012:, during the Millennium Summit in New York in 2000 and the 2002
1943:
1914:
1848:
1841:
1776:
1772:
1346:
838:
678:
562:
547:
4912:
3881:
3588:
WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme) (2017).
3472:
WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme) (2017).
3137:
2255:
1099:. The short term phase might also involve technologies such as
542:
systems as well as drainage systems for rainwater, also called
3260:
DFID guidance manual on water supply and sanitation programmes
2067:
1258:
Joint Monitoring Program (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation
4744:"The cost of urban sanitation solutions: a literature review"
4625:
Spuhler, D., McCreary, C., Fogde, M., Jenssen, P. D. (2012).
4576:, WHO, Geneva and UNICEF, New York, accessed on June 10, 2012
4104:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
3867:
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
3331:
Human rights and access to safe drinking water and sanitation
3158:"Urban sanitation facilities vs. rural sanitation facilities"
1795:, fingers, flies, fields, fluids, food), showing pathways of
4903:
Sanitary Statistics of Native Colonial Schools and Hospitals
5851:
Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
1976:
replaced the Millennium Development Goals. Sanitation is a
829:
Example of sanitation infrastructure: Shower, double-vault
712:, declarations and other standards. It is derived from the
4574:
types of improved drinking-water source on the JMP website
2064:
Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation
1208:
solutions) and specifically is not transported through a
469:. Lack of access to sanitation has an impact not only on
4887:
3354:"The human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation"
1849:
WASH § WASH-attributable burden of diseases and injuries
941:
practices in a community. The approach tries to achieve
4748:
Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development
4422:"Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all"
3900:
Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development
1888:
When analyzing environmental samples, various types of
4106:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3953:
Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2015 Update
3869:
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
3524:
The economic Impacts of Inadequate Sanitation in India
3090:
3088:
2156:, level of service provided by the sanitation system,
465:
states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have
3423:
Sanitation and Cleanliness for a Healthy Environment
1331:
is available within the buildings or close to them.
5969:
5928:
5815:
5804:
5741:
5666:
5582:
5510:
5415:
5220:
4946:
4685:, National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA), India
1730:to an effective surface roughness of less than 0.5
1370:
Number of Handwashing Facilities in the world, 2017
796:or disposal. All need to be thoroughly considered.
665:
Access to safe drinking water and sanitation (2016)
3289:. Participatory Research in Asia, New Delhi, India
1302:Onsite sanitation or non-sewered sanitation system
4835:"The Art of Plumbing as Recorded through History"
4476:Kurian, Mathew; McCarney, Patricia, eds. (2010).
4246:: Advancement in Water And Wastewater Application
3526:. Water and Sanitation Programme, The World Bank.
3238:Evans, B., van der Voorden, C., Peal, A. (2009).
593:Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council
4160:. Joint Monitoring Programme of UNICEF and WHO.
2117:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
737:Sanitation technologies may involve centralized
2160:condition, energy cost and others (distance to
1996:Millennium Development Goal Number 7 until 2015
611:
528:
414:, water, energy or organic matter contained in
4526:Abellán, Javier; Alonso, José Antonio (2022).
4371:"2021 water, sanitation and hygiene barometer"
3746:Platzer, C., Hoffmann, H., Ticona, E. (2008).
3682:Shepard, J.; Stevens, C.; Mikhael, G. (2017).
2924:Towards more sustainable sanitation solutions
2844:List of water supply and sanitation by country
1461:Wastewater management consists of collection,
971:to clean up and become "open defecation free".
633:), cleaning drains, streets, schools, trains,
4924:
4347:Managing hygiene promotion in WASH programmes
3946:
3944:
3942:
2267:
1598:are also avenues. In the case of landfills,
281:
8:
4710:, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF URBAN AFFAIRS, India
3573:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of July 2024 (
3539:Journal of Economics and Development Studies
3229:, fourth edition, Geneva, Switzerland, 2018.
2213:, where it would be diluted and dissipated.
2039:, used in the UN Drive to 2015 campaign logo
1342:can treat the wastewater generated locally.
897:. In most cases, CBS is based on the use of
4403:
4401:
3071:World Bank, ILO, WaterAid, and WHO (2019).
2218:Sanitation in the Indus Valley Civilization
1480:in gravity driven sewers, its treatment in
1385:Safely managed sanitation is defined as an
813:Types and concepts (for excreta management)
5886:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
5812:
4931:
4917:
4909:
4636:. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA)
4232:. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA)
4181:
4179:
3618:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
3502:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2974:"Water Sanitation Hygiene Fact Sheet 2010"
2933:. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA)
2274:
2260:
2252:
2236:from populated areas—see for instance the
526:defines the term "sanitation" as follows:
288:
274:
37:
5846:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
5836:Center for Disease Control and Prevention
4893:Sanitation and Wastewater Atlas of Africa
4759:
4084:
4074:
3911:
3845:
3779:. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, UK
3723:
3658:
3550:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3410:, Ecosan Conference, Durban, South Africa
3214:
3212:
3132:
3130:
3128:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3120:
1799:. The vertical blue lines show barriers:
1629:For incineration options, the release of
1488:or disposal in rivers, lakes or the sea.
1164:Environmental sanitation by an NGO member
1035:Emergency pit lining kits by Evenproducts
910:Community-based sanitation is related to
757:. These structures are designed to treat
4479:Peri-urban Water and Sanitation Services
2834:List of abbreviations used in sanitation
1689:Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures
1365:
355:(a type of intestinal worm infection or
5891:Health departments in the United States
4248:, edited by Z. Ujang, IWA Proceedings,
2886:
2014:World Summit on Sustainable Development
681:), and to provide safety, security and
565:) and it includes the following areas:
49:
5896:Council on Education for Public Health
4695:
4693:
4691:
4452:United Nations Sustainable Development
4024:
4014:
3611:
3566:
3495:
3329:Human Rights Council resolution 15/9,
3168:from the original on 19 September 2020
2282:Water supply and sanitation by country
2189:History of water supply and sanitation
1119:are also part of emergency sanitation.
1079:technologies might include very basic
438:". This is particularly applicable to
399:
5954:Professional degrees of public health
5861:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
4737:
4735:
4044:
4042:
4040:
4038:
3971:
3969:
3517:
3515:
3513:
3020:from the original on 29 December 2019
3008:Paranipe, Nitin (19 September 2017).
1954:Sustainable Development Goal Number 6
1691:are mandatory for food industries in
1376:Sustainable Development Goal Number 6
933:(CLTS) is an approach used mainly in
577:, solid waste management and WASH in
408:reuse of human excreta and wastewater
7:
6051:
5944:Bachelor of Science in Public Health
2026:United Nations Development Programme
1172:A clean exercise organized by an NGO
702:United Nations (UN) General Assembly
451:United Nations (UN) General Assembly
6063:
5212:Workers' right to access the toilet
5053:Human right to water and sanitation
4334:Treatment of deadleg plumbing areas
3807:Harvey, Peter; et al. (2007).
3333:, (6 October 2010), available from
2864:Self-supply of water and sanitation
2100:Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
1602:typically have rigid protocols for
704:in 2010. It has been recognized in
698:Human Right to Water and Sanitation
447:Human Right to Water and Sanitation
4269:Handbook of Solid Waste Management
3963:, WHO, Geneva and UNICEF, New York
3837:Methods for Faecal Sludge Analysis
3041:Introducing the Sanitation Economy
1944:WASH § Climate change aspects
1237:Improved and unimproved sanitation
912:decentralized wastewater treatment
14:
5485:Commercial determinants of health
4345:Reed, Brian; Bevan, Jane (2014).
4299:Japan External Trade Organization
4197:from the original on 3 March 2021
4164:from the original on 21 July 2021
3976:European Investment Bank (2019).
3708:Environmental Health Perspectives
2094:Initiatives to promote sanitation
1681:U.S. Food and Drug Administration
1545:, i.e., more or less diluted raw
1427:Other types, concepts and systems
1252:(related to but distinct from a "
6062:
6050:
6039:
6038:
5068:National public health institute
4875:
4099:
3862:
3047:. Toilet Board Coalition. 2017.
2401:Democratic Republic of the Congo
2049:International Year of Sanitation
2037:International Year of Sanitation
1847:This section is an excerpt from
1525:Sewers are either combined with
1501:decentralized wastewater systems
1399:This section is an excerpt from
1242:This section is an excerpt from
1182:This section is an excerpt from
1109:decentralized wastewater systems
1045:This section is an excerpt from
997:This section is an excerpt from
923:This section is an excerpt from
875:This section is an excerpt from
631:municipal solid waste management
255:
243:
57:
5465:Open-source healthcare software
5207:Sociology of health and illness
4888:Sustainable Sanitation Alliance
4657:from the original on 2021-08-03
4508:from the original on 2022-12-11
4458:from the original on 2019-04-16
4428:from the original on 2019-04-16
4387:from the original on 2021-03-25
4004:from the original on 2020-11-29
3928:from the original on 2018-06-21
3312:from the original on 2017-03-19
3269:WELL Loughborough University UK
3198:from the original on 2020-06-06
3106:from the original on 2021-07-21
3054:from the original on 2018-07-31
3014:Thomson Reuters Foundation News
2990:from the original on 2020-10-21
2954:from the original on 2014-04-01
2869:Sustainable Sanitation Alliance
2045:United Nations General Assembly
2016:in Johannesburg, developed the
1797:fecal-oral disease transmission
1420:Sustainable Sanitation Alliance
1336:decentralized wastewater system
1327:) is only generated when piped
729:fecal-oral disease transmission
230:National public health agencies
5826:Caribbean Public Health Agency
5638:Sexually transmitted infection
5535:Statistical hypothesis testing
5296:Occupational safety and health
5197:Sexual and reproductive health
5110:Occupational safety and health
4303:"Food Sanitation Law in Japan"
1982:Sustainable Development Goal 6
1960:Sustainable Development Goal 6
1894:bacteriological water analysis
1869:Sustainable Development Goal 3
1582:is most commonly conducted in
1278:Sustainable Development Goal 6
931:Community-led total sanitation
925:Community-led total sanitation
918:Community-led total sanitation
459:Sustainable Development Goal 6
384:community-led total sanitation
311:and treatment and disposal of
147:Sexual and reproductive health
1:
5480:Social determinants of health
4587:Reinvent the Toilet Challenge
4532:Water Resources and Economics
4130:, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018)
3194:. World Health Organization.
3082:. World Bank, Washington, DC.
2899:Oxford Dictionaries | English
2166:end-use of treatment products
1974:Sustainable Development Goals
1773:water, sanitation and hygiene
1756:Hygiene education (on proper
1734:to reduce the possibility of
605:Another definition is in the
327:is part of sanitation, as is
5540:Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
5301:Human factors and ergonomics
4785:Environment and Urbanization
4288:, John Wiley and sons (1986)
4076:10.1016/j.envres.2022.113468
3639:Environment and Urbanization
2018:Millennium Development Goals
1861:acute respiratory infections
1722:containing small amounts of
1270:Millennium Development Goals
1069:internally displaced persons
457:priority and the subject of
398:, environmental sanitation,
307:conditions related to clean
5721:Good manufacturing practice
5525:Randomized controlled trial
3399:Thor Axel Stenström (2005)
2197:History of waste management
2150:urine diversion dry toilets
1913:With regards to samples of
1685:Code of Federal Regulations
1622:(and hence jeopardize some
1482:wastewater treatment plants
1101:urine-diverting dry toilets
899:urine-diverting dry toilets
536:wastewater treatment plants
6117:
5791:Theory of planned behavior
5716:Good agricultural practice
5621:Public health surveillance
5513:epidemiological statistics
5157:Public health intervention
3218:Sphere Association (2018)
2230:Sanitation in ancient Rome
2186:
1957:
1941:
1846:
1842:WASH § Health aspects
1839:
1745:
1726:). The surface is usually
1664:
1556:
1529:or separated from them as
1518:
1435:
1398:
1241:
1181:
1117:management of fecal sludge
1044:
996:
986:urine-diverting dry toilet
937:to improve sanitation and
922:
906:Community-based sanitation
883:Container-based sanitation
877:Container-based sanitation
874:
870:Container-based sanitation
831:urine-diverting dry toilet
753:treatment and solid waste
461:. The estimate in 2017 by
428:Joint Monitoring Programme
388:container-based sanitation
18:
6034:
5913:World Toilet Organization
5908:World Health Organization
5475:Public health informatics
5182:Right to rest and leisure
5011:Globalization and disease
4552:10.1016/j.wre.2022.100194
4492:10.1007/978-90-481-9425-4
4378:SOLIDARITÉS INTERNATIONAL
2972:Gates Foundation (2010).
2948:World Health Organization
2287:
2059:projects are emphasised.
1968:United Nations SDG 6 Logo
1354:Safely managed sanitation
1272:(MDGs). The opposite of "
1254:safely managed sanitation
625:, and managing household
524:World Health Organization
467:safely managed sanitation
453:in 2010. Sanitation is a
335:, especially through the
142:Rehabilitation (penology)
5959:Schools of public health
5751:Diffusion of innovations
5450:Health impact assessment
5162:Public health laboratory
5058:Management of depression
4805:10.1177/0956247815569698
4761:10.2166/washdev.2017.058
4142:SDG-Tracker.org, website
3913:10.2166/washdev.2017.027
3710:. 026001–1 (2): 026001.
3651:10.1177/0956247815572746
1608:underdeveloped countries
1543:sanitary sewer overflows
1124:Environmental sanitation
637:, community toilets and
19:Not to be confused with
6022:Social hygiene movement
5949:Doctor of Public Health
5781:Social cognitive theory
5583:Infectious and epidemic
5365:Fecal–oral transmission
3982:. Publications Office.
3555:(inactive 2024-07-28).
2109:fecal sludge management
2078:Between 1990 and 2015,
1906:and non-specific fecal
1618:that could contaminate
1509:fecal sludge management
1321:fecal sludge management
1190:Fecal sludge management
1184:Fecal sludge management
1177:Fecal sludge management
1093:container-based toilets
1025:non-renewable resources
786:fecal sludge management
647:sewage treatment plants
546:. However, many in the
333:transmission of disease
6017:Germ theory of disease
5796:Transtheoretical model
4448:"Water and Sanitation"
4055:Environmental Research
3880:WHO and UNICEF (2017)
3136:WHO and UNICEF (2017)
2351:Bosnia and Herzegovina
2144:, ventilated improved
2043:In December 2006, the
2040:
2005:
1980:priority and included
1972:In the year 2016, the
1969:
1896:include the bacterium
1837:
1816:
1764:
1662:
1661:food preparation area.
1575:
1458:
1407:Sustainable sanitation
1401:Sustainable sanitation
1394:Sustainable sanitation
1371:
1363:
1340:onsite sewage facility
1173:
1165:
1036:
842:
822:
700:was recognized by the
666:
615:
597:reuse of human excreta
573:, excreta management,
540:solid waste management
532:
519:
511:
449:was recognized by the
404:sustainable sanitation
379:, to name just a few.
35:
5901:Public Health Service
5786:Social norms approach
5776:PRECEDE–PROCEED model
5222:Preventive healthcare
5115:Pharmaceutical policy
4964:Chief Medical Officer
4742:Daudey, Loïc (2018).
4280:William D. Robinson,
3894:Mara, Duncan (2017).
3847:10.2166/9781780409122
3420:Conant, Jeff (2005).
2193:Toilet § History
2187:Further information:
2034:
2003:
1967:
1958:Further information:
1925:or fecal matter from
1879:Environmental aspects
1831:
1790:
1755:
1746:Further information:
1656:
1566:
1467:industrial wastewater
1449:
1432:Wastewater management
1369:
1361:
1171:
1163:
1063:, people affected by
1034:
1005:Ecological sanitation
999:Ecological sanitation
992:Ecological sanitation
833:(UDDT) and waterless
828:
820:
763:municipal solid waste
710:human rights treaties
685:for people when they
664:
621:, cleaning household
559:humanitarian response
517:
498:
477:and personal safety.
392:ecological sanitation
29:
5977:Sara Josephine Baker
5876:Public Health Agency
5761:Health communication
5626:Disease surveillance
5592:Asymptomatic carrier
5574:Statistical software
5262:Preventive nutrition
5090:Medical anthropology
4979:Environmental health
4898:Florence Nightingale
4884:at Wikimedia Commons
4271:, McGraw Hill (2002)
4262:George Tchobanoglous
3552:10.15640/jeds.v3n1a2
2944:"Diarrhoeal disease"
2905:on November 17, 2017
2849:Environmental health
2177:informal settlements
2162:wastewater treatment
2128:Capacity development
2123:Capacity development
2107:, or technology for
1633:, including certain
1606:with topsoil, where
1586:, but incineration,
1553:Solid waste disposal
1493:developing countries
1465:(be it municipal or
1463:wastewater treatment
1442:Wastewater treatment
1334:A related term is a
1212:. It is composed of
1130:disease transmission
1053:Emergency sanitation
1047:Emergency sanitation
1040:Emergency sanitation
935:developing countries
790:wastewater treatment
725:disease transmission
509:developing countries
440:developing countries
396:emergency sanitation
181:Disease surveillance
162:International health
97:Environmental health
92:Dental public health
5987:Carl Rogers Darnall
5982:Samuel Jay Crumbine
5756:Health belief model
5609:Notifiable diseases
5545:Regression analysis
5380:Waterborne diseases
4969:Cultural competence
4797:2015EnUrb..27...55P
4647:"About SCBP | SCBP"
4544:2022WRE....3800194A
4286:: A Practical Guide
4067:2022ER....21213468C
3766:Flores, A. (2010).
2807:Society and culture
2736:Trinidad and Tobago
2168:, business models,
2164:facility, climate,
2087:improved sanitation
2047:declared 2008 "The
1890:indicator organisms
1884:Indicator organisms
1515:Stormwater drainage
1387:improved sanitation
1311:(no treatment) and
1296:improved sanitation
1274:improved sanitation
1250:Improved sanitation
1244:Improved sanitation
1057:humanitarian relief
863:improved sanitation
544:stormwater drainage
323:human contact with
250:Medicine portal
137:Occupational safety
5585:disease prevention
5520:Case–control study
5192:Security of person
5041:Health care reform
4726:2021-09-20 at the
4706:2022-01-20 at the
4681:2022-01-19 at the
4632:2022-08-13 at the
4612:2022-11-12 at the
4592:2022-11-11 at the
4191:sdg6monitoring.org
4154:"JMP - Sanitation"
4137:2020-11-01 at the
4111:2017-10-16 at the
3958:2021-02-12 at the
3840:. IWA Publishing.
3775:2017-06-29 at the
3753:2017-10-09 at the
3458:2021-08-28 at the
3406:2008-11-22 at the
3387:2022-03-06 at the
3340:2017-05-17 at the
3300:"General Assembly"
3285:2022-12-11 at the
3265:2022-01-20 at the
3245:2017-10-11 at the
3225:2019-05-12 at the
3143:2019-07-25 at the
3096:"Sanitation | JMP"
3078:2022-12-11 at the
2929:2017-10-12 at the
2821:sanitary engineers
2813:sanitation workers
2411:Dominican Republic
2041:
2006:
1978:global development
1970:
1838:
1834:sanitation workers
1817:
1765:
1687:, 21CFR110, USA).
1663:
1600:advanced countries
1594:and conversion to
1576:
1459:
1372:
1364:
1285:Lack of sanitation
1174:
1166:
1037:
843:
823:
718:standard of living
667:
651:sanitation workers
520:
512:
473:but also on human
455:global development
430:in 2016 starts at
421:sanitation workers
343:, a main cause of
262:Society portal
36:
6078:
6077:
6030:
6029:
5940:Higher education
5771:Positive deviance
5766:Health psychology
5742:Health behavioral
5669:safety management
5643:Social distancing
5417:Population health
5397:Smoking cessation
5345:Pharmacovigilance
5316:Injury prevention
5284:Infection control
5202:Social psychology
5152:Prisoners' rights
5095:Medical sociology
5063:Public health law
4959:Biological hazard
4880:Media related to
4674:Kapur, D. (2020)
4501:978-90-481-9424-7
4356:978-1-84380-168-9
3820:978-1-84380-113-9
3789:GTZ, IWA (2003).
3601:978-92-3-100201-4
3485:978-92-3-100201-4
3162:Our World in Data
2803:
2802:
2035:Modified logo of
1989:COVID-19 pandemic
1949:Global mechanisms
1829:
1791:The "F-diagram" (
1742:Hygiene promotion
1700:biopharmaceutical
1497:onsite sanitation
1471:water reclamation
1317:primary treatment
1226:menstrual hygiene
1194:onsite sanitation
1065:natural disasters
969:collective action
777:management part.
769:or other type of
739:civil engineering
706:international law
579:disease outbreaks
496:
400:onsite sanitation
298:
297:
196:Health indicators
6108:
6066:
6065:
6054:
6053:
6042:
6041:
5936:Health education
5813:
5667:Food hygiene and
5648:Tropical disease
5460:Infant mortality
5435:Community health
5311:Controlled Drugs
5247:Health promotion
5177:Right to housing
5021:Health economics
4933:
4926:
4919:
4910:
4879:
4863:
4860:
4854:
4853:
4851:
4850:
4841:. Archived from
4839:www.academia.edu
4831:
4825:
4824:
4780:
4774:
4773:
4763:
4739:
4730:
4717:
4711:
4697:
4686:
4672:
4666:
4665:
4663:
4662:
4643:
4637:
4623:
4617:
4603:
4597:
4583:
4577:
4570:
4564:
4563:
4523:
4517:
4516:
4514:
4513:
4473:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4463:
4443:
4437:
4436:
4434:
4433:
4418:
4412:
4405:
4396:
4395:
4393:
4392:
4386:
4375:
4367:
4361:
4360:
4342:
4336:
4331:
4325:
4324:
4322:
4320:
4314:
4308:. Archived from
4307:
4295:
4289:
4282:The Solid Waste
4278:
4272:
4259:
4253:
4239:
4233:
4226:
4220:
4213:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4183:
4174:
4173:
4171:
4169:
4150:
4144:
4121:
4115:
4103:
4098:
4088:
4078:
4061:(Pt D): 113468.
4046:
4033:
4032:
4026:
4022:
4020:
4012:
4010:
4009:
3973:
3964:
3948:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3933:
3915:
3891:
3885:
3878:
3872:
3866:
3861:
3849:
3831:
3825:
3824:
3804:
3795:
3794:
3786:
3780:
3764:
3758:
3744:
3738:
3737:
3727:
3699:
3690:
3689:
3679:
3673:
3672:
3662:
3630:
3624:
3623:
3617:
3609:
3604:. Archived from
3585:
3579:
3578:
3572:
3564:
3554:
3534:
3528:
3527:
3519:
3508:
3507:
3501:
3493:
3488:. Archived from
3469:
3463:
3449:
3438:
3437:
3435:
3428:
3417:
3411:
3397:
3391:
3378:
3372:
3371:
3369:
3368:
3362:
3356:. Archived from
3350:
3344:
3327:
3321:
3320:
3318:
3317:
3311:
3304:
3296:
3290:
3276:
3270:
3256:
3250:
3236:
3230:
3216:
3207:
3206:
3204:
3203:
3184:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3173:
3154:
3148:
3134:
3115:
3114:
3112:
3111:
3092:
3083:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3059:
3053:
3046:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3027:
3025:
3005:
2999:
2998:
2996:
2995:
2989:
2981:Gates Foundation
2978:
2969:
2963:
2962:
2960:
2959:
2940:
2934:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2901:. Archived from
2891:
2874:World Toilet Day
2817:waste collectors
2276:
2269:
2262:
2253:
1902:(abbreviated as
1899:Escherichia coli
1830:
1698:In the food and
1559:Waste management
1451:Sewage treatment
1138:industrial waste
1097:chemical toilets
891:portable toilets
853:Basic sanitation
800:Economic impacts
771:non-flush toilet
747:sewage treatment
741:structures like
497:
337:fecal–oral route
290:
283:
276:
260:
259:
248:
247:
246:
186:Health promotion
117:Health promotion
112:Health education
107:Health economics
87:Community health
61:
38:
6116:
6115:
6111:
6110:
6109:
6107:
6106:
6105:
6081:
6080:
6079:
6074:
6026:
5997:Margaret Sanger
5965:
5924:
5808:
5806:
5800:
5743:
5737:
5709:Safety scandals
5668:
5662:
5584:
5578:
5512:
5506:
5502:Social medicine
5495:Race and health
5430:Child mortality
5411:
5370:Open defecation
5252:Human nutrition
5242:Family planning
5230:Behavior change
5216:
5172:Right to health
5085:Maternal health
5075:Health politics
5026:Health literacy
4942:
4937:
4872:
4867:
4866:
4861:
4857:
4848:
4846:
4833:
4832:
4828:
4782:
4781:
4777:
4741:
4740:
4733:
4728:Wayback Machine
4718:
4714:
4708:Wayback Machine
4698:
4689:
4683:Wayback Machine
4673:
4669:
4660:
4658:
4645:
4644:
4640:
4634:Wayback Machine
4624:
4620:
4614:Wayback Machine
4604:
4600:
4594:Wayback Machine
4584:
4580:
4572:WHO and UNICEF
4571:
4567:
4525:
4524:
4520:
4511:
4509:
4502:
4475:
4474:
4470:
4461:
4459:
4445:
4444:
4440:
4431:
4429:
4420:
4419:
4415:
4406:
4399:
4390:
4388:
4384:
4373:
4369:
4368:
4364:
4357:
4344:
4343:
4339:
4332:
4328:
4318:
4316:
4315:on 9 April 2008
4312:
4305:
4297:
4296:
4292:
4279:
4275:
4260:
4256:
4240:
4236:
4228:SuSanA (2008).
4227:
4223:
4214:
4210:
4200:
4198:
4185:
4184:
4177:
4167:
4165:
4152:
4151:
4147:
4139:Wayback Machine
4122:
4118:
4113:Wayback Machine
4048:
4047:
4036:
4023:
4013:
4007:
4005:
3998:
3975:
3974:
3967:
3960:Wayback Machine
3950:WHO and UNICEF
3949:
3940:
3931:
3929:
3893:
3892:
3888:
3879:
3875:
3858:
3833:
3832:
3828:
3821:
3806:
3805:
3798:
3788:
3787:
3783:
3777:Wayback Machine
3765:
3761:
3755:Wayback Machine
3745:
3741:
3716:10.1289/EHP1965
3701:
3700:
3693:
3681:
3680:
3676:
3632:
3631:
3627:
3610:
3602:
3587:
3586:
3582:
3565:
3536:
3535:
3531:
3521:
3520:
3511:
3494:
3486:
3471:
3470:
3466:
3460:Wayback Machine
3450:
3441:
3433:
3426:
3419:
3418:
3414:
3408:Wayback Machine
3398:
3394:
3389:Wayback Machine
3379:
3375:
3366:
3364:
3360:
3352:
3351:
3347:
3342:Wayback Machine
3328:
3324:
3315:
3313:
3309:
3302:
3298:
3297:
3293:
3287:Wayback Machine
3277:
3273:
3267:Wayback Machine
3257:
3253:
3247:Wayback Machine
3237:
3233:
3227:Wayback Machine
3217:
3210:
3201:
3199:
3186:
3185:
3181:
3171:
3169:
3156:
3155:
3151:
3145:Wayback Machine
3135:
3118:
3109:
3107:
3094:
3093:
3086:
3080:Wayback Machine
3070:
3066:
3057:
3055:
3051:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3033:
3023:
3021:
3007:
3006:
3002:
2993:
2991:
2987:
2976:
2971:
2970:
2966:
2957:
2955:
2942:
2941:
2937:
2931:Wayback Machine
2922:SuSanA (2008).
2921:
2917:
2908:
2906:
2893:
2892:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2854:Water pollution
2829:
2809:
2804:
2799:
2283:
2280:
2250:
2203:natural springs
2199:
2185:
2137:
2125:
2096:
2080:open defecation
1998:
1962:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1940:
1886:
1881:
1876:
1875:
1852:
1844:
1819:
1785:
1750:
1744:
1728:electropolished
1716:Stainless Steel
1669:
1651:
1568:Hiriya Landfill
1561:
1555:
1535:Combined sewers
1531:sanitary sewers
1523:
1517:
1444:
1436:Main articles:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1423:
1404:
1396:
1356:
1304:
1292:open defecation
1287:
1282:
1281:
1247:
1239:
1234:
1233:
1206:container-based
1187:
1179:
1142:noise pollution
1126:
1121:
1120:
1115:facilities and
1073:open defecation
1059:operations for
1050:
1042:
1029:
1028:
1002:
994:
978:
973:
972:
947:open defecation
943:behavior change
928:
920:
908:
903:
902:
880:
872:
855:
815:
802:
716:to an adequate
659:
619:menstrual waste
485:
483:
432:open defecation
373:schistosomiasis
339:. For example,
294:
254:
244:
242:
235:
234:
215:
201:
200:
190:Behavior change
176:
168:
167:
127:Health politics
82:
74:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
6114:
6112:
6104:
6103:
6098:
6093:
6083:
6082:
6076:
6075:
6073:
6072:
6060:
6048:
6035:
6032:
6031:
6028:
6027:
6025:
6024:
6019:
6014:
6009:
6004:
5999:
5994:
5989:
5984:
5979:
5973:
5971:
5967:
5966:
5964:
5963:
5962:
5961:
5956:
5951:
5946:
5938:
5932:
5930:
5926:
5925:
5923:
5922:
5915:
5910:
5905:
5904:
5903:
5898:
5893:
5888:
5880:
5879:
5878:
5873:
5865:
5864:
5863:
5855:
5854:
5853:
5848:
5840:
5839:
5838:
5830:
5829:
5828:
5819:
5817:
5810:
5805:Organizations,
5802:
5801:
5799:
5798:
5793:
5788:
5783:
5778:
5773:
5768:
5763:
5758:
5753:
5747:
5745:
5739:
5738:
5736:
5735:
5734:
5733:
5728:
5718:
5713:
5712:
5711:
5706:
5701:
5696:
5691:
5686:
5681:
5672:
5670:
5664:
5663:
5661:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5629:
5628:
5618:
5617:
5616:
5606:
5605:
5604:
5594:
5588:
5586:
5580:
5579:
5577:
5576:
5571:
5570:
5569:
5561:
5552:
5547:
5542:
5532:
5527:
5522:
5516:
5514:
5511:Biological and
5508:
5507:
5505:
5504:
5499:
5498:
5497:
5492:
5487:
5477:
5472:
5470:Multimorbidity
5467:
5462:
5457:
5452:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5421:
5419:
5413:
5412:
5410:
5409:
5407:Vector control
5404:
5399:
5394:
5392:School hygiene
5389:
5388:
5387:
5382:
5377:
5375:Sanitary sewer
5372:
5367:
5362:
5352:
5347:
5342:
5341:
5340:
5333:Patient safety
5330:
5329:
5328:
5323:
5318:
5313:
5308:
5303:
5293:
5292:
5291:
5286:
5281:
5276:
5266:
5265:
5264:
5259:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5238:
5237:
5226:
5224:
5218:
5217:
5215:
5214:
5209:
5204:
5199:
5194:
5189:
5184:
5179:
5174:
5169:
5164:
5159:
5154:
5149:
5148:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5132:
5127:
5117:
5112:
5107:
5097:
5092:
5087:
5082:
5077:
5072:
5071:
5070:
5065:
5055:
5050:
5045:
5044:
5043:
5038:
5028:
5023:
5018:
5016:Harm reduction
5013:
5008:
5003:
4998:
4997:
4996:
4991:
4981:
4976:
4971:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4950:
4948:
4944:
4943:
4938:
4936:
4935:
4928:
4921:
4913:
4907:
4906:
4895:
4890:
4885:
4871:
4870:External links
4868:
4865:
4864:
4855:
4826:
4775:
4754:(2): 176–195.
4731:
4712:
4687:
4667:
4638:
4618:
4598:
4578:
4565:
4518:
4500:
4468:
4438:
4413:
4397:
4362:
4355:
4337:
4326:
4290:
4273:
4254:
4242:Environmental
4234:
4221:
4208:
4175:
4145:
4116:
4034:
4025:|website=
3996:
3988:10.2867/509830
3965:
3938:
3886:
3873:
3857:978-1780409122
3856:
3826:
3819:
3796:
3781:
3759:
3739:
3691:
3674:
3625:
3608:on 2017-04-08.
3600:
3580:
3529:
3509:
3492:on 2017-04-08.
3484:
3464:
3439:
3436:on 2014-10-21.
3412:
3392:
3373:
3345:
3322:
3291:
3271:
3251:
3231:
3208:
3179:
3149:
3116:
3084:
3064:
3031:
3000:
2964:
2935:
2915:
2885:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2861:
2859:Water security
2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2808:
2805:
2801:
2800:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2761:United Kingdom
2758:
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2748:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2728:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2693:
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2683:
2678:
2673:
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2663:
2658:
2653:
2648:
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2608:
2603:
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2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
2373:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2338:
2333:
2328:
2323:
2318:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2285:
2284:
2281:
2279:
2278:
2271:
2264:
2256:
2249:
2246:
2184:
2181:
2136:
2133:
2124:
2121:
2105:Omni Processor
2095:
2092:
2091:
2090:
2083:
2010:United Nations
1997:
1994:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1942:Main article:
1939:
1938:Climate change
1936:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1865:undernutrition
1853:
1845:
1840:Main article:
1784:
1783:Health aspects
1781:
1743:
1740:
1704:clean-in-place
1673:microorganisms
1665:Main article:
1650:
1647:
1631:air pollutants
1624:drinking water
1557:Main article:
1554:
1551:
1519:Main article:
1516:
1513:
1433:
1430:
1428:
1425:
1405:
1397:
1395:
1392:
1355:
1352:
1303:
1300:
1286:
1283:
1248:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1222:anal cleansing
1196:systems (e.g.
1188:
1180:
1178:
1175:
1140:treatment and
1125:
1122:
1089:bucket toilets
1051:
1043:
1041:
1038:
1021:organic matter
1003:
995:
993:
990:
977:
976:Dry sanitation
974:
929:
921:
919:
916:
907:
904:
881:
873:
871:
868:
854:
851:
814:
811:
801:
798:
751:surface runoff
658:
655:
639:public toilets
575:vector control
482:
479:
436:safely managed
349:stunted growth
309:drinking water
296:
295:
293:
292:
285:
278:
270:
267:
266:
265:
264:
252:
237:
236:
233:
232:
227:
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216:
207:
206:
203:
202:
199:
198:
193:
183:
177:
174:
173:
170:
169:
166:
165:
156:World health (
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
114:
109:
104:
99:
94:
89:
83:
80:
79:
76:
75:
73:
72:
66:
63:
62:
54:
53:
47:
46:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6113:
6102:
6099:
6097:
6094:
6092:
6089:
6088:
6086:
6071:
6070:
6061:
6059:
6058:
6049:
6047:
6046:
6037:
6036:
6033:
6023:
6020:
6018:
6015:
6013:
6010:
6008:
6005:
6003:
6000:
5998:
5995:
5993:
5992:Joseph Lister
5990:
5988:
5985:
5983:
5980:
5978:
5975:
5974:
5972:
5968:
5960:
5957:
5955:
5952:
5950:
5947:
5945:
5942:
5941:
5939:
5937:
5934:
5933:
5931:
5927:
5920:
5916:
5914:
5911:
5909:
5906:
5902:
5899:
5897:
5894:
5892:
5889:
5887:
5884:
5883:
5881:
5877:
5874:
5872:
5871:Health Canada
5869:
5868:
5866:
5862:
5859:
5858:
5856:
5852:
5849:
5847:
5844:
5843:
5841:
5837:
5834:
5833:
5831:
5827:
5824:
5823:
5821:
5820:
5818:
5816:Organizations
5814:
5811:
5803:
5797:
5794:
5792:
5789:
5787:
5784:
5782:
5779:
5777:
5774:
5772:
5769:
5767:
5764:
5762:
5759:
5757:
5754:
5752:
5749:
5748:
5746:
5740:
5732:
5729:
5727:
5724:
5723:
5722:
5719:
5717:
5714:
5710:
5707:
5705:
5702:
5700:
5697:
5695:
5692:
5690:
5687:
5685:
5682:
5680:
5677:
5676:
5674:
5673:
5671:
5665:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5653:Vaccine trial
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5627:
5624:
5623:
5622:
5619:
5615:
5612:
5611:
5610:
5607:
5603:
5600:
5599:
5598:
5595:
5593:
5590:
5589:
5587:
5581:
5575:
5572:
5568:
5566:
5562:
5560:
5558:
5553:
5551:
5548:
5546:
5543:
5541:
5538:
5537:
5536:
5533:
5531:
5530:Relative risk
5528:
5526:
5523:
5521:
5518:
5517:
5515:
5509:
5503:
5500:
5496:
5493:
5491:
5490:Health equity
5488:
5486:
5483:
5482:
5481:
5478:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5466:
5463:
5461:
5458:
5456:
5455:Health system
5453:
5451:
5448:
5446:
5445:Global health
5443:
5441:
5438:
5436:
5433:
5431:
5428:
5426:
5425:Biostatistics
5423:
5422:
5420:
5418:
5414:
5408:
5405:
5403:
5400:
5398:
5395:
5393:
5390:
5386:
5383:
5381:
5378:
5376:
5373:
5371:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5361:
5358:
5357:
5356:
5353:
5351:
5348:
5346:
5343:
5339:
5336:
5335:
5334:
5331:
5327:
5324:
5322:
5319:
5317:
5314:
5312:
5309:
5307:
5304:
5302:
5299:
5298:
5297:
5294:
5290:
5287:
5285:
5282:
5280:
5277:
5275:
5272:
5271:
5270:
5267:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5254:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5236:
5233:
5232:
5231:
5228:
5227:
5225:
5223:
5219:
5213:
5210:
5208:
5205:
5203:
5200:
5198:
5195:
5193:
5190:
5188:
5185:
5183:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5173:
5170:
5168:
5167:Right to food
5165:
5163:
5160:
5158:
5155:
5153:
5150:
5146:
5143:
5141:
5138:
5136:
5133:
5131:
5128:
5126:
5123:
5122:
5121:
5118:
5116:
5113:
5111:
5108:
5105:
5101:
5100:Mental health
5098:
5096:
5093:
5091:
5088:
5086:
5083:
5081:
5078:
5076:
5073:
5069:
5066:
5064:
5061:
5060:
5059:
5056:
5054:
5051:
5049:
5048:Housing First
5046:
5042:
5039:
5037:
5036:Health system
5034:
5033:
5032:
5031:Health policy
5029:
5027:
5024:
5022:
5019:
5017:
5014:
5012:
5009:
5007:
5004:
5002:
4999:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4986:
4985:
4982:
4980:
4977:
4975:
4972:
4970:
4967:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4951:
4949:
4945:
4941:
4940:Public health
4934:
4929:
4927:
4922:
4920:
4915:
4914:
4911:
4905:
4904:
4899:
4896:
4894:
4891:
4889:
4886:
4883:
4878:
4874:
4873:
4869:
4859:
4856:
4845:on 2020-04-09
4844:
4840:
4836:
4830:
4827:
4822:
4818:
4814:
4810:
4806:
4802:
4798:
4794:
4790:
4786:
4779:
4776:
4771:
4767:
4762:
4757:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4738:
4736:
4732:
4729:
4725:
4722:
4716:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4702:
4696:
4694:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4677:
4671:
4668:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4642:
4639:
4635:
4631:
4628:
4622:
4619:
4615:
4611:
4608:
4605:BMGF (2015).
4602:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4588:
4585:BMGF (2012).
4582:
4579:
4575:
4569:
4566:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4522:
4519:
4507:
4503:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4480:
4472:
4469:
4457:
4453:
4449:
4442:
4439:
4427:
4423:
4417:
4414:
4410:
4404:
4402:
4398:
4383:
4379:
4372:
4366:
4363:
4358:
4352:
4348:
4341:
4338:
4335:
4330:
4327:
4311:
4304:
4300:
4294:
4291:
4287:
4285:
4277:
4274:
4270:
4267:
4263:
4258:
4255:
4251:
4247:
4245:
4244:Biotechnology
4238:
4235:
4231:
4225:
4222:
4218:
4212:
4209:
4196:
4192:
4188:
4182:
4180:
4176:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4136:
4133:
4129:
4125:
4120:
4117:
4114:
4110:
4107:
4102:
4096:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4072:
4068:
4064:
4060:
4056:
4052:
4045:
4043:
4041:
4039:
4035:
4030:
4018:
4003:
3999:
3997:9789286143199
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3980:
3972:
3970:
3966:
3962:
3961:
3957:
3954:
3947:
3945:
3943:
3939:
3927:
3923:
3919:
3914:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3890:
3887:
3883:
3877:
3874:
3870:
3865:
3859:
3853:
3848:
3843:
3839:
3838:
3830:
3827:
3822:
3816:
3812:
3811:
3803:
3801:
3797:
3792:
3785:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3771:
3770:
3763:
3760:
3756:
3752:
3749:
3743:
3740:
3735:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3687:
3686:
3678:
3675:
3670:
3666:
3661:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3645:(1): 89–104.
3644:
3640:
3636:
3629:
3626:
3621:
3615:
3607:
3603:
3597:
3593:
3592:
3584:
3581:
3576:
3570:
3562:
3558:
3553:
3548:
3544:
3540:
3533:
3530:
3525:
3518:
3516:
3514:
3510:
3505:
3499:
3491:
3487:
3481:
3477:
3476:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3457:
3454:
3448:
3446:
3444:
3440:
3432:
3425:
3424:
3416:
3413:
3409:
3405:
3402:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3386:
3383:
3377:
3374:
3363:on 2017-08-25
3359:
3355:
3349:
3346:
3343:
3339:
3336:
3332:
3326:
3323:
3308:
3301:
3295:
3292:
3288:
3284:
3281:
3278:PRIA (2019):
3275:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3261:
3255:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3241:
3235:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3221:
3215:
3213:
3209:
3197:
3193:
3192:Health topics
3189:
3183:
3180:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3153:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3139:
3133:
3131:
3129:
3127:
3125:
3123:
3121:
3117:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3091:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3074:
3068:
3065:
3050:
3043:
3042:
3035:
3032:
3019:
3015:
3011:
3004:
3001:
2986:
2982:
2975:
2968:
2965:
2953:
2949:
2945:
2939:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2925:
2919:
2916:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2890:
2887:
2880:
2875:
2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2824:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2806:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
2784:
2782:
2779:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2766:United States
2764:
2762:
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2747:
2744:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2717:
2714:
2712:
2709:
2707:
2704:
2702:
2699:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
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2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
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2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2582:
2579:
2577:
2574:
2572:
2569:
2567:
2564:
2562:
2559:
2557:
2554:
2552:
2549:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2532:
2529:
2527:
2524:
2522:
2519:
2517:
2514:
2512:
2509:
2507:
2504:
2502:
2499:
2497:
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2479:
2477:
2474:
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2459:
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2449:
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2437:
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2427:
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2422:
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2409:
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2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2362:
2359:
2357:
2354:
2352:
2349:
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2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
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2277:
2272:
2270:
2265:
2263:
2258:
2257:
2254:
2247:
2245:
2243:
2239:
2238:Cloaca Maxima
2235:
2231:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2173:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2134:
2132:
2129:
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2696:South Africa
2686:Sierra Leone
2676:Saudi Arabia
2361:Burkina Faso
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6069:WikiProject
5809:and history
5689:Engineering
5402:Vaccination
5274:Food safety
4407:WHO (2023)
4201:25 February
4168:25 February
3906:(1): 1–12.
3688:. EY, WSUP.
2701:South Sudan
2656:Philippines
2611:New Zealand
2606:Netherlands
2426:El Salvador
2291:Afghanistan
2242:River Tiber
2224:(3300–1300
2170:water table
1927:dry toilets
1813:handwashing
1762:Afghanistan
1758:handwashing
1667:Food safety
1649:Food safety
1639:sustainable
1626:supplies).
1620:groundwater
1604:daily cover
1580:solid waste
1521:Storm drain
1505:dry toilets
1230:solid waste
1136:treatment,
1113:handwashing
1013:agriculture
767:pit latrine
714:human right
675:groundwater
569:promotion,
481:Definitions
220:Terminology
6091:Sanitation
6085:Categories
5822:Caribbean
5699:Processing
5633:Quarantine
5555:Student's
5355:Sanitation
4989:History of
4882:Sanitation
4849:2016-03-10
4661:2021-06-09
4538:: 100194.
4512:2017-09-11
4462:2021-01-04
4432:2017-11-17
4391:2021-04-13
4008:2020-12-07
3932:2017-08-17
3367:2019-11-25
3316:2019-11-25
3202:2020-10-05
3110:2017-11-17
3058:2017-12-19
2994:2017-11-17
2958:2017-11-17
2909:2017-11-17
2881:References
2591:Mozambique
2391:Costa Rica
2321:Bangladesh
2316:Azerbaijan
2248:By country
2234:wastewater
2222:Bronze Age
2154:topography
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1805:safe water
1738:adhesion.
1732:micrometre
1724:molybdenum
1718:316L, (an
1712:turbulence
1659:restaurant
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1438:Wastewater
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1134:wastewater
982:dry toilet
954:, such as
914:(DEWATS).
759:wastewater
585:settings.
583:healthcare
353:ascariasis
321:Preventing
303:refers to
301:Sanitation
213:categories
175:Prevention
152:Sanitation
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6002:John Snow
5929:Education
5919:Full list
5807:education
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5006:Genomics
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4954:Auxology
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4506:Archived
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4382:Archived
4380:. 2021.
4284:Handbook
4250:Malaysia
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2952:Archived
2927:Archived
2827:See also
2796:Zimbabwe
2731:Thailand
2726:Tanzania
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2646:Paraguay
2631:Pakistan
2571:Malaysia
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1857:diarrhea
1836:in India
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1596:biofuels
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1081:latrines
1061:refugees
773:for the
708:through
687:defecate
657:Purposes
377:trachoma
341:diarrhea
225:Journals
6096:Hygiene
6057:Commons
5970:History
5867:Canada
5842:Europe
5326:Nursing
5306:Hygiene
5269:Hygiene
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4947:General
4793:Bibcode
4540:Bibcode
4319:1 March
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3725:6066338
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2406:Denmark
2346:Bolivia
2326:Belgium
2296:Algeria
2183:History
2148:(VIP),
1809:hygiene
1801:toilets
1748:Hygiene
1708:liquids
1657:Modern
1453:plant,
1412:excreta
964:disgust
952:toilets
939:hygiene
788:or the
775:excreta
691:urinate
683:dignity
627:garbage
623:toilets
589:Hygiene
567:Hygiene
501:toilets
475:dignity
416:excreta
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2301:Angola
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2072:UNICEF
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1262:UNICEF
1147:health
1077:toilet
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5675:Food
5567:-test
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2211:ocean
2207:river
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1210:sewer
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794:reuse
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325:feces
209:Lists
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5658:WASH
5614:List
5602:List
5135:Soil
4809:ISSN
4766:ISSN
4496:ISBN
4446:UN.
4351:ISBN
4321:2008
4264:and
4203:2021
4170:2021
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