2577:
1052:
1015:", measured at a distance of 100 km (62 mi). The scale was calibrated by defining a magnitude 0 shock as one that produces (at a distance of 100 km (62 mi)) a maximum amplitude of 1 micron (1 μm, or 0.001 millimeters) on a seismogram recorded by a Wood-Anderson torsion seismometer. Finally, Richter calculated a table of distance corrections, in that for distances less than 200 kilometers the attenuation is strongly affected by the structure and properties of the regional geology.
2930:(1958), an opinion copiously reproduced afterward in Earth's science primers. Recent evidence shows that earthquakes with negative magnitudes (down to −0.7) can also be felt in exceptional cases, especially when the focus is very shallow (a few hundred meters). See: Thouvenot, F.; Bouchon, M. (2008). "What is the lowest magnitude threshold at which an earthquake can be felt or heard, or objects thrown into the air?," in Fréchet, J., Meghraoui, M. & Stucchi, M. (eds),
57:
476:
933:
1184: , saturate for large earthquakes, meaning they are based on the amplitudes of waves that have a wavelength shorter than the rupture length of the earthquakes. These short waves (high-frequency waves) are too short a yardstick to measure the extent of the event. The resulting effective upper limit of measurement for M
923:
ruptured together and moved by 60 metres (200 ft) (or if a similar large-scale rupture occurred elsewhere). Such an earthquake would cause ground motions for up to an hour, with tsunamis hitting shores while the ground is still shaking, and if this kind of earthquake occurred, it would probably
699:
The following describes the typical effects of earthquakes of various magnitudes near the epicenter. The values are typical and may not be exact in a future event because intensity and ground effects depend not only on the magnitude but also on (1) the distance to the epicenter, (2) the depth of the
1087:, from detectable by instruments but not noticeable, to catastrophic. The energy and effects are not necessarily strongly correlated; a shallow earthquake in a populated area with soil of certain types can be far more intense in impact than a much more energetic deep earthquake in an isolated area.
910:
Seismologist Susan Hough has suggested that a magnitude 10 quake may represent a very approximate upper limit for what the Earth's tectonic zones are capable of, which would be the result of the largest known continuous belt of faults rupturing together (along the
Pacific coast of the Americas). A
994:
showed how he had measured, for several strong earthquakes in Japan, the amplitude of the shaking observed at various distances from the epicenter. He then plotted the logarithm of the amplitude against the distance and found a series of curves that showed a rough correlation with the estimated
688:
Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude. In terms of energy, each whole number increase corresponds to an increase of about 31.6 times the amount of energy released, and each increase of 0.2
1011:. Second, he wanted a magnitude of zero to be around the limit of human perceptibility. Third, he specified the Wood–Anderson seismograph as the standard instrument for producing seismograms. Magnitude was then defined as "the logarithm of the maximum trace amplitude, expressed in
792:
Noticeable shaking of indoor objects and rattling noises. Felt by most people in the affected area. Slightly felt outside. Generally causes zero to minimal damage. Moderate to significant damage is very unlikely. Some objects may fall off shelves or be knocked over.
849:
Causes damage to most buildings, some to partially or completely collapse or receive severe damage. Well-designed structures are likely to receive damage. Felt across great distances with major damage mostly limited to 250 km from the epicenter.
2133:
2352:
637:
1195:
New techniques to avoid the saturation problem and to measure magnitudes rapidly for very large earthquakes are being developed. One of these is based on the long-period P-wave; The other is based on a recently discovered channel wave.
1140: is the scale used for the majority of earthquakes reported (tens of thousands) by local and regional seismological observatories. For large earthquakes worldwide, the moment magnitude scale (MMS) is most common, although M
2879:
898:
Millions of minor earthquakes occur every year worldwide, equating to hundreds every hour every day. On the other hand, earthquakes of magnitude ≥8.0 occur about once a year, on average. The largest recorded earthquake was the
831:
survive with slight to moderate damage. Poorly designed structures receive moderate to severe damage. Felt in wider areas; up to hundreds of kilometers from the epicenter. Strong to violent shaking in the epicentral area.
2530:
955:. ("Size" is used in the sense of the quantity of energy released, not the size of the area affected by shaking, though higher-energy earthquakes do tend to affect a wider area, depending on the local geology.) In 1883,
1693:
1335:) in the energy released. The elastic energy radiated is best derived from an integration of the radiated spectrum, but an estimate can be based on mb because most energy is carried by the high-frequency waves.
1994:
1827:
462:
character of the original and are scaled to have roughly comparable numeric values (typically in the middle of the scale). Due to the variance in earthquakes, it is essential to understand the
Richter scale uses
1002:
Additional developments were required to produce a practical method of assigning an absolute measure of magnitude. First, to span the wide range of possible values, Richter adopted
Gutenberg's suggestion of a
1063:
properties of
Southern California crust and mantle." The particular instrument used would become saturated by strong earthquakes and unable to record high values. The scale was replaced in the 1970s by the
864:
Major damage to buildings, and structures likely to be destroyed. Will cause moderate to heavy damage to sturdy or earthquake-resistant buildings. Damaging in large areas. Felt in extremely large regions.
1022:
told the press that the scale was
Richter's and "should be referred to as such." In 1956, Gutenberg and Richter, while still referring to "magnitude scale", labelled it "local magnitude", with the symbol
959:
surmised that the shaking of large earthquakes might generate waves detectable around the globe, and in 1899 E. Von Rehbur
Paschvitz observed in Germany seismic waves attributable to an earthquake in
1059:
The
Richter scale was defined in 1935 for particular circumstances and instruments; the particular circumstances refer to it being defined for Southern California and "implicitly incorporates the
1531:
1129: . The mb scale gives somewhat different values than the other scales. The reason for so many different ways to measure the same thing is that at different distances, for different
1427:
1474:
2887:
3920:
1333:
1274:
500:
2198:
1594:
1018:
When
Richter presented the resulting scale in 1935, he called it (at the suggestion of Harry Wood) simply a "magnitude" scale. "Richter magnitude" appears to have originated when
2425:
2235:
1376:
943:
Prior to the development of the magnitude scale, the only measure of an earthquake's strength or "size" was a subjective assessment of the intensity of shaking observed near the
2606:
3955:
692:
Events with magnitudes greater than 4.5 are strong enough to be recorded by a seismograph anywhere in the world, so long as its sensors are not located in the earthquake's
2042:
1557:
2253:
2163:
467:
simply to make the measurements manageable (i.e., a magnitude 3 quake factors 10³ while a magnitude 5 quake factors 10 and has seismometer readings 100 times larger).
263:
2388:
679:
2558:
2022:
1893:
1857:
1721:
1072: ); for earthquakes adequately measured by the Richter scale, numerical values are approximately the same. Although values measured for earthquakes now are M
879:
Near total destruction – severe damage or collapse to all buildings. Heavy damage and shaking extend to distant locations. Permanent changes in ground topography.
2816:
3364:
458: ) to report earthquake magnitudes, but much of the news media still erroneously refers to these as "Richter" magnitudes. All magnitude scales retain the
1114: , abbreviated MMS, have been widely used for decades. A couple of new techniques to measure magnitude are in the development stage by seismologists.
1076: , they are frequently reported by the press as Richter values, even for earthquakes of magnitude over 8, when the Richter scale becomes meaningless.
4068:
895:
The intensity and death toll depend on several factors (earthquake depth, epicenter location, and population density, to name a few) and can vary widely.
4078:
1163:, is proportional to the area of the rupture times the average slip that took place in the earthquake, thus it measures the physical size of the event. M
3411:
Di
Giacomo, D., Parolai, S., Saul, J., Grosser, H., Bormann, P., Wang, R. & Zschau, J., 2008. "Rapid determination of the energy magnitude Me," in
490:
of waves recorded by seismographs. Adjustments are included to compensate for the variation in the distance between the various seismographs and the
4017:
3940:
3890:
2447:
1613:
3480:
Lahr, J.C. (1980). HYPOELLIPSE: A computer program for determining local earthquake hypocentral parameters, magnitude, and first-motion pattern.
2975:
987:. He also recruited the young and unknown Charles Richter to measure the seismograms and locate the earthquakes generating the seismic waves.
3925:
3703:
2792:
365:
19:
This article is about the earthquake magnitude scale introduced by
Charles Richter in 1935. For a review of earthquake magnitude scales, see
3021:
1911:
1744:
915:
in Japan found that a magnitude 10 earthquake was theoretically possible if a combined 3,000 kilometres (1,900 mi) of faults from the
3853:
3802:
3761:
3716:
3950:
2714:
976:
810:
Can cause damage of varying severity to poorly constructed buildings. Zero to slight damage to all other buildings. Felt by everyone.
4073:
4027:
4022:
3945:
3579:
3056:
2909:
717:
995:
magnitudes of the earthquakes. Richter resolved some difficulties with this method and then, using data collected by his colleague
681:. In practice, readings from all observing stations are averaged after adjustment with station-specific corrections to obtain the M
435:, and presented in Richter's landmark 1935 paper, where he called it the "magnitude scale". This was later revised and renamed the
3073:
980:
3398:
1177: . In contrast, the other magnitudes are derived from a simple measurement of the amplitude of a precisely defined wave.
828:
999:, he produced similar curves, confirming that they could be used to compare the relative magnitudes of different earthquakes.
3863:
113:
972:
294:
3976:
3935:
1478:
4083:
3883:
4063:
3930:
1051:
1007:
scale, where each step represents a tenfold increase of magnitude, similar to the magnitude scale used by astronomers
161:
3368:
920:
1381:
3676:
Gutenberg, B.; Richter, C. F. (1956b), "Earthquake magnitude, intensity, energy, and acceleration (Second Paper)",
1117:
All magnitude scales have been designed to give numerically similar results. This goal has been achieved well for M
1431:
299:
1133:
depths, and for different earthquake sizes, the amplitudes of different types of elastic waves must be measured.
975:, one of the first practical instruments for recording seismic waves. Wood then built, under the auspices of the
647:
358:
339:
1055:
How Richter Magnitude Scale is determined - the larger the value on the log graph, the higher the damage caused.
4058:
3899:
3293:
2601:
2596:
1080:
948:
900:
242:
237:
20:
1167: is derived from it empirically as a quantity without units, just a number designed to conform to the M
3876:
3530:"Local and regional earthquake magnitude calibration of Tabuk analog sub-network, Northwest of Saudi Arabia"
3497:"Local and regional earthquake magnitude calibration of Tabuk analog sub-network, Northwest of Saudi Arabia"
936:
88:
3592:
1279:
1220:
3991:
3986:
2170:
1566:
1214:
1065:
1028:
904:
451:
304:
271:
4037:
2395:
2205:
1346:
952:
2582:
327:
255:
128:
108:
103:
98:
2979:
3776:
3738:
3646:
3337:
968:
701:
351:
334:
289:
123:
40:
28:
2128:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=2.92+2.25\ \log _{10}\left(\tau \right)-0.001\ \Delta ^{\circ }\ ,}
3971:
1036:
984:
658:
189:
66:
3025:
2347:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=-2.53+2.85\log _{10}\left(F-P\right)+0.0014\ \Delta ^{\circ }\ ,}
775:
Often felt by people, but very rarely causes damage. Shaking of indoor objects can be noticeable.
4032:
3798:
3424:
Rivera, L. & Kanamori, H., 2008. "Rapid source inversion of W phase for tsunami warning," in
2810:
2685:
1536:
1008:
166:
133:
93:
56:
2832:"S-wave shadows in the Krafla Caldera in NE-Iceland, evidence for a magma chamber in the crust"
2142:
1217:
for an explanation). Thus, a difference in magnitude of 1.0 is equivalent to a factor of 31.6 (
3817:
3699:
3662:
3634:
3575:
3052:
2861:
2798:
2788:
2765:
1276:) in the energy released; a difference in magnitude of 2.0 is equivalent to a factor of 1000 (
912:
632:{\displaystyle M_{\mathrm {L} }=\log _{10}A-\log _{10}A_{\mathrm {0} }(\delta )=\log _{10},\ }
3318:
Richter, C.F., "Elementary Seismology", ed, Vol., W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, 1956.
2361:
1378:
are alternatives to using Richter correlation tables based on Richter standard seismic event
1203:
release of an earthquake, which closely correlates to its destructive power, scales with the
664:
3784:
3746:
3654:
3607:
3541:
3508:
3345:
2957:
2851:
2843:
2757:
2722:
1079:
The Richter and MMS scales measure the energy released by an earthquake; another scale, the
464:
385:
138:
3390:
2537:
2001:
1872:
1836:
1700:
3848:
2913:
2591:
733:
428:
156:
118:
3780:
3742:
3650:
3593:"The Richter scale: its development and use for determining earthquake source parameter"
3341:
1090:
Several scales have been historically described as the "Richter scale",, especially the
3568:
3458:
1148:
996:
450: scale, most seismological authorities now use other similar scales such as the
432:
24:
3621:
4052:
3611:
964:
700:
earthquake's focus beneath the epicenter, (3) the location of the epicenter, and (4)
3996:
1597:
1019:
991:
916:
475:
204:
3004:
3693:
3259:, p. 1. His article is titled: "An Instrumental Earthquake Magnitude Scale".
3658:
3546:
3529:
3513:
3496:
3438:
Vassiliou, Marius; Kanamori, Hiroo (1982). "The Energy Release in Earthquakes".
2936:
Historical Seismology: Interdisciplinary Studies of Past and Recent Earthquakes,
2883:
2745:
1860:
1060:
693:
232:
199:
3859:
2572:
2561:
1864:
1728:
1130:
956:
424:
314:
194:
83:
48:
2865:
2856:
2802:
2769:
2525:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=\log _{10}A+1.73\ \log _{10}\Delta -0.83\ ,}
3349:
2025:
1896:
1688:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=\log _{10}A-2.48+2.76\ \log _{10}\Delta \ }
1560:
1004:
944:
932:
491:
487:
483:
459:
184:
78:
73:
3868:
3666:
1027: , to distinguish it from two other scales they had developed, the
827:
Damage to a moderate number of well-built structures in populated areas.
309:
2831:
2847:
1012:
2961:
1989:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=\log _{10}A+3.0\ \log _{10}D-3.38\ ;}
1822:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}=\log _{10}A+1.6\ \log _{10}D-0.15\ ,}
3788:
3750:
2948:
McCaffrey, R. (2008). "Global frequency of magnitude 9 earthquakes".
1724:
1200:
214:
209:
2978:. United States Geological Survey. November 29, 2012. Archived from
2761:
3854:
USGS Earthquake Magnitude Policy (implemented on January 18, 2002)
1050:
960:
931:
474:
3049:
The signal and the noise : the art and science of prediction
3860:
Perspective: a graphical comparison of earthquake energy release
689:
corresponds to approximately a doubling of the energy released.
3872:
3844:
482:
The Richter magnitude of an earthquake is determined from the
403:
3328:
Hanks, T. C.; Kanamori, H. (1979). "Moment magnitude scale".
3457:
Spence, William; Sipkin, Stuart A.; Choy, George L. (1989).
2721:. USGS. p. 177. Professional Paper 1515. Archived from
3695:
Richter's scale: measure of an earthquake, measure of a man
2028:, for distances between 200 km and 600 km .
1171: scale. A spectral analysis is required to obtain M
3623:
Regional Relationships Among Earthquake Magnitude Scales.
394:
3413:
European Seismological Commission 31st General Assembly,
23:. For the musical scale used for tuning harmonicas, see
2036:(1958) for epicentre distances between 4° and 160° is:
3921:
Central Weather Administration seismic intensity scale
2632:, pp. 122–126) discusses the name at some length.
1723:
is the amplitude (maximum ground displacement) of the
758:
Felt slightly by some people. No damage to buildings.
741:
Microearthquakes, not felt. Recorded by seismographs.
2540:
2450:
2398:
2364:
2256:
2208:
2173:
2145:
2045:
2004:
1914:
1875:
1839:
1747:
1703:
1616:
1569:
1539:
1481:
1434:
1384:
1349:
1282:
1223:
903:
of May 22, 1960, which had a magnitude of 9.5 on the
725:
Average frequency of occurrence globally (estimated)
667:
503:
397:
400:
391:
4010:
3964:
3913:
3906:
3633:Gutenberg, B.; Richter, C. F. (February 21, 1936),
3528:Al-Arifi, Nassir S.; Al-Humidan, Saad (July 2012).
3495:al-Arifi, Nassir S.; al-Humidan, Saad (July 2012).
2165:
is the duration of the surface wave in seconds, and
1526:{\displaystyle \ D=100\ {\mathsf {km}}\ {\big )}~.}
388:
3567:
2552:
2524:
2419:
2382:
2346:
2229:
2192:
2157:
2127:
2016:
1988:
1887:
1851:
1821:
1715:
1687:
1588:
1551:
1525:
1468:
1421:
1370:
1327:
1268:
673:
631:
3635:"Discussion: Magnitude and energy of earthquakes"
3280:
2672:
446:Because of various shortcomings of the original M
3810:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
3715:Hutton, L. K.; Boore, David M. (December 1987),
3678:Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America
3188:
2607:Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)
2390:is the total duration of oscillation in seconds.
3244:
3208:
1596:is the same distance represented as sea level
1422:{\displaystyle {\big (}\ M_{\mathsf {L}}=0\ ,}
983:, a network of seismographs stretching across
3884:
3022:"Largest Earthquakes in the World Since 1900"
1512:
1387:
359:
8:
3803:"An Instrumental Earthquake Magnitude Scale"
3426:European Geophysical Union General Assembly,
1469:{\displaystyle \ A=0.001\ {\mathsf {mm}}\ ,}
494:of the earthquake. The original formula is:
3926:Environmental Seismic Intensity scale (ESI)
3204:
2708:
2706:
2686:"Discovery Project 17: Orders of Magnitude"
3951:PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
3910:
3891:
3877:
3869:
3074:"Magnitude 10 temblor could happen: study"
2815:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
947:of the earthquake, categorized by various
890:Based on U.S. Geological Survey documents.
366:
352:
35:
3545:
3534:Journal of King Saud University – Science
3512:
3501:Journal of King Saud University – Science
2932:Modern Approaches in Solid Earth Sciences
2855:
2646:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. p. 608.
2539:
2498:
2473:
2459:
2458:
2449:
2407:
2406:
2397:
2363:
2332:
2291:
2265:
2264:
2255:
2217:
2216:
2207:
2181:
2172:
2144:
2113:
2080:
2054:
2053:
2044:
2003:
1962:
1937:
1923:
1922:
1913:
1874:
1838:
1795:
1770:
1756:
1755:
1746:
1702:
1670:
1639:
1625:
1624:
1615:
1577:
1568:
1538:
1511:
1510:
1498:
1497:
1480:
1451:
1450:
1433:
1400:
1399:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1358:
1357:
1348:
1312:
1305:
1294:
1289:
1281:
1253:
1246:
1235:
1230:
1222:
666:
604:
603:
594:
579:
556:
555:
542:
523:
509:
508:
502:
3620:Chung, D. H.; Bernreuter, D. L. (1980),
3294:"Explanation of Bulletin Listings, USGS"
2719:The San Andreas Fault System, California
2656:
2625:
1899:, for distances under 200 km .
706:
3367:. Hong Kong Observatory. Archived from
3306:
3256:
3232:
3220:
3200:
3184:
3166:
3154:
3142:
2999:
2997:
2660:
2618:
2427:mainly takes on values between 3 and 5.
47:
2880:"What is the Richter Magnitude Scale?"
2808:
2460:
2408:
2266:
2218:
2055:
1924:
1757:
1626:
1502:
1499:
1455:
1452:
1401:
1359:
1188: is about 7 and about 8.5 for M
3482:US Geological Survey open-file report
3459:"Measuring the Size of an Earthquake"
3268:
3130:
3118:
3106:
2629:
1343:These formulae for Richter magnitude
1328:{\displaystyle =({10^{2.0}})^{(3/2)}}
1269:{\displaystyle =({10^{1.0}})^{(3/2)}}
1144: is also reported frequently.
7:
3760:Kanamori, Hiroo (February 2, 1978),
3570:Earthquakes and geological discovery
3094:
2744:Brush, Stephen G. (September 1980).
2193:{\displaystyle \ \Delta ^{\circ }\ }
1589:{\displaystyle \ \Delta ^{\circ }\ }
1213:power of the shaking amplitude (see
3024:. November 30, 2012. Archived from
2420:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}\ }
2230:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}\ }
1371:{\displaystyle \ M_{\mathsf {L}}\ }
744:Continual/several million per year
16:Measure of an earthquake's strength
4069:California Institute of Technology
2926:This is what Richter wrote in his
2910:"Magnitude / Intensity Comparison"
2507:
2329:
2178:
2110:
1679:
1574:
1543:
1083:, classifies earthquakes by their
977:California Institute of Technology
510:
423:, is a measure of the strength of
14:
4079:Logarithmic scales of measurement
3931:European Macroseismic Scale (EMS)
3363:Woo, Wang-chun (September 2012).
2976:"Earthquake Facts and Statistics"
3005:"How Often Do Earthquakes Occur"
2830:Einarsson, P. (September 1978).
2575:
1102: scale. In addition, the
646:is the maximum excursion of the
384:
55:
3982:Local magnitude (Richter scale)
3941:Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik (MSK)
3762:"Quantification of Earthquakes"
3591:Boore, D. M. (September 1989),
3574:, Scientific American Library,
3330:Journal of Geophysical Research
2746:"Discovery of the Earth's core"
2717:. In Wallace, Robert E. (ed.).
829:Earthquake-resistant structures
4023:Mercalli–Cancani–Sieberg (MCS)
3864:Pacific Tsunami Warning Center
3698:, Princeton University Press,
2785:A dictionary of earth sciences
2713:Ellsworth, William L. (1991).
2034:Bisztricsany empirical formula
1559:is the epicentral distance in
1320:
1306:
1302:
1286:
1261:
1247:
1243:
1227:
1098: and the surface wave M
620:
617:
611:
588:
569:
563:
27:. For the single by EPMD, see
1:
3724:scale in Southern California"
3281:Gutenberg & Richter 1956b
2938:Springer, Dordrecht, 313–326.
2673:Gutenberg & Richter 1956b
924:be a 1-in-10,000-year event.
3612:10.1016/0040-1951(89)90200-x
3189:Gutenberg & Richter 1936
1339:Magnitude empirical formulae
3659:10.1126/science.83.2147.183
3547:10.1016/j.jksus.2011.04.001
3514:10.1016/j.jksus.2011.04.001
3245:Chung & Bernreuter 1980
3209:Chung & Bernreuter 1980
3072:Kyodo (December 15, 2012).
2750:American Journal of Physics
1552:{\displaystyle \ \Delta \ }
722:Average earthquake effects
718:modified Mercalli intensity
4100:
4028:Mercalli–Wood–Neuman (MWN)
3484:(Report). Vol. 80–59.
3365:"On Earthquake Magnitudes"
2644:Annals of the Former World
2237:is mainly between 5 and 8.
1731:, measured at 0.8 Hz.
796:10,000 to 15,000 per year
761:Over one million per year
264:Coordinating Committee for
18:
3816:(1): 1–32, archived from
3463:Earthquakes and Volcanoes
2245:Tsumura empirical formula
2158:{\displaystyle \ \tau \ }
973:Wood–Anderson seismograph
882:One to three per century
860:
845:
751:
650:, the empirical function
648:Wood-Anderson seismograph
417:Richter's magnitude scale
295:Adams–Williamson equation
4074:Seismic magnitude scales
3900:Seismic magnitude scales
2787:(3rd ed.). Oxford.
2602:Seismic magnitude scales
2597:Seismic intensity scales
1736:Lahr's empirical formula
1605:Lillie empirical formula
1081:Mercalli intensity scale
949:seismic intensity scales
901:Great Chilean earthquake
813:1,000 to 1,500 per year
243:Seismic intensity scales
238:Seismic magnitude scales
21:seismic magnitude scales
3350:10.1029/jb084ib05p02348
3205:Hutton & Boore 1987
2836:Bulletin Volcanologique
2783:Michael Allaby (2008).
2383:{\displaystyle \ F-P\ }
1533:In the formulas below,
937:Charles Francis Richter
674:{\displaystyle \delta }
421:Gutenberg–Richter scale
413:Richter magnitude scale
3992:Surface-wave magnitude
3946:Modified Mercalli (MM)
3440:Bull. Seismol. Soc. Am
3203:, p. 5. See also
2715:"The Richter Scale ML"
2554:
2526:
2437:(University of Tokyo)
2421:
2384:
2348:
2231:
2194:
2159:
2129:
2018:
1990:
1889:
1853:
1823:
1717:
1689:
1590:
1553:
1527:
1470:
1423:
1372:
1329:
1270:
1215:Moment magnitude scale
1066:moment magnitude scale
1056:
1029:surface wave magnitude
940:
921:Kuril–Kamchatka Trench
905:moment magnitude scale
778:Over 100,000 per year
675:
633:
479:
452:moment magnitude scale
431:in collaboration with
305:Earthquake engineering
3692:Hough, S. E. (2007),
3223:, p. 6, Table I.
3047:Silver, Nate (2013).
2928:Elementary Seismology
2642:McPhee, John (1998).
2583:Earth sciences portal
2555:
2553:{\displaystyle \ A\ }
2527:
2422:
2385:
2349:
2232:
2195:
2160:
2130:
2019:
2017:{\displaystyle \ D\ }
1991:
1890:
1888:{\displaystyle \ D\ }
1854:
1852:{\displaystyle \ A\ }
1824:
1718:
1716:{\displaystyle \ A\ }
1690:
1591:
1554:
1528:
1471:
1424:
1373:
1330:
1271:
1106:, mb , and the
1054:
935:
702:geological conditions
676:
634:
478:
437:local magnitude scale
328:Earth Sciences Portal
300:Flinn–Engdahl regions
266:Earthquake Prediction
3566:Bolt, B. A. (1993),
3428:pp. A-06228, Vienna.
2560:is the amplitude in
2538:
2448:
2396:
2362:
2254:
2206:
2171:
2143:
2043:
2002:
1912:
1873:
1863:signal amplitude in
1837:
1745:
1701:
1614:
1567:
1537:
1479:
1432:
1382:
1347:
1280:
1221:
1180:All scales, except M
835:100 to 150 per year
665:
657:depends only on the
501:
439:, denoted as ML or M
290:Shear wave splitting
29:Richter Scale (song)
4084:American inventions
3972:Body-wave magnitude
3781:1978Natur.271..411K
3743:1978Natur.271..411K
3651:1936Sci....83..183G
3342:1979JGR....84.2348H
3271:, pp. 123–124.
3133:, pp. 57, 116.
3051:. London: Penguin.
2690:www.stewartmath.com
1104:body wave magnitude
1037:body wave magnitude
1009:for star brightness
985:Southern California
659:epicentral distance
411:), also called the
190:Epicentral distance
4064:1935 introductions
3977:Duration magnitude
3028:on October 7, 2009
2848:10.1007/bf02597222
2550:
2522:
2417:
2380:
2344:
2227:
2190:
2155:
2125:
2014:
1986:
1885:
1849:
1819:
1713:
1685:
1586:
1549:
1523:
1466:
1419:
1368:
1325:
1266:
1057:
981:Carnegie Institute
941:
853:10 to 20 per year
671:
629:
480:
471:Richter magnitudes
167:Induced seismicity
114:Remotely triggered
4046:
4045:
4011:Historical scales
4006:
4005:
3956:Shindo (Japanese)
3775:(5644): 411–414,
3705:978-0-691-12807-8
3645:(2147): 183–185,
3401:. March 31, 2010.
3076:. The Japan Times
2962:10.1130/G24402A.1
2916:on June 23, 2011.
2890:on August 3, 2021
2857:20.500.11815/4200
2794:978-0-19-921194-4
2725:on April 25, 2016
2549:
2543:
2518:
2493:
2453:
2439:empirical formula
2416:
2401:
2379:
2367:
2340:
2327:
2259:
2226:
2211:
2189:
2176:
2154:
2148:
2121:
2108:
2075:
2048:
2013:
2007:
1982:
1957:
1917:
1884:
1878:
1848:
1842:
1815:
1790:
1750:
1712:
1706:
1684:
1665:
1619:
1585:
1572:
1548:
1542:
1519:
1509:
1496:
1484:
1462:
1449:
1437:
1415:
1394:
1367:
1352:
1175:
1158:
953:Rossi–Forel scale
913:Tohoku University
886:
885:
628:
465:common logarithms
376:
375:
4091:
3987:Moment magnitude
3965:Magnitude scales
3914:Intensity scales
3911:
3893:
3886:
3879:
3870:
3831:
3830:
3828:
3823:on July 10, 2018
3822:
3807:
3801:(January 1935),
3791:
3789:10.1038/271411a0
3766:
3753:
3751:10.1038/271411a0
3728:
3708:
3685:
3669:
3627:, NUREG/CR-1457.
3626:
3614:
3597:
3584:
3573:
3552:
3551:
3549:
3525:
3519:
3518:
3516:
3492:
3486:
3485:
3477:
3471:
3470:
3454:
3448:
3447:
3435:
3429:
3422:
3416:
3409:
3403:
3402:
3387:
3381:
3380:
3378:
3376:
3360:
3354:
3353:
3325:
3319:
3316:
3310:
3304:
3298:
3297:
3290:
3284:
3278:
3272:
3266:
3260:
3254:
3248:
3242:
3236:
3230:
3224:
3218:
3212:
3198:
3192:
3182:
3176:
3170:
3164:
3158:
3152:
3146:
3140:
3134:
3128:
3122:
3116:
3110:
3104:
3098:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3083:
3081:
3069:
3063:
3062:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3035:
3033:
3018:
3012:
3011:
3009:
3001:
2992:
2991:
2989:
2987:
2972:
2966:
2965:
2945:
2939:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2912:. Archived from
2906:
2900:
2899:
2897:
2895:
2886:. Archived from
2876:
2870:
2869:
2859:
2827:
2821:
2820:
2814:
2806:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2732:
2730:
2710:
2701:
2700:
2698:
2696:
2682:
2676:
2670:
2664:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2639:
2633:
2623:
2585:
2580:
2579:
2578:
2559:
2557:
2556:
2551:
2547:
2541:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2523:
2516:
2503:
2502:
2491:
2478:
2477:
2465:
2464:
2463:
2451:
2426:
2424:
2423:
2418:
2414:
2413:
2412:
2411:
2399:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2381:
2377:
2365:
2353:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2338:
2337:
2336:
2325:
2318:
2314:
2296:
2295:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2257:
2236:
2234:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2223:
2222:
2221:
2209:
2199:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2174:
2164:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2106:
2099:
2085:
2084:
2073:
2060:
2059:
2058:
2046:
2023:
2021:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2005:
1995:
1993:
1992:
1987:
1980:
1967:
1966:
1955:
1942:
1941:
1929:
1928:
1927:
1915:
1894:
1892:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1876:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1828:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1813:
1800:
1799:
1788:
1775:
1774:
1762:
1761:
1760:
1748:
1729:micrometers (μm)
1722:
1720:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1704:
1694:
1692:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1675:
1674:
1663:
1644:
1643:
1631:
1630:
1629:
1617:
1595:
1593:
1592:
1587:
1583:
1582:
1581:
1570:
1558:
1556:
1555:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1517:
1516:
1515:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1494:
1482:
1475:
1473:
1472:
1467:
1460:
1459:
1458:
1447:
1435:
1428:
1426:
1425:
1420:
1413:
1406:
1405:
1404:
1392:
1391:
1390:
1377:
1375:
1374:
1369:
1365:
1364:
1363:
1362:
1350:
1334:
1332:
1331:
1326:
1324:
1323:
1316:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1275:
1273:
1272:
1267:
1265:
1264:
1257:
1241:
1240:
1239:
1212:
1211:
1207:
1173:
1156:
1108:moment magnitude
969:John A. Anderson
963:. In the 1920s,
911:research at the
716:Typical maximum
707:
680:
678:
677:
672:
661:of the station,
656:
645:
638:
636:
635:
630:
626:
610:
609:
608:
598:
584:
583:
562:
561:
560:
547:
546:
528:
527:
515:
514:
513:
410:
409:
406:
405:
402:
399:
396:
393:
390:
368:
361:
354:
139:Earthquake swarm
59:
36:
4099:
4098:
4094:
4093:
4092:
4090:
4089:
4088:
4059:1935 in science
4049:
4048:
4047:
4042:
4002:
3960:
3902:
3897:
3849:IRIS Consortium
3845:Seismic Monitor
3841:
3836:
3835:
3826:
3824:
3820:
3805:
3797:
3764:
3759:
3726:
3723:
3714:
3706:
3691:
3675:
3632:
3619:
3595:
3590:
3582:
3565:
3560:
3555:
3527:
3526:
3522:
3494:
3493:
3489:
3479:
3478:
3474:
3456:
3455:
3451:
3437:
3436:
3432:
3423:
3419:
3410:
3406:
3391:"Richter scale"
3389:
3388:
3384:
3374:
3372:
3371:on May 24, 2017
3362:
3361:
3357:
3327:
3326:
3322:
3317:
3313:
3305:
3301:
3292:
3291:
3287:
3279:
3275:
3267:
3263:
3255:
3251:
3243:
3239:
3231:
3227:
3219:
3215:
3199:
3195:
3183:
3179:
3173:
3169:, pp. 2–3.
3165:
3161:
3157:, pp. 1–5.
3153:
3149:
3141:
3137:
3129:
3125:
3117:
3113:
3105:
3101:
3093:
3089:
3079:
3077:
3071:
3070:
3066:
3059:
3046:
3045:
3041:
3031:
3029:
3020:
3019:
3015:
3007:
3003:
3002:
2995:
2985:
2983:
2982:on May 24, 2010
2974:
2973:
2969:
2947:
2946:
2942:
2925:
2921:
2908:
2907:
2903:
2893:
2891:
2878:
2877:
2873:
2829:
2828:
2824:
2807:
2795:
2782:
2781:
2777:
2762:10.1119/1.12026
2743:
2742:
2738:
2728:
2726:
2712:
2711:
2704:
2694:
2692:
2684:
2683:
2679:
2671:
2667:
2659:, p. 411;
2655:
2651:
2641:
2640:
2636:
2628:, p. 411.
2624:
2620:
2616:
2611:
2592:1935 in science
2581:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2536:
2535:
2494:
2469:
2454:
2446:
2445:
2402:
2394:
2393:
2360:
2359:
2328:
2304:
2300:
2287:
2260:
2252:
2251:
2212:
2204:
2203:
2177:
2169:
2168:
2141:
2140:
2109:
2089:
2076:
2049:
2041:
2040:
2000:
1999:
1958:
1933:
1918:
1910:
1909:
1871:
1870:
1835:
1834:
1791:
1766:
1751:
1743:
1742:
1699:
1698:
1666:
1635:
1620:
1612:
1611:
1573:
1565:
1564:
1535:
1534:
1477:
1476:
1430:
1429:
1395:
1380:
1379:
1353:
1345:
1344:
1341:
1301:
1290:
1278:
1277:
1242:
1231:
1219:
1218:
1209:
1205:
1204:
1191:
1187:
1183:
1176:
1170:
1166:
1159:
1143:
1139:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1113:
1101:
1097:
1092:local magnitude
1075:
1071:
1049:
1042:
1034:
1026:
930:
846:VIII or higher
685: value.
684:
663:
662:
655:
651:
643:
599:
575:
551:
538:
519:
504:
499:
498:
473:
457:
449:
442:
429:Charles Richter
427:, developed by
387:
383:
372:
320:
319:
285:
277:
276:
268:
265:
258:
248:
247:
228:
220:
219:
180:
179:Characteristics
172:
171:
152:
144:
143:
69:
32:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4097:
4095:
4087:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4066:
4061:
4051:
4050:
4044:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4014:
4012:
4008:
4007:
4004:
4003:
4001:
4000:
3994:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3968:
3966:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3958:
3953:
3948:
3943:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3917:
3915:
3908:
3904:
3903:
3898:
3896:
3895:
3888:
3881:
3873:
3867:
3866:
3857:
3851:
3840:
3839:External links
3837:
3834:
3833:
3799:Richter, C. F.
3794:
3793:
3756:
3755:
3721:
3711:
3710:
3704:
3688:
3687:
3672:
3671:
3629:
3628:
3616:
3615:
3600:Tectonophysics
3587:
3586:
3580:
3562:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3553:
3540:(3): 257–263.
3520:
3507:(3): 257–263.
3487:
3472:
3449:
3430:
3417:
3404:
3382:
3355:
3320:
3311:
3299:
3285:
3273:
3261:
3249:
3237:
3225:
3213:
3193:
3191:, p. 183.
3187:, p. 14:
3177:
3171:
3159:
3147:
3135:
3123:
3111:
3099:
3087:
3064:
3057:
3039:
3013:
2993:
2967:
2956:(3): 263–266.
2940:
2919:
2901:
2871:
2842:(3): 187–195.
2822:
2793:
2775:
2756:(9): 705–724.
2736:
2702:
2677:
2665:
2649:
2634:
2617:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2609:
2604:
2599:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2586:
2570:
2567:
2566:
2565:
2546:
2532:
2521:
2515:
2512:
2509:
2506:
2501:
2497:
2490:
2487:
2484:
2481:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2462:
2457:
2431:
2430:
2429:
2428:
2410:
2405:
2391:
2376:
2373:
2370:
2354:
2343:
2335:
2331:
2324:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2310:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2283:
2280:
2277:
2274:
2268:
2263:
2241:
2240:
2239:
2238:
2220:
2215:
2201:
2200:is in degrees.
2184:
2180:
2166:
2151:
2135:
2124:
2116:
2112:
2105:
2102:
2098:
2095:
2092:
2088:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2057:
2052:
2030:
2029:
2010:
1996:
1985:
1979:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1965:
1961:
1954:
1951:
1948:
1945:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1926:
1921:
1903:
1902:
1901:
1900:
1881:
1868:
1845:
1829:
1818:
1812:
1809:
1806:
1803:
1798:
1794:
1787:
1784:
1781:
1778:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1759:
1754:
1733:
1732:
1709:
1695:
1681:
1678:
1673:
1669:
1662:
1659:
1656:
1653:
1650:
1647:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1628:
1623:
1580:
1576:
1545:
1522:
1514:
1504:
1501:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1465:
1457:
1454:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1418:
1412:
1409:
1403:
1398:
1389:
1361:
1356:
1340:
1337:
1322:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1308:
1304:
1297:
1293:
1288:
1285:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1249:
1245:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1226:
1189:
1185:
1181:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1155:
1149:seismic moment
1141:
1137:
1126:
1125: , and M
1122:
1118:
1111:
1099:
1095:
1073:
1069:
1068:(MMS, symbol M
1048:
1045:
1040:
1032:
1024:
997:Beno Gutenberg
971:developed the
929:
926:
884:
883:
880:
877:
874:
870:
869:
866:
862:
859:
855:
854:
851:
847:
844:
841:
837:
836:
833:
825:
822:
819:
815:
814:
811:
808:
805:
802:
798:
797:
794:
790:
787:
784:
780:
779:
776:
773:
770:
767:
763:
762:
759:
756:
753:
750:
746:
745:
742:
739:
736:
731:
727:
726:
723:
720:
714:
711:
682:
670:
653:
640:
639:
625:
622:
619:
616:
613:
607:
602:
597:
593:
590:
587:
582:
578:
574:
571:
568:
565:
559:
554:
550:
545:
541:
537:
534:
531:
526:
522:
518:
512:
507:
472:
469:
455:
447:
440:
433:Beno Gutenberg
374:
373:
371:
370:
363:
356:
348:
345:
344:
343:
342:
340:Related topics
337:
331:
330:
322:
321:
318:
317:
312:
307:
302:
297:
292:
286:
283:
282:
279:
278:
275:
274:
269:
262:
259:
254:
253:
250:
249:
246:
245:
240:
235:
229:
226:
225:
222:
221:
218:
217:
212:
207:
202:
197:
192:
187:
181:
178:
177:
174:
173:
170:
169:
164:
159:
157:Fault movement
153:
150:
149:
146:
145:
142:
141:
136:
131:
126:
121:
116:
111:
106:
101:
96:
91:
86:
81:
76:
70:
65:
64:
61:
60:
52:
51:
45:
44:
25:Richter tuning
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4096:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4065:
4062:
4060:
4057:
4056:
4054:
4039:
4036:
4034:
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4015:
4013:
4009:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3969:
3967:
3963:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3912:
3909:
3907:Modern scales
3905:
3901:
3894:
3889:
3887:
3882:
3880:
3875:
3874:
3871:
3865:
3861:
3858:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3846:
3843:
3842:
3838:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3804:
3800:
3796:
3795:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3778:
3774:
3770:
3763:
3758:
3757:
3752:
3748:
3744:
3740:
3736:
3732:
3725:
3720:
3713:
3712:
3707:
3701:
3697:
3696:
3690:
3689:
3683:
3679:
3674:
3673:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3656:
3652:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3636:
3631:
3630:
3625:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3613:
3609:
3606:(1–3): 1–14,
3605:
3601:
3594:
3589:
3588:
3583:
3581:0-7167-5040-6
3577:
3572:
3571:
3564:
3563:
3557:
3548:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3524:
3521:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3491:
3488:
3483:
3476:
3473:
3468:
3464:
3460:
3453:
3450:
3445:
3441:
3434:
3431:
3427:
3421:
3418:
3414:
3408:
3405:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3386:
3383:
3370:
3366:
3359:
3356:
3351:
3347:
3343:
3339:
3335:
3331:
3324:
3321:
3315:
3312:
3308:
3303:
3300:
3295:
3289:
3286:
3283:, p. 30.
3282:
3277:
3274:
3270:
3265:
3262:
3258:
3253:
3250:
3246:
3241:
3238:
3235:, p. 32.
3234:
3229:
3226:
3222:
3217:
3214:
3211:, p. 10.
3210:
3207:, p. 1;
3206:
3202:
3197:
3194:
3190:
3186:
3181:
3178:
3175:
3172:
3168:
3163:
3160:
3156:
3151:
3148:
3144:
3139:
3136:
3132:
3127:
3124:
3121:, p. 57.
3120:
3115:
3112:
3108:
3103:
3100:
3097:, p. 47.
3096:
3091:
3088:
3080:September 15,
3075:
3068:
3065:
3060:
3058:9780141975658
3054:
3050:
3043:
3040:
3027:
3023:
3017:
3014:
3006:
3000:
2998:
2994:
2981:
2977:
2971:
2968:
2963:
2959:
2955:
2951:
2944:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2923:
2920:
2915:
2911:
2905:
2902:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2875:
2872:
2867:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2826:
2823:
2818:
2812:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2790:
2786:
2779:
2776:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2740:
2737:
2729:September 14,
2724:
2720:
2716:
2709:
2707:
2703:
2691:
2687:
2681:
2678:
2675:, p. 30.
2674:
2669:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2657:Kanamori 1978
2653:
2650:
2645:
2638:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2626:Kanamori 1978
2622:
2619:
2613:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2589:
2584:
2573:
2568:
2563:
2544:
2533:
2519:
2513:
2510:
2504:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2455:
2444:
2443:
2442:
2440:
2436:
2403:
2392:
2374:
2371:
2368:
2358:
2357:
2355:
2341:
2333:
2322:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2281:
2278:
2275:
2272:
2261:
2250:
2249:
2248:
2246:
2213:
2202:
2182:
2167:
2149:
2139:
2138:
2136:
2122:
2114:
2103:
2100:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2081:
2077:
2070:
2067:
2064:
2061:
2050:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2035:
2027:
2008:
1997:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1919:
1908:
1907:
1906:
1898:
1879:
1869:
1866:
1862:
1843:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1816:
1810:
1807:
1804:
1801:
1796:
1792:
1785:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1752:
1741:
1740:
1739:
1738:proposal is:
1737:
1730:
1726:
1707:
1696:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1660:
1657:
1654:
1651:
1648:
1645:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1621:
1610:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1601:
1599:
1578:
1562:
1520:
1491:
1488:
1485:
1463:
1444:
1441:
1438:
1416:
1410:
1407:
1396:
1354:
1338:
1336:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1295:
1291:
1283:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1216:
1202:
1197:
1193:
1178:
1162:
1161:
1150:
1145:
1134:
1132:
1115:
1109:
1105:
1093:
1088:
1086:
1082:
1077:
1067:
1062:
1053:
1046:
1044:
1038:
1030:
1021:
1016:
1014:
1010:
1006:
1000:
998:
993:
988:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
965:Harry O. Wood
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
938:
934:
927:
925:
922:
918:
914:
908:
906:
902:
896:
893:
891:
881:
878:
875:
872:
871:
868:One per year
867:
863:
857:
856:
852:
848:
842:
839:
838:
834:
830:
826:
823:
820:
817:
816:
812:
809:
806:
803:
800:
799:
795:
791:
788:
785:
782:
781:
777:
774:
771:
768:
765:
764:
760:
757:
754:
748:
747:
743:
740:
737:
735:
732:
729:
728:
724:
721:
719:
715:
712:
709:
708:
705:
703:
697:
695:
690:
686:
668:
660:
649:
623:
614:
605:
600:
595:
591:
585:
580:
576:
572:
566:
557:
552:
548:
543:
539:
535:
532:
529:
524:
520:
516:
505:
497:
496:
495:
493:
489:
485:
477:
470:
468:
466:
461:
453:
444:
438:
434:
430:
426:
422:
418:
414:
408:
381:
380:Richter scale
369:
364:
362:
357:
355:
350:
349:
347:
346:
341:
338:
336:
333:
332:
329:
326:
325:
324:
323:
316:
313:
311:
308:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
287:
281:
280:
273:
270:
267:
261:
260:
257:
252:
251:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
230:
224:
223:
216:
213:
211:
208:
206:
205:Seismic waves
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
191:
188:
186:
183:
182:
176:
175:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
154:
148:
147:
140:
137:
135:
132:
130:
127:
125:
122:
120:
117:
115:
112:
110:
107:
105:
102:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
85:
82:
80:
77:
75:
72:
71:
68:
63:
62:
58:
54:
53:
50:
46:
42:
38:
37:
34:
30:
26:
22:
3997:Energy class
3981:
3825:, retrieved
3818:the original
3813:
3809:
3772:
3768:
3734:
3730:
3718:
3694:
3684:(2): 105–145
3681:
3677:
3642:
3638:
3622:
3603:
3599:
3569:
3537:
3533:
3523:
3504:
3500:
3490:
3481:
3475:
3466:
3462:
3452:
3443:
3439:
3433:
3425:
3420:
3415:Hersonissos.
3412:
3407:
3394:
3385:
3375:December 18,
3373:. Retrieved
3369:the original
3358:
3336:(B5): 2348.
3333:
3329:
3323:
3314:
3307:Richter 1935
3302:
3288:
3276:
3264:
3257:Richter 1935
3252:
3247:, p. 5.
3240:
3233:Richter 1935
3228:
3221:Richter 1935
3216:
3201:Richter 1935
3196:
3185:Richter 1935
3180:
3174:
3167:Richter 1935
3162:
3155:Richter 1935
3150:
3145:, p. 2.
3143:Richter 1935
3138:
3126:
3114:
3102:
3090:
3078:. Retrieved
3067:
3048:
3042:
3032:December 18,
3030:. Retrieved
3026:the original
3016:
2986:December 18,
2984:. Retrieved
2980:the original
2970:
2953:
2949:
2943:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2922:
2914:the original
2904:
2892:. Retrieved
2888:the original
2874:
2839:
2835:
2825:
2784:
2778:
2753:
2749:
2739:
2727:. Retrieved
2723:the original
2718:
2695:February 24,
2693:. Retrieved
2689:
2680:
2668:
2661:Richter 1935
2652:
2643:
2637:
2621:
2438:
2434:
2432:
2244:
2242:
2033:
2031:
1904:
1735:
1734:
1604:
1602:
1598:great circle
1342:
1198:
1194:
1179:
1153:
1152:
1146:
1135:
1116:
1107:
1103:
1091:
1089:
1084:
1078:
1058:
1020:Perry Byerly
1017:
1001:
992:Kiyoo Wadati
989:
951:such as the
942:
939:(circa 1970)
917:Japan Trench
909:
897:
894:
889:
887:
713:Description
698:
691:
687:
641:
481:
445:
436:
420:
416:
412:
379:
377:
284:Other topics
89:Blind thrust
33:
4038:Rossi–Forel
3737:: 411–414,
2884:GNS Science
2630:Hough (2007
1861:seismograph
1131:hypocentral
1061:attenuative
1005:logarithmic
928:Development
460:logarithmic
425:earthquakes
272:Forecasting
233:Seismometer
227:Measurement
200:Shadow zone
49:Earthquakes
4053:Categories
3446:: 371–387.
3269:Hough 2007
3131:Hough 2007
3119:Hough 2007
3107:Hough 2007
2934:(vol. 2),
1561:kilometers
1121: , M
1043:) scales.
957:John Milne
824:VII to IX
807:VI to VII
772:II to III
710:Magnitude
419:, and the
315:Seismology
256:Prediction
195:Hypocenter
129:Supershear
109:Megathrust
104:Intraplate
99:Interplate
84:Aftershock
3999:(K-class)
3827:March 14,
3095:Bolt 1993
2894:August 3,
2866:0258-8900
2811:cite book
2803:177509121
2770:0002-9505
2511:−
2508:Δ
2505:
2480:
2372:−
2334:∘
2330:Δ
2309:−
2298:
2276:−
2183:∘
2179:Δ
2150:τ
2115:∘
2111:Δ
2101:−
2094:τ
2087:
1975:−
1969:
1944:
1808:−
1802:
1777:
1680:Δ
1677:
1652:−
1646:
1600:degrees.
1579:∘
1575:Δ
1544:Δ
1192: .
990:In 1931,
945:epicenter
804:Moderate
669:δ
615:δ
586:
567:δ
549:
536:−
530:
492:epicenter
488:amplitude
484:logarithm
443: .
185:Epicenter
162:Volcanism
124:Submarine
79:Foreshock
74:Mainshock
3667:17770563
3395:Glossary
2569:See also
979:and the
876:Extreme
873:9.0–9.9
858:8.0–8.9
840:7.0–7.9
818:6.0–6.9
801:5.0–5.9
789:IV to V
783:4.0–4.9
766:3.0–3.9
749:2.0–2.9
730:1.0–1.9
335:Category
310:Seismite
41:a series
39:Part of
4018:GEOFIAN
3936:Chinese
3777:Bibcode
3739:Bibcode
3647:Bibcode
3639:Science
3558:Sources
3338:Bibcode
2950:Geology
1208:⁄
1160:
1085:effects
1047:Details
1013:microns
919:to the
821:Strong
769:Slight
486:of the
134:Tsunami
94:Doublet
3856:– USGS
3769:Nature
3731:Nature
3702:
3665:
3578:
3055:
2864:
2801:
2791:
2768:
2548:
2542:
2534:where
2517:
2492:
2452:
2435:Tsuboi
2415:
2400:
2378:
2366:
2356:where
2339:
2326:
2323:0.0014
2258:
2225:
2210:
2188:
2175:
2153:
2147:
2137:where
2120:
2107:
2074:
2047:
2024:is in
2012:
2006:
1998:where
1981:
1956:
1916:
1895:is in
1883:
1877:
1847:
1841:
1831:where
1814:
1789:
1749:
1725:P-wave
1711:
1705:
1697:where
1683:
1664:
1618:
1584:
1571:
1563:, and
1547:
1541:
1518:
1508:
1495:
1483:
1461:
1448:
1436:
1414:
1393:
1366:
1351:
1201:energy
1035:) and
861:Great
843:Major
786:Light
752:Minor
694:shadow
642:where
627:
215:S wave
210:P wave
151:Causes
4033:Omori
3821:(PDF)
3806:(PDF)
3765:(PDF)
3727:(PDF)
3717:"The
3596:(PDF)
3008:(PDF)
2614:Notes
2104:0.001
1905:and
1727:, in
1445:0.001
961:Tokyo
734:Micro
67:Types
3829:2018
3700:ISBN
3663:PMID
3576:ISBN
3469:(1).
3399:USGS
3377:2013
3082:2020
3053:ISBN
3034:2013
2988:2013
2896:2021
2862:ISSN
2817:link
2799:OCLC
2789:ISBN
2766:ISSN
2731:2008
2697:2022
2514:0.83
2489:1.73
2441:is:
2433:The
2285:2.85
2279:2.53
2247:is:
2243:The
2071:2.25
2065:2.92
2032:The
1978:3.38
1811:0.15
1661:2.76
1655:2.48
1607:is:
1603:The
1199:The
1147:The
967:and
378:The
119:Slow
3785:doi
3773:271
3747:doi
3735:271
3655:doi
3608:doi
3604:166
3542:doi
3509:doi
3346:doi
2958:doi
2852:hdl
2844:doi
2758:doi
2496:log
2471:log
2289:log
2078:log
1960:log
1953:3.0
1935:log
1867:and
1859:is
1793:log
1786:1.6
1768:log
1668:log
1637:log
1492:100
1296:2.0
1237:1.0
1110:, M
577:log
540:log
521:log
4055::
3862:–
3847:–
3814:25
3812:,
3808:,
3783:,
3771:,
3767:,
3745:,
3733:,
3729:,
3682:46
3680:,
3661:,
3653:,
3643:83
3641:,
3637:,
3602:,
3598:,
3538:24
3536:.
3532:.
3505:24
3503:.
3499:.
3467:21
3465:.
3461:.
3444:72
3442:.
3397:.
3393:.
3344:.
3334:84
3332:.
2996:^
2954:36
2952:.
2882:.
2860:.
2850:.
2840:41
2838:.
2834:.
2813:}}
2809:{{
2797:.
2764:.
2754:48
2752:.
2748:.
2705:^
2688:.
2562:μm
2500:10
2475:10
2293:10
2082:10
2026:km
1964:10
1939:10
1897:km
1865:mm
1797:10
1772:10
1672:10
1641:10
1292:10
1233:10
1151:,
1039:(M
1031:(M
907:.
892:)
755:I
738:I
704:.
696:.
581:10
544:10
525:10
454:(M
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